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AP Test ReviewUnit 1 5 Yippeee 1

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1.1 Why Study Psychology?Psychology provides tools to help us gain insight into our own behavior, as well as our relationships with others.

Definition of Psychology: the scientific study of behavior and mental processes. 3

4 Goals of Psychology:

1. Description: the kid at the candy aisle is having a melt down.2. Explanation: he wants the pretty candy3. Prediction: He will get the candy4. Influence: Wal-Mart knows that moms have already lost patience with their kids by the time they get to the checkout line so they put the candy there to get the kids to wear mom down to buy the candy.

4Description: The first goal of any scientist or psychologist is to describe or gather information about the behavior being studied and to present what is known.Explanation: Psychologists are not content stating the facts we seek to explain why people or animals behave as such. We use the scientific method. Hypothesis: educated guess about some phenomenon. (Researchers prediction about what the resuts of a study are expected to be. Theory: A Complex explanation based on findings from a large number of experimental studies. Prediction: is to predict future behaviorsInfluence: Influence behaviors4Psychology is Empirical that means information is obtained through observation and experimentation not common sense or guessing.2. Explanationmoisiadis.com5

http://lewweb.net/science/images/SMflowchart.jpegPsychology is a behavioral science.

Are ideas inborn or is the mind a blank slate filled by experience?

Getting closer to Modern PsychologyCharles Darwin (1809-1882)Theory of natural selection (1859)Darwins theory encouraged scientific inquiryVery controversial

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6Keywords: Charles Darwin, natural selectionGraphic: picture of Darwin pg. 8 of Gray7John LockeOne of his major contributions was to the field of psychology and he is often called the Father of English Psychology.In the essay, Locke proposes that we are all born with certain knowledge and principles that helps us to become part of society. The theory known as Tabula Rasa meaning white sheets helps explain development. He states that it is through experience, of the world around us, this is how one forms ideas. He further states that human knowledge is gathered in 2 distinct ways through sensation and reflection.William James(1842-1910)Broke down consciousness to basic thoughts.Introspection - self-observationof ones own conscious experiencesInvestigate the function, or purposeof consciousness rather than its structure Leaned toward applied work(natural surroundings) EnvironmentStructuralism vs.Functionalism

Wilhelm Wundt8http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=SW6nm69Z_IE

William James What you have two daddies? Yes, one is your American Daddy. Known as the Father of American Psychology. You also need to know he wrote the 1st Psychology Book. 9Contemporary PsychologyPsychologys PerspectivesA lot depends on your viewpoint10You have 7 to remember:PsychoanalysisCognitiveBehavioralBiologicalSocio-culturalHumanistic

evolutionary

Evolutionary PerspectiveFocuses on Darwinism.

We behave the way we do because we inherited those behaviors.

Thus, those behaviors must have helped ensure our ancestors survival.

How could this behavior ensured Homers ancestors survival?

Hindsight BiasHindsight biasis the tendency to think that past events were more predictable than they actually were.

!!!!Show variable videos

Knowing about hindsight bias is useful in two ways:

Firstly, it gives you something to say when your parents accuse you of failing to predict an event. You can accuse him of having hindsight bias.(Well, it's better than saying "Yeah, we know that now!")

The Barnum EffectIt is the tendency for people to accept very general or vague characterizations of themselves and take them to be accurate.

Hawthorne EffectJust knowing you are participating in a study can change the outcome.

http://www.propagandaposters.us/poster11.html

Just the fact that you know you are in an experiment can cause change.StatisticsRecording the results from our studies.Must use a common language so we all know what we are talking about.

Just describes sets of data.You might create a frequency distribution.Frequency polygons or histograms.

Descriptive StatisticsValidity and ReliabilityValid:it is accurate

Reliable: It can be replicatedhttp://education-portal.com/academy/lesson/two-early-approaches-functionalism-and-structuralism.html

Operational DefinitionsExplain what you mean in your hypothesis.How will the variables be measured in real life terms.How you operationalize the variables will tell us if the study is valid and reliable.Lets say your hypothesis is that chocolate causes violent behavior. What do you mean by chocolate?What do you mean by violent behavior?

Beware ofConfounding VariablesIf I wanted to prove that smoking causes heart issues, what are some confounding variables?The object of an experiment is to prove that A causes B.A confounding variable is anything that could cause change in B, that is not A.

Lifestyle and family history may also effect the heart. Types of Research19The Simple ExperimentThe simple experiment is one of the most basic methods of determining if there is a cause-and-effect relationship between two variables. Find more information on the parts of a simple experiment and how results are measured.Correlational StudiesCorrelational studies are one of the two major types of psychology research. Learn more about the subtypes of correlational studies as well as methods of observation and scientific surveys.What Is Longitudinal Research?Longitudinal research involves conducting a study over a period of time, sometimes for months or even years.What Is a Cross-Sectional Study?Cross-sectional research is a type of research method often used in developmental psychology, but also utilized in many other areas including social science, education and other branches of science...What Is a Survey?Surveys are an important data collection tool often used in psychology research. Surveys have the benefit of being easy and relatively inexpensive to administer.Case StudyA case study is a type of research than involves closely following one individual or group of people. This type of research is often used in situations where researchers are observing something fairly rare or difficult to replicate in a lab setting.AssignmentAssignment is the process by which participants are put into a group, experimental or control.Random Assignment means that each participant has an equal chance of being placed into any group. 20Standard Deviationhttp://www.youtube.com/watch?v=xgQhefFOXrM&feature=related

Standard Deviation pt. 2Its symbol is The formula is easy: it is the square root of the Variance. So now you ask, "What is the Variance?"VarianceThe Variance is defined as: The average of the squared differences from the Mean.To calculate the variance follow these steps:Work out the Mean (the simple average of the numbers) Then for each number: subtract the Mean and square the result (the squared difference). Then work out the average of those squared differences. (Why Square?)

http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=pFGcMIL2NVoZ score A unit that measures the distance of one score from the mean.

A positive z score means a number above the mean.A negative z score means a number below the mean. Negatively skewed distribution (meanmode)http://www.sophia.org/identifying-positive-skew/identifying-positive-skew-tutorial?topic=measures-of-shape

Outliers, skew distributions. When a distribution includes an extreme score that is very high the distribution is said to be positively skewed.25

Measures of VaribialityRange: distance between the highest and lowest score in a distribution.Variance and standard deviation are closely related, the standard deviation is simply the square root of the variance and both measure the average distance of any score from the mean. 26RangeSimplest measure of variationDifference between the largest and the smallest observationsRange = Maximum Minimum

Team I has range 6 inches, Team II has range 17 inches.Disadvantages of the RangeIgnores the way in which data are distributed Only uses two entries from the data set Sensitive to outliers.http://rchsbowman.wordpress.com/2010/09/01/statistics-notes-%E2%80%94-measures-of-variation/

How to Read a Correlation CoefficientCorrelations may be either strong or weak. They can be computed by a statistic called the correlation coefficient.Hint -.92 is exactly as strong as +.9230Descriptive Statistics Descriptive Statistics consists of organizing and summarizing data.Inferential Statistics Interfential Statistics consists of using data youve collected to form conclusions.Here's a sample question: Lets say there are 20 statistics classes at your university, and youve collected the ages of all the students in one class.Ages of students in your statistics class: 19, 21, 18, 18, 34, 30, 25, 26, 24, 24, 19, 18, 21, 49, 27 A descriptive question that could be asked about this data is "What is the most common age of student in your statistics class?" The answer in this case would be 18. An inferential question that could be asked about this data is "Are the ages of the students in this classroom similar to what you would expect in a normal statistics class at this university?"In statistics, we deal with populations and samples.Inferential Statisticsp value = likelihood that results are a fluke or coincidental Which should you trust more, results with a low or high p value?How low?If p < 0.05, then the results are statistically significant.Statistically significant not likely due to random chance

Infer your data get it infer hahahahaha

Unit 2 Biological32Your brain is composed of trillions of neurons and glial cells. Glial Cells-guide the growth of developing neurons and help provide nutrition for and get rid of wastes of neurons and help form an insulating sheath around neurons that speeds conduction.

myroadtomedicalschool.blogspot.comGlial CellsNeurogenesis: the growth of new nuerons. (get it grow a genius hahaha)

Neurons do NOT touch each other- the space in between is call the synapse.Sensory Neurons(Afferent Neurons)Sends signals TO the CNS (Central Nervous System)

http://www.flatworldknowledge.com/pub/introduction-psychology/67053#web-67053For example, touching a Hot Flame would send the signal to the CNS. (red arrow)Motor Neuronsor Efferent

Sends signals AWAY from the CNS.

For example, if you were about to hit a soccer ball a message will come away from the CNS to tell your leg to kick.http://www.flatworldknowledge.com/pub/introduction-psychology/67053#web-67053InterNeurons (Get it in the brain) hahaha

Contained within the CNS. Does the processing in the brain. http://www.flatworldknowledge.com/pub/introduction-psychology/67053#web-67053

Acetylcholine (ACh)involved in voluntary movement, learning, memory, and sleep+Too much acetylcholine is associated with depression, and too little in the hippocampus has been associated with dementia

-Lack of ACh has been linked to Alzheimers disease. Also, if ACh is unable to reach our muscles, then they cant contract and we are paralyzed.

Acetylcholine (ACh)involved in voluntary movement, learning, memory, and sleepThought this was cook also causes paralysis and found in Botox and botchalism and the Black widow spiders venom contains ach

How a Neuron Fires called the All or Nothing Response40

DopamineIts function is motor movement and alertness.-Lack of dopamine is associated with Parkinsons disease.+Overabundance is associated with schizophrenia.

The Endocrine SystemA system of glands that secrete hormones.Similar to nervous system, except hormones work a lot slower than neurotransmitters.Neurotransmitters

fast

slowexerts control by releasing special chemical substances into the blood called hormonesSerotoninFunction deals with mood control. That includes sexual activity, concentration, attention and emotions.-Lack of serotonin has been linked to depression.

Brain Structures: MidbrainCoordinates simple movements with sensory information.Most important structure in Midbrain is the Reticular Formation: controls arousal and ability to focus our attention.GlutamateMajor excitatory neurotransmitter involved in information processing throughout the cortex and especially memory formation in the hippocampus. Both schizophrenia and Alzheimers may involve glutamate receptors.6. Dopamine & Glutamate in Addiction

http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=op0XqgWQn7E

GABAGamma-aminobutyric acid

We become addicted to endorphin causing feelings.

glassrocklife.com

Drugs and alcohol bind important receptors on neuronsAgonists and AntagonistBinds:Agonists may mimic a neurotransmitter and bind to its receptors site to produce the effect of the neurotransmitterBLOCKSAntagonists block a receptor site inhibiting the effect of the neurotransmitter or agonist.http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=uXREQnFGHGA

018 Agonists and Antagonists

Brain Structures: The Cerebral CortexMade up of densely packed neurons we call gray matterGlial Cells: support brain cells.Wrinkles are called fissures.If you lay brain out it would be as big as a large Pizza 2000 pizza.

Frontal LobeThe Broca and Wernickhttp://www.learner.org/resources/series142.html?pop=yes&pid=1574

Wernick-Decodes speechBroca-Commands speechPonsContains portion of Reticular activating system critical for arousal.

Frontal LobeThe Broca and Wernickhttp://www.learner.org/resources/series142.html?pop=yes&pid=1574

Wernick-Decodes speechBroca-Commands speech

HemispheresLeftRightlogic

sequential tasks.

Speech spatial

creative tasks.

The Corpus CallosumConnects the 2 hemispheres.PNSSomatic & Autonomic NervesSomatic nerves control skeletal muscle, bones, skin that a person can controlSensory neurons which relay info about environment to CNSMotor neurons which initiate appropriate responseAutonomic nerves control the muscles of the glands and internal organs which we cant controlSympathetic & parasympathetic componentsReflex ArcSympathetic component prepares body for stress [neurotransmitter used=norepinephrine]Diverts blood from internal organs to skeletal muscles, heart & brain

Parasympathetic brings things back to normal [neurotransmitter used=acetylcholine]

Work in conjunction/opposition to each otherEx. on / off switchesFLIGHT OR FIGHT RESPONSEADRENALIN (epinephrine)Sympathetic nervous system also stimulates secretion of epinephrine and nor-epinephrine from the medulla of the adrenal glandsPrepares body for flight or fight responseEpi-pen given in allergic reactions as it relaxes constricted airways

The Endocrine SystemA system of glands that secrete hormones.Similar to nervous system, except hormones work a lot slower than neurotransmitters.Neurotransmitters

fast

slowexerts control by releasing special chemical substances into the blood called hormonesSensationTransduction is the process of converting physical energy into electrochemical codes.Remember Ethan in Sky High. He changes his body to slime. Solid form to liquid form. Change from one form of energy to another. Click the picture to watch power placement. http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=el0BSM0WRlU

Top-Down ProcessingTop-Down Processing The top-down process is driven by prior knowledge and expectations as well as our specific goals of the moment. Suppose though, I asked you to find all the occurrences of the letter P in the image? Now as you scan the image the letter P should start to stand out a bit more and its possible that even the highly visible red letters start to fade into the background. At the very least you likely arent noticing the words they spell out.

You see more of what youre looking for and less of what you arent.

The Major Endocrine Glands62Chromosomal AbnormalitiesKlinefelters syndrome: have extra X chromosome, causes minimal sexual development and extreme introversion

Turner syndrome: born with only a single X chromosome. Shortness, webbed necks and differences in physical sexual development

Downs syndrome: extra chromosome on the twenty first pariSensing the world: Basic PrinciplesBottom-up processing: we start with the sensory receptors sand work up to higher levels of processing.

Top Down: prior knowledge

Webers LawThe idea that, to perceive a difference between two stimuli, they must differ by a constant percentage; not a constant amount.

Signal Detection Theory (SDT)Predicts how and when we detect the presence of a faint stimulus (signal) amid background noise (other stimulation). SDT assumes that there is no single absolute threshold and detection depends on:Persons experienceExpectationsMotivationLevel of fatigue

Carol Lee/ Tony Stone Images65Chapter 566Biological Rhythms

Annual Cycles: seasonal variations (bears hibernation, seasonal affective disorder)28 day cycles: menstrual cycle.24 hour cycle: our circadian rhythm or 25 hours?90 minute cycle: sleep cycles.Circadian Rhythm is our 24 hour biological clock.Our body temperature and awareness changes throughout the day.Biological Environmental cues When darkness falls, the eyes indirectly inform thepineal gland (responsible for the bodys naturalcycles and registering light and darkness). The pineal gland secretes the hormone melatoninin response to darkness, making us drowsy. Thisaffects the brain cells which produce Serotonin, asleep-related transmitter substance. The serotonin is concentrated in the Raphe Nuclei(near the pons), which secrete a substance thatacts to induce light sleep.Stages of SleepStage 1: Alpha and theta waves produced in light sleep Hypnic Jerk: Reflex muscle twitch throughout body that may occurStage 2: Deeper sleep; sleep spindles (distinctive brain-wave activity of half second or longer)Stage 3: Deeper sleep; Delta waves appear (very large and slow), breathing regular, BP falls.Stage 4: Deepest level of normal sleep; almost purely Delta waves (50%) less blood flow to the brain

69Stage Five: REM SLEEPREM: Rapid Eye MovementThis is a very active stage of sleep. Composes 20-25 % of a normal nights sleep. Breathing, heart rate and brain wave activity quicken. Vivid Dreams can occur. From REM, you go back to Stage 2

States of Sleep (REM & Non-REM)Non-REM (NREM) Sleep: Occurs during stages 1, 2, 3, and 4; no rapid eye movement occurs. Rapid Eye Movements (REM): Associated with dreaming; sleep is very light.REM Behavioral Disorder.

71DreamsA sequence of images, emotions, and thoughts passing through a sleeping persons mind.

Manifest Content: the remembered storyline of a dream. (what the man thinks it is)Latent Content: the underlying meaning of a dream. (what your dream really means)WHY DO WE DREAM!?Activation-synthesis hypothesis:Dreams represent random activation of brain cells during REM sleepProblem SolvingDreams focus on the problems we have in an attempt to find a solutionThreat simulationDreams evolved to help us practice skills we need to avoid threats.

73Information-Processing TheoryDreams act to sort out and understand the memories that you experience that day.REM sleep does increase after stressful events.

Physiological Function TheoriesActivation-Synthesis Theory: during the night our brainstem releases random neural activity, dreams may be a way to make sense of that activity.

HypnosisHypnosis is an altered state of heightened suggestibility.The hypnotic state is characterized by:Narrow and focused attentionImaginationPassive receptive attitudeReduced reaction to painHeightened suggestibility

Altered StatesMeditation refers to a set of techniques that promote a heightened sense of awareness.can involve body movements and posture, focusing of attention on a focal point, or control of breathingcan induce relaxation, lower blood pressure, and can be associated with a sense of euphoria

DrugsPsychoactive Drug: Substance capable of altering behaviorStimulant: Substance that increases activity in body and nervous systemDepressant: Substance that decreases activity in body and nervous systemHallucinogen: Substance that alters or distorts sensory perceptions

http://www.learner.org/vod/vod_window.html?pid=78278Physical & Psychological DependencePhysical Dependence: Addiction based on drug tolerance and withdrawal symptomsDrug Tolerance: Reduction in bodys response to a drugWithdrawal Symptoms: Physical illness following withdrawal of the drugPsychological Dependence: Drug dependence based on psychological or emotional needs

79StimulantsAmphetamines (Speed)CocaineCrackthe crash

DepressantsBarbiturates: Sedative drugs that depress brain activityInduce sleep, promote talkativeness, social interactionBenzodiazepines : Lower anxiety & tensionSafer than Barbiturates Rohypnol: Related to Valium; lowers inhibitions and produces relaxation or intoxication. Larger doses can induce short-term amnesia and sleepDrug Interaction: One drug increases the effect of anotherGHB: depressant that relaxes and sedates; combination of degreasing solvent and drain cleanerAlcohol: NOT a stimulant but DOES lower inhibitionsDepressant-impacts glutamate, serotonin and dopamine Binge Drinking: Five or more drinks in a short time; four or more for women - Serious sign of alcohol abuse

http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=zFS3MY7rrsI

BBC's Horizon Is alcohol worse81

Dawn Farm Education Series Oct 25, 200782Fetal Alcohol Syndrome82http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=ymiF-okrdMg&feature=related

Don't Drink and Drive DepressantsOpiatesHeroin and morphineAddition comes fast and the withdrawal symptoms are bad