1. (cerebral) cortex wrinkled outer portion of brain; centerfor higher order brain functions suchas thinking, planning, judgment;processes sensory information anddirects movement

2. Aaron Beck pioneer in Cognitive Therapy.Suggested negative beliefs causedepression.

3. Abnormal Behavior Behavior characterized as atypical,socially unacceptable, distressing tothe individual or others, maladaptive,and/or the result of distortedcognitions

4. Abnormalpsychology

The field of psychology concernedwith the assessment, treatment, andprevention of maladaptive behavior.

5. Abraham Maslow humanistic psychology; hierarchy ofneeds-needs at a lower level dominatean individual's motivation as long asthey are unsatisfied; self-actualization, transcendence

6. Absolute threshold The statistically determined minimumlevel of stimulation necessary to excitea perceptual system.

7. Accommodation According to Piaget, the process bywhich existing mental structures andbehaviors are modified to adapt to newexperiences

8. acetylcholine (ACh) neurotransmitter that causescontraction of skeletal muscles; lackof Ach linked with Alzheimer'sdisease;

9. achievement test test designed to determine a person'slevel of knowledge in a given subjectarea

10. ACTH(arenocorticotropichormone)

released by adrenal glands; triggeredby norepinephrine to prolong theresponse to stress (used in thesympathetic nervous system)

11. action potential an electrical current sent down theaxon of a neuron and is initiated bythe rapid reversal of the polarizationof the cell membrane

12. Actor-observerEffect

The tendency to attribute the behaviorof others to dispositional causes but toattribute one's own behavior tosituational causes.

13. adaptation a trait or inherited characteristic thathas increased in a population becauseit solved a problem of survival orreproduction

14. Adolescence The period of extending from the onset ofpuberty to early adulthood

15. adrenalglands

endocrine glands located above the kidney andsecretes epinephrine and norepinephrine,which prepare the body for "fight or flight"

16. afferentneuron

nerve cell that sends messages to brain orspinal cord from other parts of the body; alsocalled sensory neurons

17. Ageism Prejudice against the elderly and the resultingdiscrimination against them

18. Aggression Any behavior intended to harm anotherperson or thing.

19. agonist chemical that mimics or facilitates the actionsof a neurotransmitter

20. Agoraphobia anxiety disorder characterized by marked fearand avoidance of being alone in a place fromwhich escape might be difficult orembarrassing

21. AlbertBandura

pioneer in observational learning (AKA sociallearning), stated that people profit from themistakes/successes of others; Studies: BoboDolls-adults demonstrated 'appropriate' playwith dolls, children mimicked play

22. Albert Ellis pioneer in Rational-Emotive Therapy (RET),focuses on altering client's patterns ofirrational thinking to reduce maladaptivebehavior and emotions

23. Alfred Adler neo-Freudian, psychodynamic; Contributions:inferiority complex, organ inferiority; Studies:birth order influences personality

24. Alfred Binet pioneer in intelligence (IQ) tests, designed atest to identify slow learners in need of help-not applicable in the U.S. because it was tooculture-bound (French)

25. Algorithm Procedure for solving a problem byimplementing a set of rules over and overagain until the solution is found.

26. all-or-noneprinciple

the law that the neuron either fires at 100% ornot at all

27. Altruism Behaviors that benefit other people and forwhich there is no discernable extrinsicreward, recognition, or appreciation.

28. Alzheimer'sDisease

A chronic and progressive disorder of thebrain that is the most common cause ofdegeneration dementia

29. amnesia inability to remember information (typically,all events within a specific period), usually dueto physiological trauma

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30. amygdala part of the limbic system; influences emotionssuch as aggression, fear, and self-protectivebehaviors

31. Anal Stage Freud's second stage of personalitydevelopment, from about age 2 to about age 3,during which children learn to control theimmediate gratification they obtain throughdefecation and to become responsive to thedemands of society.

32. Androgynous Having both stereotypically male andstereotypically female characteristics

33. Anna Freud child psychoanalysis; emphasized importanceof the ego and its constant struggle

34. Anna O. Austrian-Jewish woman (real name: BerthaPappenheim) diagnosed with hysteria, treatedby Josef Breuer for severe cough, paralysis ofthe extremities on the right side of her body,and disturbances of vision, hearing, andspeech, as well as hallucinations and loss ofconsciousness. Her treatment is regarded asmarking the beginning of psychoanalysis.

35. AnorexiaNervosa

An eating disorder characterized by anobstinate and willful refusal to eat, a distortedbody image, and an intense fear of being fat

36. anorexianervosa

eating disorder most common in adolescentfemales characterized by weight less than85% of normal, restricted eating, andunrealistic body image

37. antagonist chemical that opposes the actions of aneurotransmitter

38. anterogradeamnesia

loss of memory for events and experiencesoccurring from the time of an amnesia-causing event forward

39. Antisocialpersonalitydisorder

Personality disorder characterized byegocentricity, and behavior that isirresponsible and that violates the rights ofother people, a lack of guilt feelings, aninability to understand other people and alack of fear of punishment.

40. Anxiety a generalized feeling of fear andapprehension that may be related to aparticular situation or object and is oftenaccompanied by increased physiologicalarousal.

41. aphasia inability to understand or use language

42. Appraisal the evaluation of the significance of asituation or event as it relates to a person'swell-being

43. Approach-approachconflict

Conflict that results from having to choosebetween two attractive alternatives

44. Approach-avoidanceconflict

Conflict that results from having to choose analternative that has both attractive andunappealing aspects

45. aptitude test a test designed to predict a person's futureperformance

46. Archetypes In Jung's theory, the emotionally chargedideas and images that are rich in meaningand symbolism and exist within the collectiveunconscious.

47. Aristotle Ancient Greek philosopher. Wrote "PeriPsyches" ("About the Mind").

48. Arousal Activation of the central nervous system, theautonomic nervous system, and the musclesand glands

49. Assessment Process of evaluating individual differencesamong human beings by means of testsinterviews, observations, and recordings ofphysiological.

50. Assimilation According to Piaget, the process by whichnew ideas and experiences are absorbed andincorporated into existing mental structuresand behaviors

51. associationareas

areas of the cerebral cortex that are notinvolved in primary motor or sensoryfunctions, rather, they are involved in highermental processes such as thinking,planning, and communicating

52. Attachment The strong emotional tie that a person feelstoward special other persons in his or her life

53. Attitudes Patterns of feelings and beliefs about otherpeople, ideas, or objects that are based on aperson's past experiences, shape his or herfuture behavior, and are evaluative in nature.

54. Attributions The process by which a person infers otherpeople's motives or intensions by observingtheir behavior.

55. audition the sense of hearing

56. authoritarianparenting

style of parenting marked by emotionalcoldness, imposing rules and expectingobedience

57. authoritativeparenting

parenting style characterized by emotionalwarmth, high standards for behavior,explanation and consistent enforcement ofrules, and inclusion of children in decisionmaking

58. autonomicnervoussystem

a division of the peripheral nervous systemthat regulates involuntary functions; made upof sympathetic and parasympathetic nervoussystems

59. aversiveconditioning

learning involving an unpleasant or harmfulstimulus or reinforcer

60. Aversivecounterconditioning

A counterconditioning technique inwhich an aversive or noxiousstimulus is paired with a stimuluswith the undesirable behavior.

61. Avoidance-avoidance conflict

Conflict that results from having tochoose between two distastefulalternatives

62. axon a single long, fiber that carriesoutgoing messages to other neurons,muscles, or glands

63. axon terminal terminal button, synaptic knob; thestructure at the end of an excellentterminal branch; houses the synapticvesicles and neurotransmitters

64. B.F. Skinner behaviorism; pioneer in operantconditioning; behavior is based onan organism's reinforcement history;worked with pigeons

65. Babinski reflex Reflex in which a newborn fans outthe toes when the sole of the foot istouched

66. Backward search Heuristic procedure in which aproblem solver works backward fromthe goal or end of a problem to thecurrent position, in order to analyzethe problem and reduce the stepsneeded to get from the currentposition to the goal.

67. behavior an observable action

68. Behavior therapy A therapy that is based on theapplication of learning principles tohuman behavior and that focuses onchanging overt behaviors rather thanon understanding subjective feelings,unconscious processes, ormotivations; also known as behaviormodification.

69. behavioral genetics study of hereditary influences andhow it influences behavior andthinking

70. behaviorism perspective that defines psychologyas the study of behavior that isdirectly observable or throughassessment instruments

71. Benjamin Whorf language; his hypothesis is thatlanguage determines the way wethink

72. binocular cues depth cues that are based on two eyes

73. Biofeedback A process through which people receiveinformation about the status of a physicalsystem and use this feedback information tolearn to control the activity of that system

74. Bipolardisorder

mood disorder originally know as manic-depressive disorder because it ischaracterized by behavior that vacillatesbetween two extremes; mania anddepression.

75. blind spot area on retina with no receptor cells (whereoptic nerve leaves the eye)

76. Blood-BrainBarrier

A mechanism that prevents certain moleculefrom entering the brain but allows others tocross

77. BodyLanguage

Communication of information throughbody positions and gestures.

78. Bonding Special process of emotional attachmentthat may occur between parents and babiesin the minutes and hours immediately afterbirth

79. bottom-upprocessing

information processing that begins at thesensory receptors and works up toperception

80. brain portion of the CNS above the spinal cord;consists of hindbrain, midbrain, andforebrain

81. brainstem top of the spinal column

82. Brainstorming Problem-solving technique that involvesconsidering all possible solutions withoutmaking prior evaluative judgments.

83. Brightness The lightness or darkness of reflected light,determined in large part by the light'sintensity.

84. Broca's area located in left frontal lobe; controlsproduction of speech

85. BulimiaNervosa

An eating disorder characterized by repeatedepisodes of binge eating (and a fear of notbeing able to stop eating) followed bypurging

86. bulimianervosa

eating disorder characterized by pattern 9ofeating binges followed by purging (e.g.,vomiting, laxatives, exercise)

87. Burnout State of emotional and physical exhaustion,lowered productivity, and feelings ofisolation, often caused by work-relatedpressures

88. BystanderEffect

Unwillingness to help exhibited bywitnesses to an event, which increase whenthere are more observers.

89. Cannon-Bardtheory ofemotion

conscious experience of emotion andphysiological arousal occur at the sametime

90. Carl Jung neo-Freudian, analytic psychology;archetypes; collective unconscious; libido isall types of energy, not just sexual; dreamstudies/interpretation

91. Carl Rogers humanistic psychology; Contributions:founded client-centered therapy, theory thatemphasizes the unique quality of humansespecially their freedom and potential forpersonal growth, unconditional positiveregard,

92. Carol Gilligan moral development studies to follow upKohlberg. She studied girls and women andfound that they did not score as high on hissix stage scale because they focused moreon relationships rather than laws andprinciples. Their reasoning was merelydifferent, not better or worse

93. Case study a descriptive study that includes anintensive study of one person and allows anintensive examination of a single case,usually chosen for its interesting or uniquecharacteristics

94. case study a highly detailed description of a singleindividual or a vent

95. Catatonic typeofschizophrenia

Type of schizophrenia characterized eitherby displays of excited or violent motoractivity or by stupor.

96. centralnervoussystem

the brain and spinal cord

97. cerebellum part of the brain that coordinates balance,movement, reflexes

98. CharlesDarwin

biologist; developed theory of evolution;transmutation of species, natural selection,evolution by common descent; "The Originof Species" catalogs his voyage on TheBeagle

99. CharlesSpearman

intelligence; found that specific mentaltalents were highly correlated, concludedthat all cognitive abilities showed acommon core which he labeled 'g' (generalability)

100. Child abuse physical, emotional, or sexual mistreatmentof a child.

101. chromosome threadlike structure within the nucleus ofcells that contain genes

102. chunks manageable and meaningful units ofinformation organized in such a way that itcan be easily encoded, stored, and retrieved

103. CircadianRhythms

Internally generated patterns of bodyfunctions, including hormonal signals,sleep, blood pressure, and temperatureregulation, which have approximately a 24-hour cycle and occur even in the absence ofnormal cues about whether it is day or night

104. Clark Hull motivation theory, drive reduction;maintained that the goal of all motivatedbehavior is the reduction or alleviation of adrive state, mechanism through whichreinforcement operates

105. ClassicalConditioning

Conditioning process in which an originallyneutral stimulus, by repeated pairing with astimulus that normally elicits a response,comes to elicit a similar or even identicalresponse; aka Pavlovian conditioning

106. Client-centeredtherapy

An insight therapy, developed be Carl Rogers,that seeks to help people evaluate the worldand themselves from their own perspective byproviding them with a nondirectiveenvironment and unconditional positiveregard; also known as person-centeredtherapy.

107. clinicalpsychologist

psychologist who treats people seriouspsychological problems or conducts researchinto the causes of behavior

108. cochlea snail-shaped fluid-filled tube in the inner earinvolved in transduction

109. CognitiveDissonance

A state of mental discomfort arising from adiscrepancy between two or more of aperson's beliefs or between a person's beliefsand overt behavior.

110. CognitivePsychology

The study if the overlapping fields ofperception, learning, memory, and thought,with a special emphasis on how peopleattend to, acquire, transform, store, andretrieve knowledge.

111. cognitivepsychology

perspective that focuses on the mentalprocesses involved in perception, learning,memory, and thinking

112. Cognitivetheories

In the study of motivation, an explanation ofbehavior that asserts that people actively andregularly determine their own goals and themeans of achieving them through thought.

113. cognitive-appraisaltheory ofemotion

our emotional experience depends on ourinterpretation of the situation we are in

114. cohort effect observed group differences based on the erawhen people were born and grew up,exposing them to particular experiences thatmay affect the results of cross-sectionalstudies

115. CollectiveUnconscious

In Jung's theory, a shared storehouse ofprimitive ideas and images that reside inthe unconscious and are inherited fromone's ancestors.

116. CollectiveUnconscious

Jung's theory of a shared storehouse ofprimitive ideas and images that areinherited ideas and images, calledarchetypes, are emotionally charged andrich in meaning and symbolism

117. ColorBlindness

The inability to perceive different hues.

118. computerizedaxialtomography(CT scan)

creates a computerized image using x-rayspassed through the brain

119. Concept Mental category used to classify an event orobject according to some distinguishingproperty or feature.

120. Concordancerate

The degree to which a condition or traitsshared two or more individuals or groups

121. Concreteoperationalstage

Piaget's thrid stage of cognitivedevelopment (lasting from approximatelyage 6 or 7 to age 11 or 12), during which thechild develops the ability to understandconstant factors in the environment, rules,and higher-order symbolic systems

122. ConditionedResponse

Response elicited by a conditioned stimulus

123. ConditionedStimulus

Neutral stimulus that, through repeatedassociation with an unconditionedstimulus, begins to elicit a conditionedresponse

124. Conditioning Systematic procedure through whichassociations and responses to specificstimuli are learned

125. cones photoreceptors that detect color and finedetail in bright-light conditions; notpresent in peripheral vision

126. Conflict The emotional state or condition that ariseswhen a person must choose between two ormore competing motives, behaviors, orimpulses

127. Conformity People's tendency to change attitudes orbehaviors so that they are consistent withthose of other people or with social norms.

128. confoundingvariable

anything that causes a difference betweenthe IV and the DV other than theindependent variable

129. Consciousness The general state of being aware of andresponsive to events in the environment, aswell as one's own mental processes

130. Consciousness Freud's level of mental life thatconsists of those experiences thatwe are aware of at any given time.

131. Conservation Ability to recognize that objects cane transformed in some way, visuallyor phycially, yet still be the same innumber, weight, substance, orvolume

132. consolidation the process of changing a short-term memory to a long-term one

133. control group subjects and not exposed to achanging variable in an experiment

134. conventional level ofmoral development

morality based on fitting in to thenorms of society

135. Convergent thinking In problem solving, the process ofnarrowing down choices andalternatives to arrive at a suitableanswer.

136. convolutions the folds in the cerebral cortex thatincrease the surface area of thebrain

137. Coping Process by which a person takessome action to manage, master,tolerate, or reduce environmental orinternal demands that cause ormight cause stress and that tax theindividual's inner resources

138. cornea transparent covering of the eye

139. corpus callosum large band of white neural fibersthat connects to to brainhemispheres and carries messagesbetween them; myelinated; involvedin intelligence, consciousness, andself-awareness; does it reach fullmaturity until 20s

140. correlationcoefficient

a number that expresses the degreeand direction of the relationshipbetween 2 variables, ranging from -1 to +1

141. correlationalresearch

establish the relationship betweentwo variables

142. counselingpsychologist

psychologist who treats people withadjustment problems

143. Counterconditioning Process of reconditioning in whicha person is taught a new, moreadaptive response to a familiarstimulus.

144. Creativity A feature of thought and problemsolving that includes the tendency togenerate or recognize ideasconsidered to be high-quality,original, novel, and appropriate.

145. CriticalPeriod

The time in to development of an organismwhen it is especially sensitive to certainenvironmental influences; outside of thatperiod the same influences will have far lesseffect

146. Cross-sectionalStudies

A type of research design that comparesindividuals of different ages to determine howthey differ

147. Cross-sectionalstudy

A type of research design that comparesindividuals of different ages to determine howthey differ on an important dimension

148. crystallizedintelligence

learned knowledge and skills such asvocabulary, which tends to increase with age

149. DanielGoleman

emotional intelligence

150. Darkadaptation

The increase in sensitivity to light that occurswhen the illumination level changes fromhigh to low, causing chemicals in the rodsand cones to regenerate and return to theirinactive state.

151. Darley &Latane

social psychology; bystander apathy,diffusion of responsibility

152. DavidMcClelland

achievement motivation; developed scoringsystem for TAT's use in assessingachievement motivation

153. DavidRosenhan

did study in which healthy patients wereadmitted to psychiatric hospitals anddiagnoses with schizophrenia; showed thatonce you are diagnosed with a disorder, thelabel, even when behavior indicatesotherwise, is hard to overcome in a mentalhealth setting

154. DavidWeschler

established an intelligence test especially foradults (WAIS); also WISC and WPPSI

155. Debriefing Informing participants about the true natureof a experiment after its completion.

156. debriefing a procedure to inform participants about thetrue nature of an experiment after itscompletion

157. decay loss of information from memory as a resultof disuse and the passage of time

158. Decentration Process of changing from a totally self-oriented point of view to one tha recognizesother people's feelings, ideas, and viewpoints

159. Decisionmaking

Assessing and choosing among alternatives.

160. declarativememory

memory for specific information

161. DefenseMechanism

An unconscious way of reducing anxiety bydistorting perceptions of reality.

162. Deindividuation The process by which individuals losetheir self-awareness and distinctivepersonality in the context of a group,which may lead them to engage inantinormative behavior.

163. Delusions False beliefs that are inconsistent withreality but are held in spite of evidencethat disproves them.

164. Demandcharacteristics

Elements of an experimental situationthat might cause a participant to perceivethe situation in a certain way or becomeaware of the purpose of the study andthus bias the participant to behave in acertain way, and in so doing, distortresults.

165. demandcharacteristics

clues participants discover about thepurpose of a study that suggest how theyshould respond

166. Dementia Impairment of mental functioning andglobal cognitive abilities in otherwisealert individuals, causing memory lossand related symptoms and typicallyhaving a progressive nature

167. dendrites branching extensions of neuron thatreceives messages from neighboringneurons

168. Denial Defense mechanism by which peoplerefuse to accept reality.

169. Dependence The situation that occurs when the drugbecomes part of the body's functioningand produces withdrawal symptomswhen the drug is discontinued

170. dependentvariable

the variable in a controlled experimentthat is expected to change due to themanipulation of the independent variable

171. depressants(AKA sedative-hypnotics)

Any of a class of drugs that relax andcalm a user and, in higher doses, inducesleep; also known as a depressant

172. Depressivedisorders

general category of mood disorders inwhich people show extreme andpersistent sadness, despair, and loss ofinterest in life's usual activities.

173. descriptivestatistics

general set of procedures used tosummarize, condense, and describe setsof data

174. DescriptiveStudies

A type of research method that allowsresearchers to measure variables so thatthey can develop a description of asituation or phenomenon

175. developmentalpsychologist

studies psychological development acrossthe lifespan

176. DevelopmentalPsychology

The study of the lifelong, often age-related,processes of change in the physical,cognitive, moral, emotional, and socialdomains of functioning; such changes arerooted in biological mechanisms that aregenetically controlled, as well as in socialinteractions

177. Deviation IQ A standard IQ test score whose mean andstandard deviation remain constant for allages

178. Dichromats People who can distinguish only two ofthe three basic colors.

179. differencethreshold

minimum difference between any twostimuli that person can detect 50% of thetime

180. Discrimination Behavior targeted at individuals or groupsand intended to hold them apart and treatthem differently.

181. Disorganizedtype ofschizophrenia

type of schizophrenia characterized byseverely disturbed thought processes,frequent incoherence, disorganizedbehavior, and inappropriate affect.

182. Displacement Defense mechanism by which peopledivert sexual or aggressive feelings for oneperson onto another person.

183. Dissociativeamnesia

Dissociative disorder characterized by thesudden and extensive inability to recallimportant personal information, usually ofa traumatic or stressful nature.

184. Dissociativedisorders

psychological disorders characterized by asudden but temporary alteration inconsciousness, identity, sensorimotorbehavior, or memory

185. Dissociativeidentitydisorder

dissociative disorder characterized by theexistence within an individual of two ormore distinct personalities, each of whichis dominant at different times and directsthe individual's behavior at those times;commonly known as multiple personalitydisorder.

186. Divergentthinking

In problem solving, the process ofwidening the range of possibilities andexpanding the options for solutions.

187. DNA deoxyribonucleic acid; genetic formationin a double-helix; can replicate orreproduce itself; made of genes

188. dominantgenes

member of a gene terror that controls theappearance of a certain trait

189. dopamine neurotransmitter that influences voluntarymovement, attention, alertness; lack ofdopamine linked with Parkinson's disease;too much is linked with schizophrenia

190. Double bind a situation in which an individual is given twodifferent and inconsistent messages.

191. double-blindprocedure

technique in which neither the personsinvolved for those conducting the experimentknow in what group to participate is involved

192. Double-blindtechniques

A research technique in which neither theexperimenter nor the participants know whois in the control and experimental groups.

193. Dream A state of consciousness that occurs duringsleep, usually accompanied by vivid visual,tactile, or auditory imagery.

194. Dreamanalysis

Psychoanalytic technique in which a patient'sdreams are described in detail and interpretedso as to provide insight into the individual'sunconscious motivations.

195. Drive an internal aroused condition that directs anorganism to satisfy a physiological need

196. Drive theory(aka, drive-reductiontheory)

an explanation of behavior that assumes thatan organism is motivated to act because of aneed to attain, reestablish, or maintain somegoal that helps with survival

197. Drug Any chemical substance that, in smallamounts, alters biological or cognitiveprocesses or both

198. dualism seeing mind and body as two different thingsthat interact

199. eclectic use of techniques and ideas from a variety ofapproaches

200. educationalpsychologist

focuses on how effective teaching andlearning take place

201. EdwardBradfordTitchener

Student of Wilhelm Wundt; founder ofStructuralist school of psychology.

202. EdwardThorndike

behaviorism; Law of Effect-relationshipbetween behavior and consequence

203. EEG(electroencephalogram)

shows brain's electrical activityby positioning electrodes overthe scalp

204. efferent neuron nerve cell that send messagesfrom brain and spinal cord toother parts of body; also calledmotor neurons

205. Ego In Freud's theory, the part ofpersonality that seeks to satisfyinstinctual needs in accordancewith reality.

206. Egocentrism Inability to perceive a situationor event except in relation tooneself; also know as self-centeredness

207. Ekman & Friesen Universal Emotions (based uponfacial expressions); StudyBasics: Constants across culturein the face and emotion

208. Elaboration LikelihoodModel

Theory suggesting that there aretwo routes to attitude change:the central route, which focuseson thoughtful consideration ofan argument for change, and theperipheral route, which focuseson less careful, more emotional,and even superficial evaluation.

209. elaborative rehearsal rehearsal involving repletionand analysis, in which astimulus may be associated with(linked to) other informationand further processed

210. Electroconvulsivetherapy (ECT)

A treatment for severe mentalillness in which an electriccurrent is briefly applied to thehead in order to produce ageneralized seizure.

211. Electroencephalogram(EEG)

Graphical record of brain-waveactivity obtained throughelectrodes placed on the scalpand forehead

212. ElectromagneticRadiation

The entire spectrum of wavesinitiated by the movement ofcharged particles.

213. Elizabeth Kübler-Ross developmental psychology;wrote "On Death and Dying": 5stages the terminally ill gothrough when facing death (1.denial, 2. anger, 3. bargaining,4. depression, 5. acceptance)

214. ElizabethLoftus

cognition and memory; studied repressedmemories and false memories; showed howeasily memories could be changed and falselycreated by techniques such as leadingquestions and illustrating the inaccuracy ineyewitness testimony

215. Embryo The prenatal organism from the 5th throughthe 49th day after conception

216. Emotion A subjective response, usually accompanied bya physiological change, which is interpreted na particular way by the individual and oftenleads to a change in behavior

217. emotionalintelligence

the ability to perceive, express, understand,and regulate emotions

218. empiricism the view that knowledge should be acquiredthrough observation and often an experiment

219. encoding organizing sensory information so it can beprocessed by the nervous system

220. encodingspecificityprinciple

retrieval cues that match original informationwork better

221. endocrineglands

the bodies "slow" chemical communication bysecreting hormones directly into thebloodstream

222. endocrinesystem

glands that secrete hormones into thebloodstream, which regulate body andbehavioral processes

223. endorphins chemical similar to opiates that relieves pain;may induce feelings of pleasure

224. engineeringpsychologist

does research on how people function bestwith machines

225. epinephrine adrenaline; activates a sympathetic nervoussystem by making the heart beat faster,stopping digestion, enlarging pupils, sendingsugar into the bloodstream, preparing a bloodclot faster

226. episodicmemory

memory of specific personal events andsituations (episodes) tagged with informationabout time

227. EquityTheory

Social psychological theory that states thatpeople attempt to maintain stable, consistentinterpersonal relationships in which the ratioof member's contributions is balanced.

228. ErikErikson

neo-Freudian, humanistic; 8 psychosocialstages of development: theory shows howpeople evolve through the life span. Eachstage is marked by a psychological crisis thatinvolves confronting "Who am I?"

229. ErnstWeber

perception; identified just-noticeable-difference (JND) that eventually becomesWeber's law

230. ESP the controversial claim that sensationcan occur apart from sensory input

231. ethics rules of proper and acceptable conductthat investigators use to guidepsychological research

232. ethnocentrism tendency to believe that one's own groupis the standard, the reference point bywhich other people and groups shouldbe judged

233. evolutionarypsychology

perspective that seeks to explain andpredict behaviors by analyzing how thehuman brain developed over time, howit functions, and how input from theenvironment affects human behaviors

234. Ex Post FactoDesign

A type of design that contrasts groups ofpeople who differ on some variable ofinterest to the researcher.

235. ex post factostudy

a type of design that contrasts groups ofpeople who differ on some variable ofinterest to the researcher

236. ex post factostudy

describes differences between groups ofparticipants that differ naturally on avariable such as race or gender

237. excitatoryneurotransmitter

chemical secreted at terminal buttonthat causes the neuron on the other sideof the synapse to fire

238. Excitement phase the first phase of the sexual responsecycle during which there are increasesin heart rate blood pressure andrespiration

239. ExpectancyTheories

Explanations of behavior that focus onpeople's expectations about reaching agoal and their need for achievement asenergizing factors

240. experiment a procedure in which a researchersystematically manipulates andobserves elements of a situation in orderto test a hypothesis and make a cause-and-effect statement

241. Experimentaldesign

A design in which researchersmanipulate an independent variableand measure a dependent variable todetermine a cause-and-effectrelationship

242. experimentalgroup

in an experiment, the group ofparticipants to whom a treatment isgiven

243. experimenterbias

expectation of the person conducting anexperiment which may be affect theoutcome

244. explicit memory conscious memory that a person isaware of

245. Extinction(classicalconditioning)

The procedure of withholding theunconditioned stimulus and presenting theconditioned stimulus alone, which graduallyreduces the probability of the conditionedresponse

246. Extinction(operantconditioning)

The process by which the probability of anorganism's emitting a response is reducedwhen reinforcement no longer follows theresponse

247. Extrinsicmotivation

Motivation supplied by rewards that comefrom the external environment

248. Factoranalysis

Statistical procedure designed to discover theindependent elements (factors) in any set ofdata

249. familystudies

studies of hereditability on the assumptionthat if a gene influences a certain trait, closerelatives should be more similar on that traitin distant relative

250. Familytherapy

A type of therapy in which two or morepeople who are committed to one another'swell-being are treated at once, in and effortto change the ways the interact.

251. fetal alcoholsyndrome(FAS)

group of abnormalities that occur in thebabies of mothers who drink alcoholicbeverages during pregnancy

252. Fetus The prenatal organism from the 8th weekafter conception until birth

253. Fixation An excessive attachment to some person orobject that was appropriate only at an earlierstage of development

254. Fixed-intervalSchedule

A reinforcement schedule in which areinforcer (reward) is delivered after aspecified interval of time, provided that therequired response occurs at least once in theinterval

255. Fixed-ratioSchedule

A reinforcement schedule in which areinforcer(reward) is delivered after aspecified number of responses has occurred

256. flashbulbmemories

detailed memory for events surrounding adramatic event that is vivid and rememberedwith confidence

257. fluidintelligence

cognitive abilities requiring speed or rapidlearning that tends to diminish with age

258. forebrain top of the brain which includes thethalamus, hypothalamus, and cerebralcortex; responsible for emotional regulation,complex thought, memory aspect ofpersonality

259. forebrain largest, most complicated, and most advancedof the three divisions of the brain; comprisesthe thalamus, hypothalamus, limbic system,basal ganglia, corpus callosum, and cortex

260. forensicpsychologist

applies psychological concepts to legal issues

261. Formaloperationalstage

Piaget's fourth and final stage of cognitivedevelopment (beginning at about age 12),during which the individual can thinkhypothetically, can consider futurepossibilites, and can use deductive logic

262. fovea small area of retina where image is focused

263. FrancisGalton

differential psychology AKA "London School"of Experimental Psychology; Contributions:behavioral genetics, maintains thatpersonality & ability depend almost entirely ongenetic inheritance; compared identical &fraternal twins, hereditary differences inintellectual ability

264. fraternaltwins

twins from two separate fertilized eggs(zygotes); share half of the same genes

265. Freeassociation

Psychoanalytic technique in which a person isasked to report to the therapist his or herthoughts and feelings as they occur,regardless of how trivial, illogical, orobjectionable their content may appear.

266. frequency number of wavelengths that pass a point in agiven amount of time; determines hue of lightand the pitch of a sound

267. frequencydistribution

a chart or array of scores, usually arrangedfrom highest to lowest, showing the numberof instances for each score

268. frequencypolygon

graph of a frequency distribution that showsthe number of instances of obtained scores,usually with the data points connect bystraight lines

269. frontal lobes control emotional behaviors, make decisions,carry out plans; speech (Broca's area);controls movement of muscles

270. Fulfillment In Roger's theory of personality, an inborntendency directing people toward actualizingtheir essential nature and thus attaining theirpotential.

271. Functionalfixedness

Inability to see that an object can have afunction other than its stated or usual one.

272. functionalMRI (fMRI)

shows brain activity at higher reolution thanPET scan when changes in oxygenconcentration in neurons alters its magneticqualities

273. functionalism school of psychological thought that wasconcerned with how and why the consciousmind works

274. FundamentalAttributionError

The tendency to attribute other people'sbehavior to dispositional (internal) causesrather than situational (external) causes.

275. GABA(gamma-aminobutyricacid)

neurotransmitter that inhibits firing ofneurons; linked with Huntington's disease

276. gate controltheory

pain is only experienced in the painmessages can pass through a gate in thespinal cord on their route to the brain

277. Gazzaniga orSperry

neuroscience/biopsychology; studied splitbrain patients

278. Gender A socially and culturally constructed set ofdistinctions between masculine andfeminine sets of behaviors that is promotedand expected by society

279. GenderIdentity

A person's sense of being male or female

280. GenderSchemaTheory

The theory that children and adolescentsuse gender as an organizing theme toclassify and interpret their perceptions aboutthe world and themselves

281. Genderstereotype

A fixed, overly simple, sometimes incorrectidea about traits, attitudes, and behaviors ofmales or females

282. gene a DNA segment on a chromosome thatcontrols transmission of traits

283. Generalizedanxietydisorder

An anxiety disorder characterized bypersistent anxiety occurring on more daysthan not for at least 6 months, sometimeswith increased activity of the autonomicnervous system, apprehension, excessivemuscle tension, and difficulty inconcentrating

284. geneticmapping

dividing the chromosomes into smallerfragments that can be characterized andordered so that the fragments reflect theirrespective locations on specificchromosomes

285. genetics study of how traits are transmitted from onegeneration to the next

286. Genital Stage Freud's last stage of personalitydevelopment, from the onset of pubertythrough adulthood, during which the sexualconflicts of childhood resurface (at puberty)and are often resolved during adolescence).

287. genotype an individual's genetic make-up

288. Gestaltpsychology

school of psychological thought that arguedthat behavior cannot be studied in parts butmust be viewed a s whole

289. Gibson &Walk

developmental psychology; "visual cliff"studies with infants

290. glial cells supportive cells of nervous system that guidegrowth of new neurons; forms myelinsheath; holds neuron in place; providesnourishment and removes waste

291. gonads reproductive glands-male, testes; female,ovaries

292. GordonAllport

trait theory of personality; 3 levels of traits:cardinal, central, and secondary

293. gradedpotential

shift in electrical charge in a tiny area of theneuron (temporary); transmits a long cellmembranes leaving neuron and polarizedstate; needs higher than normal threshold ofexcitation to fire

294. Grammar The linguistic description of how a languagefunctions, especially the rules and patternsused for generating appropriate andcomprehensible sentences.

295. Graspingreflex

Reflex that causes a newborn to graspvigorously any object touching the palm orfingers or placed in the hand

296. Group Two or more individuals who are workingwith a common purpose or have somecommon goals, characteristics, or interests.

297. GroupPolarization

Shifts or exaggeration in group members'attitudes or behavior as a result of groupdiscussion.

298. Grouptherapy

Psychotherapeutic process in which severalpeople meet as a group with a therapist toreceive psychological help.

299. Groupthink The tendency of people in a group to seekconcurrence with one another whenreaching a decision, rather than effectivelyevaluating options.

300. gustation sense of taste

301. habituation decreased responsiveness with repeatedpresentation of the same stimulus

302. hallucinogens(AKApsychedelicdrugs)

Consciousness-altering drugs that affectmoods, thoughts, memory, judgment, andperception and that are consumed for thepurpose of producing those results

303. Halo effect The tendency for one characteristic of anindividual to influence a tester's evaluationof other characteristics

304. Hans Eysenck personality theorist; asserted thatpersonality is largely determined by genes,used introversion/extroversion

305. HarryHarlow

development, contact comfort, attachment;experimented with baby rhesus monkeys andpresented them with cloth or wire "mothers;"showed that the monkeys became attached tothe cloth mothers because of contact comfort

306. Harry StackSullivan

interpersonal psychoanalysis; groundworkfor enmeshed relationships, developed theSelf-System, a configuration of personalitytraits

307. healthpsychologist

focuses on psychological factors in illness

308. Healthpsychology

Subfield concerned with the use ofpsychological ideas and principles toenhance health, prevent illness, diagnoseand treat disease, and improve rehabilitation

309. HenryMurray

personality assessment; created the ThematicApperception Test (TAT) with ChristinaMorgan, stated that the need to achievevaried in strength in different people andinfluenced their tendency to approach andevaluate their own performances

310. Heritability The genetically determined proportion of atrait's variation among individuals in apopulation

311. heritability the proportion of variation amongindividuals that is due to genetic causes

312. Herman vonHelmholtz

Theorist who both aided in the developmentof the trichromatic theory of color perceptionand Place theory of pitch perception.

313. HermannEbbinghaus

memory; studied memorization ofmeaningless words

314. HermannEbbinghaus

the first person to study memory scientificallyand systematically; used nonsense syllablesand recorded how many times he had to studya list to remember it well

315. HermannRorschach

developed one of the first projective tests, theInkblot test which consists of 10standardized inkblots where the subject tellsa story, the observer then derives aspects ofthe personality from the subject'scommentary

316. Heuristics Sets of strategies, rather than strict rules, thatact as guidelines for discovery-orientedproblem solving.

317. Higher-orderConditioning

Process by which a neutral stimulus takes onconditioned properties through pairing witha conditioned stimulus

318. hindbrain the most primitive of the three functionaldivisions of the brain, consisting of the pons,medulla, reticular formation, and cerebellum

319. hindbrain division which includes the cerebellum,Pons, and medulla; responsible forinvoluntary processes: blood pressure, bodytemperature, heart rate, breathing, sleepcycles

320. hippocampus part of the limbic system and is involved inlearning and forming new long-termmemories

321. Hobson &McCarley

sleep/dreams/consciousness; pioneers ofActivation-Synthesis Theory of dreams;sleep studies that indicate the brain createsdream states, not information processing orFreudian interpretations

322. Holmes &Rahe

stress and coping; used "socialreadjustment scale" to measure stress

323. Homeostasis Maintenance of a constant state of innerstability or balance

324. hormone chemical that carries messages that travelthrough the bloodstream to help regulatebodily functions

325. HowardGardner

devised theory of multiple intelligences:logical-mathematic, spatial, bodily-kinesthetic, intrapersonal, linguistic,musical, interpersonal, naturalistic

326. Hue The psychological property of light referredto as color, determined by the wavelengthsof reflected light.

327. humangenomes

30,000 genes needed to build a human

328. humanisticpsychology

perspective that emphasizes the uniquenessof the individual and the idea that humanshave free will

329. Humanistictheory

An explanation of behavior that emphasizesthe entirety of life rather than individualcomponents of behavior and focuses onhuman dignity, individual choice, and self-worth

330. Hyperopic Able to see objects at a distance clearly buthaving trouble seeing things up close;farsighted

331. hypnosis state with deep relaxation and heightenedsuggestibility

332. hypothalamus area of the brain that is part of the limbicsystem and regulates behaviors such as,eating, drinking, sexual behaviors,motivation; also body temperature

333. hypothesis a tentative statement or idea expressing acausal relationship between two events orvariables that is to be evaluated in aresearch study

334. Id In Freud's theory, the source ofa person's instinctual energy,which works mainly on thepleasure principle.

335. Ideal Self In Roger's theory ofpersonality, the self a personwould ideally like to be.

336. identical twins twins from a single fertilizedegg (zygote) with the samegenetic makeup; also calledmonozygotic (MZ) twins

337. imagery the creation or re-creation of amental picture of a sensory orperceptual experience

338. Imaginary Audience A cognitive distortionexperienced by adolescents, inwhich they see themselves asalways "on stage" with anaudience watching

339. implicit memory memory a person is not awareof possessing

340. Impression Formation The process by which a personuses behavior and appearanceof others to form attitudesabout them.

341. independent variable the variable in a controlledexperiment that theexperimenter directly andpurposefully manipulates tosee how the other variablesunder study will be affected

342. industrial/organizationalpsychologist

applies psychologicalprinciples to the workplace toimprove productivity and thequality of work life

343. inferential statistics procedures used to drawconclusions about largerpopulations from smallsamples of data

344. informed consent the agreement of participantsto take part in an experimentand their acknowledgementthat they understand thenature of their participation inthe research, and have beenfully informed about thegeneral nature of the research,its goals, and methods

345. inhibitoryneurotransmitter

chemical secreted at terminalbutton that prevents (orreduces ability of) the neuronon the other side of thesynapse from firing

346. Insighttherapy

Any therapy that attempts to discoverrelationships between unconsciousmotivations and current abnormalbehavior.

347. Insomnia Problems in going to sleep or maintainingsleep

348. instinct inherited, automatic species-specificbehaviors

349. insulin hormone backpacks in the regulation ofblood sugar by acting in the utilization ofcarbohydrates; released by pancreas; toomuch-hypoglycemia, too little-diabetes

350. Intelligence The overall capacity of an individual to actpurposefully, to think rationally, and to dealeffectively with the environment

351. interference the suppression of one bit of information byanother

352. interneurons nerve cell that transmits messages betweensensory and motor neurons

353. InterpersonalAttraction

The tendency of one person to evaluateanother person (or a symbol or image ofanother person) in a positive way.

354. Interpretation In Freud's theory, the technique ofproviding a context, meaning, or cause for aspecific idea, feeling, or set of behaviors;the process of tying a set of behaviors to itsunconscious determinant.

355. Intimacy A state of being or feeling in which eachperson in a relationship is willing to self-disclose and to express important feelingsand information to the other person.

356. Intrinsicmotivation

Motivation that leads to behaviors engagedin for no apparent reward except thepleasure and satisfaction of the activityitself

357. introspection a person's description and analysis of whathe or she is thinking and feeling or what heor she has just thought about

358. ions electrically charged particles found bothinside and outside a neuron; negative ionsare found inside the cell membrane in apolarized neuron

359. iris colored part of the eye that regulates size ofpupil

360. Ivan Pavlov discovered classical conditioning; traineddogs to salivate at the ringing of a bell

361. James-Langetheory ofemotion

conscious experience of emnotion resultsfrom one's awareness of physiologicalarousal

362. Jean Piaget cognitive psychology; created a 4-stage theoryof cognitive development, said that two basicprocesses work in tandem to achieve cognitivegrowth (assimilation and accommodation)

363. John BWatson

behaviorism; emphasis on external behaviorsof people and their reactions on a givensituation; famous for Little Albert study inwhich baby was taught to fear a white rat

364. JohnGarcia

Researched taste aversion. Showed that whenrats ate a novel substance before beingnauseated by a drug or radiation, theydeveloped a conditioned taste aversion for thesubstance.

365. John Locke 17th century English philosopher. Wrote thatthe mind was a "blank slate" or "tabula rasa";that is, people are born without innate ideas.We are completely shaped by our environment .

366. JudithLanglois

developmental psychology;: social development& processing, effects of appearance onbehavior, origin of social stereotypes,sex/love/intimacy, facial expression

367. justnoticeabledifference(JND)

experience of the difference threshold

368. KarenHorney

neo-Freudian, psychodynamic; criticizedFreud, stated that personality is molded bycurrent fears and impulses, rather than beingdetermined solely by childhood experiences andinstincts, neurotic trends; concept of "basicanxiety"

369. KarlWernicke

"Wernicke's area"; discovered area of lefttemporal lobe that involved languageunderstanding: person damaged in this areauses correct words but they do not make sense

370. KennethClark

social psychology; research evidence ofinternalized racism caused by stigmatization;doll experiments-black children chose whitedolls

371. kinesthesis body sense that provides information about theposition and movement of individual parts ofthe body

372. KonradLorenz

ethology (animal behavior); studied imprintingand critical periods in geese

373. Kurt Lewin social psychology; German refugee whoescaped Nazis, proved the democratic style ofleadership is the most productive; studiedeffects of 3 leadership styles on childrencompleting activities

374. Langer &Rodin

Social Psychology; Helping behavior, personalresponsibility; studied the effects of enhancedpersonal responsibility and helping behavior

375. Language A system of symbols, usually words, thatconvey meaning and a set of rules forcombining symbols to generate an infinitenumber of messages.

376. LatencyStage

Freud's fourth stage of personalitydevelopment, from about age 7 until puberty,during which sexual urges are inactive.

377. LatentContent

The deeper meaning of a dream, usuallyinvolving symbolism hidden meaning, andrepressed or obscured ideas and wishes

378. LatentLearning

Learning that occurs in the absence of directreinforcement and that is not necessarilydemonstrated through observable behavior

379. Law of Effect behaviors followed by pleasant consequencesare strengthened while behaviors followed byunpleasant consequences are weakened(Thorndike)

380. LawrenceKohlberg

moral development; presented boys moraldilemmas and studied their responses andreasoning processes in making moraldecisions. Most famous moral dilemma is"Heinz" who has an ill wife and cannotafford the medication. Should he steal themedication and why?

381. LearnedHelplessness

The behavior of giving up or not respondingto punishment, exhibited by people oranimals exposed to negative consequences orpunishment over which they have no control

382. Learnedhelplessness

the behavior of giving up or not responding,exhibited by people and animals exposed tonegative consequences or punishment overwhich they feel they have no control.

383. Learning Relatively permanent change in an organismthat occurs as a result of experiences in theenvironment

384. lens structure behind pupil that changes shape tofocus light rays onto the retina

385. LeonFestinger

social cognition, cognitive dissonance; StudyBasics: Studied and demonstrated cognitivedissonance

386. Lev Vygotsky child development; investigated how culture& interpersonal communication guidedevelopment; zone of proximal development;play research

387. levels-of-processingapproach

brain encodes information in different waysor on different levels; deeper processing leadsto deeper memory

388. Lewis Terman revised Binet's IQ test and establishednorms for American children; tested groupof young geniuses and followed in alongitudinal study that lasted beyond hisown lifetime to show that high IQ does notnecessarily lead to wonderful things in life

389. Libido In Freud's theory, the instinctual (andsexual) life force that, working on thepleasure principle and seeking immediategratification, energizes the id.

390. Light The small portion of the electromagneticspectrum that is visible to the human eye.

391. limbic system a donut ring-shaped of loosely connectedstructures located in the forebrain betweenthe central core and cerebral hemispheres;consists of: septum, cingulate gyrus,endowments, hypothalamus, and tocampus, and amygdala; associated withemotions and memories

392. Linguistics The study of language, including speechsounds, meaning, and grammar.

393. Little Albert subject in John Watson's experiment,proved classical conditioning principles,especially the generalization of fear

394. Lloyd andMargaretPeterson

did work on short-term memory

395. Logic The system of principles of reasoning usedto reach valid conclusions or makeinferences.

396. long-termmemory

storage mechanism that keeps a relativelypermanent record of memory

397. long-termpotentiation

the biochemical processes that make iteasier for the neuron to respond againwhen it has been stimulated

398. LongitudinalStudy

A research method that focuses on aspecific group of individuals at differentages to examine changes that haveoccurred over time

399. LongitudinalStudy

A research approach that follows a groupof people over time to determine change orstability in behavior.

400. Lucid Dream Dream in which the dreamer is aware ofdreaming while it is happening

401. magneticresonanceimaging (MRI)

creates a computerized image using amagnetic field and pulses of radio waves

402. Mainstreaming Practice of placing children with specialneeds in regular classroom settings, withthe support of professionals who providespecial education services

403. maintenancerehearsal

repetitive review of information with little orno interpretation

404. Majordepressivedisorder

Depressive disorder characterized by loss ofinterest in almost all of life's usual activities;a sad, hopeless, or discourage mood, sleepdisturbance; loss of appetite; loss of energy;and feelings of unworthiness and guilt.

405. ManifestContent

The overt story line, characters, and setting ofa dream-the obvious, clearly discernibleevents of the dream

406. MartinSeligman

learning; Positive Psychology; learnedhelplessness theory of depression; Studies:Dogs demonstrating learned helplessness

407. MaryAinsworth

developmental psychology; compared effectsof maternal separation, devised patterns ofattachment; "The Strange Situation":observation of parent/child attachment

408. Mary Cover-Jones

behaviorism/learning; pioneer in systematicdesensitization, maintained that fear could beunlearned

409. Masters &Johnson

motivation; human sexual response—studiedhow both men and women respond to and inrelation to sexual behavior

410. mean the arithmetic average of a set of scores

411. Means-endsanalysis

Heuristic procedure in which the problemsolver compares the current situation with thedesired goal to determine the most efficientway to get from one to the other.

412. measure ofcentraltendency

a descriptive statistic that tells which result orscore best represents an entire set of scores

413. median the measure of central tendency that is thedata point with 50% of the scores above itand 50% below it

414. Mediation The use of a variety of techniques includingconcentration, restriction of incomingstimuli, and deep relaxation to produce astate of consciousness characterized by asense of detachment.

415. medulla(alsomedullaoblongata)

part of the brain which controls livingfunctions such as breathing, heart rate, bloodpressure, body temperature

416. memory the ability to recall past events, images, ideas,or previously learned information or skills;the storage system that allows a person toretain and retrieve previously learnedinformation

417. memoryspan

the number of items a person can reproducefrom short-term memory, usually consistingof one or two chunks

418. menarche first menstrual period

419. menopause the cessation of the ability to reproduce

420. Metalretardation

Below-average intellectual functioning, asmeasured on an IQ test, accompanied bysubstantial limitations in functioning thatoriginate before age 8

421. midbrain the second level of the three organizationalstructures of the brain that receives signalsfrom other parts of the brain or spinal cordand either relays the information to otherparts of the brain or causes the body to actimmediately; involved in movement

422. midbrain the middle division of brain responsible forhearing and sight; location where pain isregistered; includes temporal lobe,occipital lobe, and most of the parietal lobe

423. mode the most frequently occurring score in a setof data

424. Model: an analogy or a perspective that uses astructure from one field to help scientistsdescribe data in another field

425. monism seeing mind and body as different aspectsof the same thing

426. Monochromats People who cannot perceive any color,usually because their retinas lack cones.

427. monocularcues

depth cues that are based on one eye

428. moraldevelopment

growth in the ability to tell right fromwrong, control impulses, and act ethically

429. Morality A system of learned attitudes about socialpractices, instituations, and individualbehavior used to evaluate situations andbehavior as right or wrong, good or bad

430. Moro reflex Reflex in which a newborn strectches outthe arms and legs and cries in response toa loud noise or an abrupt change in theenvironment

431. Morpheme A basic unit of meaning in a language.

432. motivatedforgetting

occurs when frightening, traumatic eventsare forgotten because people want to forgetthem

433. Motivation any internal condition, although usuallyan internal one, that initates, activates, ormaintains an organism's goal directedbehavior

434. Motive a specific (usually internal) condition,usually involving some form of arousal,which directs an organism's behaviortoward a goal.

435. motive a need or want that causes someone to act

436. motorneurons

efferent neurons; neurons that carrymessages from spinal cord/brain tomuscles and glands

437. motorprojectionareas

primary motor cortex; areas of the threeboat cortex for response messages from thebrain to the muscles and glands

438. mutation unexpected changes in the gene replicationprocess that are not always evident inphenotype and create unusual andsometimes harmful characteristics of bodyor behavior

439. myelin sheath a white, fatty covering of the axon whichspeeds transmission of message

440. Myopic Able to see clearly things that are close buthaving trouble seeing objects at a distance;nearsighted.

441. naturalselection

the principle that those characteristics andbehaviors that help organisms adapt, be fit,and survive will be passed on to successivegenerations, because flexible, fitindividuals have a greater chance ofreproduction

442. Naturalisticobservation

A descriptive research method in whichresearchers study behavior in its naturalcontext.

443. naturalisticobservation

observing and recording behavior naturallywithout trying to manipulate and controlthe situation

444. nature a person's inherited traits, determined bygenetics

445. nature-nurturecontroversy

deals with the extent to which heredity andthe environment each influence behavior

446. Need State of physiological imbalance usuallyaccompanied by arousal

447. Need forachievement

A social need that directs a person to striveconstantly for excellence and success

448. NegativeReinforcement

Removal of a stimulus after a particularresponse to increase the likelihood that theresponse will recur

449. nerve bundles of axons

450. nervoussystem

the structures and organs that facilitateelectrical and chemical communication inthe body and allow all behavior and mentalprocesses to take place

451. neuralimpulse

action potential; the firing of a nerve cell;the entire process of the electrical charge(message/impulse) traveling through inneron; can be as fast as 400 fps (with myelin)or 3 fps (no myelin)

452. neural plasticity Ability of the brain to change theirexperience, both structurally andchemically

453. neurogenesis production of new brain cells;November 1988: cancer patientsproved that new neurons grew until theend of life

454. neuron individual cells that are the smallestunit of the nervous system; it has threefunctions: receive information, processit, send to rest of body

455. neuropsychologist concerned with the relationshipbetween brain/nervous system andbehavior

456. neuroscience study of the brain and nervous system;overlaps with psychobiology

457. neurotransmitters chemical messengers released byterminal buttons into the synapse

458. Noam Chomsky language development; disagreed withSkinner about language acquisition,stated there is an infinite # ofsentences in a language, humans havean inborn native ability to developlanguage

459. Non-rapid EyeMovement Sleep

Four distinct stages of sleep duringwhich no rapid eye movements occur.

460. nonconscious the level of consciousness devoted toprocesses completely unavailable toconscious awareness (e.g., fingernailsgrowing)

461. NonverbalCommunication

The communication of information bycues or actions that include gestures,tone of voice, vocal inflections, andfacial expressions.

462. norepinephrine noradrenaline; chemical which isexcitatory, similar to adrenaline, andaffects arousal and memory; raisesblood pressure by causing bloodvessels to become constricted, but alsocarried by bloodstream to the anteriorpituitary which relaxes ACTH thusprolonging stress response

463. Normal curve A bell-shaped graphic representationof data showing what percentage ofthe population falls under each part ofthe curve

464. normaldistribution

approximate distribution of scoresexpected when a sample is taken froma large population, drawn as afrequency polygon that often takes theform of a bell-shaped curve, called thenormal curve

465. Norms The scores and corresponding percentileranks of a large and representative sampleof individuals from the population for whicha test was designed

466. nurture a person's experiences in the environment

467. Obedience Compliance with the orders of anotherperson or group of people.

468. Objectpermanence

The realization of infants that objectscontinue to exist even when they are out ofsight

469. ObservationalLearningTheory

Theory that suggests that organisms learnnew responses by observing the behavior ofa model and then imitating it; aka. Sociallearning theory

470. observer bias expectations of an observer which maydistort an authentic observation

471. Obsessive-compulsivedisorder

Anxiety disorder characterized by persistentand uncontrollable thoughts and irrationalbeliefs that cause the performance ofcompulsive rituals that interfere with dailylife.

472. occipitallobes

primary area for processing visualinformation

473. OedipusComplex

Feelings of rivalry with the parent of thesame sex and sexual desire for the parent ofthe other sex, occurring during the phallicstage and ultimately resolved throughidentification with the parent of the samesex.

474. olfaction sense of smell

475. OperantConditioning

Conditioning in which an increase ordecrease in the probability that a behaviorwill recur is affected by the delivery ofreinforcement or punishment as aconsequence of the behavior;

476. operationaldefinition

a definition of a variable in terms of the setof methods or procedures used to measure orstudy that variable

477. opiates (AKAnarcotics)

Drugs derived from the opium poppy,including opium, morphine, and heroin

478. Opponent-processtheory

Visual theory, proposed by Herring, thatcolor is coded by stimulation of three typesof paired receptors; each pair of receptors isassumed to operate in an antagonist way sothat stimulation by a given wavelengthproduces excitation (increased firing) in onereceptor of the pair and also inhibits theother receptor.

479. opponent-process theory ofemotion

following a strong emotion, an opposingemotion counters the first emotion,lessening the experience of thatemotion; on repeated occasions, theopposing emotion becomes stronger

480. Optic chiasm Point at which half of the optic nervefibers from each eye cross over andconnect to the other side of the brain.

481. optic nerve carries impulses from the eye to thebrain

482. Oral Stage Freud's first stage of personalitydevelopment, from birth to about age 2,during which the instincts of infants arefocused on the mouth as the primarypleasure center.

483. Orgasm phase the third phase of the sexual responsecycle, during which autonomic nervoussystem activity reaches its peak andmuscle contractions occur in spasmsthroughout the body, but especially inthe genital area

484. Overjustificationeffect

Decrease in likelihood that anintrinsically motivated task, after havingbeen extrinsically rewarded, will beperformed when the reward is no longergiven.

485. pancreas organ lying between the stomach andsmall intestine; regulates blood sugar bysecreting to regulating hormones insulinand glucagon

486. Panic Attack Anxiety disorders characterized as acuteanxiety, accompanied by sharpincreases in autonomic nervous systemarousal, that is not triggered by aspecific event.

487. parallelprocessing

simultaneously analyzing differentelements of sensory information, suchas color, brightness, shape, etc.

488. Paranoid type ofschizophrenia

type of schizophrenia characterized byhallucinations and delusions ofpersecution or grandeur (or both), andsometimes irrational jealousy.

489. parasympatheticnervous system

a branch of the autonomic nervoussystem that maintains normal bodyfunctions; it calms the body aftersympathetic stimulation

490. parathormone hormone that controls imbalances levelsof calcium and phosphate in the bloodand tissue fluid; influences levels ofexcitability; secreted by parathyroids

491. parathyroid for glands embedded in the thyroid; secretesparathormone; controls announces level ofcalcium and phosphate (which influencelevels of excitability)

492. parietallobes

processes sensory information includingtouch, temperature, and pain from other bodyparts

493. participant an individual who takes part in an experimentand whose behavior is observed as part of thedata collection process

494. Paul Ekman emotion; found that facial expressions areuniversal

495. Percentilescore

A score indicating what percentage of the testpopulation would obtain a lower score

496. percentilescore

the percentage of scores at or below a certainscore

497. Perception Process by which an organism selects andinterprets sensory input so that it acquiresmeaning.

498. peripheralnervoussystem

division that connects the central nervoussystem to the rest of the body; includes allsensory and motor neurons; divided intosomatic nervous system and autonomicnervous system

499. PersonalFable

A cognitive distortion experienced byadolescents, in which they believe they are sospecial and unique that other people cannotunderstand them and risky behaviors will notharm them

500. Personality A pattern of relatively permanent traits,dispositions, or characteristics that give someconsistency to people's behavior.

501. Personalitydisorders

psychological disorders characterized byinflexible and longstanding maladaptivebehaviors that typically cause stress and/orsocial or occupational problems.

502. PhallicStage

Freud's third stage of personality development,from about age 4 through age 7, during whichchildren obtain gratification primarily fromthe genitals.

503. phenotype the expression of genes

504. PhillipZimbardo

social psychology; Stanford Prison Study;college students were randomly assigned toroles of prisoners or guards in a study thatlooked at who social situations influencebehavior; showed that peoples' behaviordepends to a large extent on the roles they areasked to play

505. Phineas Gage Vermont railroad worker who survived asevere brain injury that changed hispersonality and behavior; his accidentgave information on the brain and whichparts are involved with emotionalreasoning

506. Phineas Gage railroad worker who survived a severebrain injury that dramatically changed hispersonality and behavior; case played arole in the development of theunderstanding of the localization of brainfunction

507. Phobicdisorders

Anxiety disorders characterized byexcessive and irrational fear of, andconsequent attempted avoidance of,specific objects or situations.

508. Phoneme A basic or minimum unit of sound in alanguage.

509. Phonology The study of the patterns and distributionsof speech sounds in a language and thetacit rules for their pronunciation.

510. Photoreceptors The light-sensitive cells in the retina- therods and cones.

511. photoreceptors light sensitive cells (rods and cones) thatconvert light to electrochemical impulses

512. pineal gland endocrine gland that produces melatoninthat helps regulate sleep/wake cycle

513. pitch the highness or lowness of a sound

514. pituitary gland endocrine gland that produces a largeamount of hormones; it regulates growthand helps control other endocrine glands;located on underside of brain; sometimescalled the "master gland"

515. placebo typically a pill that is used as a control inthe experiment; a sugar pill

516. Placebo effect A nonspecific improvement that occurs asa result of a person's expectations ofchange rather than as a direct result of anyspecific therapeutic treatment.

517. placebo effect response to the belief that the IV will havean effect, rather than the IV's actual effect,which can be a confounding variable

518. Placenta A mass of tissue that is attached to thewall f the uterus and connected to thedeveloping fetus by the umbilical cord; itsupplies nutrients and eliminates wasteproducts

519. Plateau phase the second phase of the sexual responsecycle, during which physical arousalcontinues to increase as the partnersbodies prepare for orgasm

520. polarization when the neuron is at rest; condition ofneuron when the inside of the neuron isnegatively charged relative to the outsideof Enron; is necessary to generate theneuron signal in release of thispolarization

521. polygenicinheritance

process by which several genes interactto produce a certain trait; responsible formost important traits

522. pons part of the brain involved in sleep/wakecycles; also connects cerebellum andmedulla to the cerebral cortex

523. population all of the individuals in the group towhich a study applies

524. positivepsychology

in emerging Theo psychology thatfocuses on positive experiences; includessubjective well-being, self-determination, the relationship betweenpositive emotions and physical health,and the factors that allow individuals,communities, and societies to boorish

525. PositiveReinforcement

Presentation of a stimulus after aparticular response in order to increasethe likelihood that the response willrecur

526. positronemissiontomography(PET scan)

shows brain activity when radioactivelytagged glucose rushes to active neurons

527. postconventionallevel of moraldevelopment

morality based on one's own individualmoral principles (i.e., conscience)

528. Posttraumaticstress disorder(PTSD)

Psychological disorder that may becomeevident after a person has undergoneextreme stress caused by some type ofdisaster; common symptoms includevivid, intrusive recollections orreexperiences of the traumatic event andoccasional lapses of normalconsciousness

529. Preconscious Freud's level of the mind that containsthose experiences that are not currentlyconscious but may become so withvarying degrees of difficulty.

530. preconscious level of consciousness that is outsideawareness but contains feelings andmemories that can easily be brought intoconscious awareness

531. preconventionallevel of moraldevelopment

morality based on consequences to self

532. Prejudice Negative evaluation of an entire group ofpeople, typically based on unfavorable (andoften wrong) stereotypes about groups.

533. Premackprinciple

commonly occurring behavior canreinforce a less frequent behavior

534. prenataldevelopment

period of development from conceptionuntil birth

535. Preoperationalstage

Piaget's second stage of cognitivedevelopment (lasting from about age 2 toage 6 or 7), during which the child beginsto represent the world symbolically

536. Prevalence the percentage of a population displaying adisorder during any specified period.

537. primacy effect the more accurate recall of items presentedat the beginning of a series

538. PrimaryPunisher

Any stimulus or event that is naturallypainful or unpleasant to an organism

539. PrimaryReinforcer

Reinforcer that has survival value for anorganism; this value does not have to belearned

540. proactiveinterference

previously learned information interfereswith the ability to learn new information

541. ProblemSolving

The behavior of individuals whenconfronted with a situation or task thatrequires insight or determination of someunknown elements.

542. proceduralmemory

memory for skills, including perceptual,motor, and cognitive skills required tocomplete tasks

543. Projection Defense mechanism by which peopleattribute their own undesirable traits toothers.

544. ProjectiveTests

Devices or instruments used to assesspersonality, in which examinees areshown a standard set of ambiguous stimuliand asked to respond to the stimuli in theirown way.

545. ProsocialBehavior

Behavior that benefits someone else orsociety but that generally offers no obviousbenefit to the person performing it and mayeven involve some personal risk orsacrifice.

546. Prototype An abstraction, an idealized pattern of anobject or idea that is stored in memory andused to decide whether similar objects orideas are members of the same class ofitems.

547. pseudoscience an unscientific system which pretends todiscover psychological information thathis means are unscientific or deliberatelyfraudulent

548. psychiatrist a medical doctor whospecializes in the diagnosisand treatment of mentaldisorders

549. Psychoactive Drug A drug that alters behavior,thought, or perception byaltering biochemical reactionsin the nervous system, therebyaffecting consciousness

550. Psychoanalysis A lengthy insight therapy thatwas developed by Freud andaims at uncovering conflictsand unconscious impulsesthrough special techniques,including free association,dream analysis, andtransference.

551. psychoanalyst one who uses psychoanalysisto treat psychological problems

552. psychoanalytic perspective developed by freud,which assumes thatpsychological problems are theresult of anxiety resulting fromunresolved conflicts and forcesof which a person might beunaware

553. psychobiology study that focuses onbiological foundations ofbehavior and mentalprocesses; overlaps withneuroscience

554. Psychodynamically Therapies that use approachesor techniques derived fromFreud, but that reject or modifysome elements of Freud'stheory.

555. Psycholinguistics The study of how language isacquired, perceived,understood, and produced.

556. psychologist professional who studiesbehavior and uses behavioralprinciples in scientificresearch or in applied settings

557. psychology the scientific study of behaviorand mental processes

558. psychometrician focuses on methods ofacquiring and analyzing data

559. Psychoneuroimmunology An interdisciplinary area ofstudy that includes behavioral,neurological, and immunefactors and their relationshipto the development of disease

560. Psychophysics Subfield of psychology that focuses on therelationship between physical stimuli andpeople's conscious experiences of them.

561. Psychosurgery Brain surgery used in the past to alleviatesymptoms of serious mental disorders.

562. Psychotherapy The treatment of emotional or behaviorproblems through psychologicaltechniques.

563. Psychotic suffering from a gross impairment inreality testing that interferes with theability to meet the ordinary demands oflife.

564. Puberty The period during which the reproductivesystem matures; it begins with an increasein the production of sex hormones, whichsignals the end of childhood

565. Punishment Process of presenting an undesirable ornoxious stimulus, or removing a desirablestimulus, to decrease the probability that apreceding response will recur

566. pupil small opeing in iris that is smaller inbright light and larger in darkness

567. randomsample

selection of a part of the populationwithout reason; participation is by chance

568. range the spread between the highest and thelowest scores in a distribution

569. Rape Forcible sexual assault on an unwillingpartner.

570. Rapid EyeMovementSleep

Stage of sleep characterized by high-frequency, low-amplitude brain-waveactivity, rapid and systematic eyemovements, more vivid dreams, andpostural muscle paralysis

571. Rational-emotivetherapy

A cognitive behavior therapy thatemphasizes the importance of logical,rational thought processes.

572. Rationalization Defense mechanism by which peoplereinterpret undesirable feelings orbehaviors in terms that make them appearacceptable.

573. Raw score A test score that has not been transformedor converted in any way

574. RaymondCattell

intelligence: fluid & crystal intelligence;personality testing: 16 Personality Factors(16PF personality test)

575. Reactance The negative response evoked when thereis an inconsistency between a person'sself-image as being free to choose and theperson's realization that someone is tryingto force him or her to choose a particularoccurrence.

576. ReactionFormation

Defense mechanism by which people behave ina way opposite to what their true but anxiety-provoking feelings would dictate.

577. Reasoning The purposeful process by which a persongenerates logical and coherent ideas, evaluatessituations, and reaches conclusions.

578. recencyeffect

the more accurate recall of items presented atthe end of a series

579. Receptivefields

Areas of the retina that, when stimulated,produce a change in the firing of cells in thevisual system.

580. receptorsite

a location on a receptor neurons which is like akey to a lock (with a specific nerve transmitter);allows for orderly pathways

581. recessivegene

member of the gene terror that controls theappearance of a certain trait only if it is pairedwith the same gene

582. Reflex Automatic behavior that occurs involuntarily inresponse to a stimulus and without priorlearning and usually shows little variabilityfrom instance to instance

583. refractoryperiod

after firing when a neuron will not fire again nomatter how strong the incoming message maybe

584. Regression A return to a prior stage after a person hasprogressed through the various stages ofdevelopment; caused by anxiety.

585. rehearsal process of repeatedly verbalizing, thinkingabout, or otherwise acting on or transforminginformation in order to keep that informationactive in memory

586. Reinforcer Any event that increases the probability of arecurrence of the response that preceded it

587. relativerefractoryperiod

a period after firing when a neuron is returningto its normal polarize state and will only fireagain if the incoming message openparentheses impulse) is stronger than usual;returning to arresting state

588. Reliability Ability of a test to yield very similar scores forthe same individual over repeated testings

589. REM(rapid eyemovement)sleep

sleep stage when the eyes move about, duringwhich vivid dreams occur; brain very active butskeletal muscles paralyzed

590. RenéDescartes

17t century French philosopher. Famouslyknown for writing "cogito ergo sum" ("I think,therefore I am"). Wrote about concept ofdualism.

591. replication the repetition of an experiment to test thevalidity of its conclusion

592. Representativesample

A sample that reflects the characteristics ofthe population from which it is drawn

593. Representativesample

A sample of individuals who match thepopulation with whom they are beingcompared with regard to key variables suchas socioeconomic status and age

594. representativesample

selection of a part of the population whichmirrors the current demographics

595. Repression Defense mechanism by which anxiety-provoking thoughts and feelings are forcedto the unconscious.

596. Residual typeofschizophrenia

a schizophrenic disorder in which theperson exhibits inappropriate affect,illogical thinking, and/or eccentricbehavior but seems generally in touch withreality.

597. Resilience The extent to which people are flexible andrespond adaptively to external or internaldemands

598. Resistance In psychoanalysis, an unwillingness tocooperate, which a patient signals byshowing a reluctance to provide thetherapist with information or to help thetherapist understand or interpret asituation.

599. ResolutionPhase

the fourth phase of the sexual responsecycle, following orgasm, during which thebody returns to its resting, or normal state

600. response bias preconceived notions of a personanswering [a survey] which may alter theexperiments purpose

601. restingpotential

when a neuron is in polarization; morenegative ions are inside the neuron cellmembrane with a positive ions on theoutside, causing a small electrical charge;release of this charge generates a neuron'simpulse (signal/message)

602. reticularformation(RF) (RES)

netlike system of neurons that weavesthrough limbic system and plays animportant role in attention, arousal, andalert functions; arouses and alerts higherparts of the brain; anesthetics work bytemporary shutting off RF system

603. retina light-sensitive surface on back of eyecontaining rods and cones

604. retrieval process by which stored information isrecovered from memory

605. retroactiveinterference

newly learned information interferes withthe ability to recall previously learnedinformation

606. retrogradeamnesia

loss of memory of events and experiencesthat preceded an amnesia-causing event

607. RobertRosenthal

social psychology; focus on nonverbalcommunication, self-fulfilling prophecies;Studies: Pygmalion Effect-effect of teacher'sexpectations on students

608. RobertSternberg

intelligence; devised the Triarchic Theory ofIntelligence (academic problem-solving,practical, and creative)

609. RobertYerkes

intelligence, comparative; Yerkes-Dodson law:level of arousal as related to performance

610. RobertZajonc

motivation; believes that we invent explanationsto label feelings

611. rods photoreceptors that detect black, white, andgray, and movement; used for vision in dim light

612. Rootingreflex

Reflex that causes a newborn to turn the headtoward a light touch on lips or cheek

613. Rosenhan Psychopathology and Social Psychology; effectsof labeling; Rosenhan and colleagues checkedselves into mental hospitals with symptoms ofhearing voices say "empty, dull and thud."Diagnosed with schizophrenia. After entered,acted normally. Never "cleared" of diagnosis.Roles and labels in treating people differently.

614. Rosenthal&Jacobson

Intelligence and learning, self-fulfillingprophecy; Study Basics: Researchers misledteachers into believing that certain students hadhigher IQs. Teachers changed own behaviorsand effectively raised the IQ of the randomlychosen students

615. Saccades Rapid voluntary movements of the eyes.

616. sample a group of participants who are assumed to berepresentative of the population about which aninference is being made

617. Saturation The depth and richness of a hue determined bydetermined by the homogeneity of thewavelengths contained in the reflected light;also known as purity.

618. Schachter-Singertheory ofemotion

we determine our emotion based on ourphysiological arousal, then label that emotionaccording to our explanation for that arousal

619. Schema In Piaget's view, a specific mental structure; anorganized way of interacting with theenvironment and experiencing it- ageneralization a child makes based oncomparable occurences of various actins, usallyphysical, motor actions

620. schema framework of basic ideas about people, objectsand events based on past experience in long-term memory

621. schema a conceptual framework that organizesinformation and allows a person to make senseof the world

622. Schizophrenicdisorders

a group of psychological disorderscharacterized by a lack of reality testingand by deterioration of social andintellectual functioning and personalitybeginning before age 45 and lasting atleast 6 months

623. schoolpsychologist

assesses and counsels students, consultswith educators and parents, and performsbehavioral intervention when necessary

624. science way of getting knowledge about the worldbased on observation

625. scientificmethod

in psychology, the techniques used todiscover knowledge about human behaviorand mental processes

626. SecondaryPunisher

Any neutral stimulus that initially has nointrinsic negative value for an organismbut acquires punishing qualities whenlinked with a primary punisher

627. SecondaryReinforcer

Any neutral stimulus that initially has nointrinsic value for an organism but thatbecomes rewarding when linked with aprimary reinforcer

628. Secondary SexCharacteristics

The genetically determined physicalfeatures that differentiate the sexes but arenot directly involved with reproduction

629. selectionstudies

studies that estimate the hereditability of atrait by breeding animals with anotheranimal that has the same trait

630. selectiveattention

focused awareness of only a limitedamount of all you are capable ofexperiencing

631. Self In Roger's theory of personality, theperception an individual has of himself orherself and of his or her relationships toother people and to various aspects of life.

632. Self-actualization

In humanistic theory, the final level ofpsychological development, in which onestrives to realize one's uniquely humanpotential-to achieve everything one iscapable of achieving

633. Self-actualization

The process of growth and the realizationof individual potential; in the humanisticview, a final level of psychologicaldevelopment in which a person attempts tominimize ill health, be fully functioning,have a superior perception of reality, andfeel a strong sense of self-acceptance.

634. self-actualization

the human need to fulfill one's potential

635. Self-efficacy The belief that a person can successfullyengage in and execute a specific behavior

636. Self-efficacy A person's belief about whether he or shecan successfully engage in and execute aspecific behavior.

637. Self-fulfillingprophecy

The creation of a situation thatunintentionally allows personalexpectancies to influence participants

638. self-fulfillingprophecy

when a researcher's expectationsunknowingly create a situation that affectsthe results

639. Self-perceptionTheory

Approach to attitude formation that assumesthat people infer their attitudes andemotional states from their behavior.

640. Self-servingBias

People's tendency to ascribe their positivebehaviors to their own internal traits, buttheir failures and shortcomings to external,situational factors.

641. Selye'sGeneralAdaptationSyndrome

three-stage process which describes thebody's reaction to stress: 1) alarm reaction,2) resistance, 3) exahaustion

642. semanticmemory

memory of ideas, rules, words, and generalconcepts about the world

643. Semantics The analysis of the meaning of language,especially of individual words.

644. Sensation Process in which the sense organs' receptorcells are stimulated and relay initialinformation to higher brain centers forfurther processing.

645. Sensorimotorstage

The first of Piaget's four stages of cognitivedevelopment (covering roughly the first 2years of life), during which the childdevelops some motoer coordination skillsand a memory for past events

646. sensoryadaptation

temporary decrease in sensitivity to astimulus that occurs when stimulation isunchanging

647. sensorymemory

performs initial encoding; provides briefstorage; also called sensory register

648. sensoryneurons

afferent neurons; neurons that carrymessages from sensory organs to the brainand spinal cords

649. serotonin neurotransmitter that affects sleep, arousal,mood, appetite; lack of it is linked withdepression

650. set point preset natural body weight, determined bythe number of fat cells in the body

651. Sex The biologically based categories of maleand female

652. Shaping Selective reinforcement of behaviors thatgradually approach the desired response

653. shaping positively reinforcing closer and closerapproximation of a desired behavior toteach a new behavior

654. short-termstorage

holds information for processing; fragile;also called short term memory or workingmemory

655. SignalDetectionTheory

Theory that holds that an observer'sperception depends not only on theintensity of a stimulus but also on theobserver's motivation, the criteria he or shesets for determining that a signal ispresent, and on the background noise.

656. significantdifference

in an experiment, a difference that isunlikely to have occurred because of chancealone and is inferred to be most likely due tothe systematic manipulations of variablesby the researcher

657. Size constancy Ability of the visual perceptual system torecognize that an object remains constantin size regardless of its distance from theobserver or the size of its image on theretina.

658. Skinner Box Named for its developer, B.F. Skinner, abox that contains a responding mechanismand a device capable of delivering aconsequence to an animal in the boxwhenever it makes the desired response

659. SocialCategorization

The process of dividing the world into "in"groups and "out" groups.

660. SocialCognition

The process of analyzing and interpretingevents, other people, oneself, and the worldin general.

661. SocialFacilitation

Change in behavior that occurs whenpeople believe they are in the presence ofother people.

662. SocialInfluence

The ways people alter the attitudes orbehaviors of others, either directly orindirectly.

663. Social Interest In Adler's theory, a feeling of opennesswith all humanity.

664. Social Loafing Decrease in effort and productivity thatoccurs when an individual works in a groupinstead of alone.

665. Social Need An aroused condition that directs people tobehave in ways that allow them to feel goodabout themselves and others and toestablish and maintain relationships

666. Social phobia Anxiety disorder characterized by fear of,and desire to avoid, situations in which theperson might be exposed to scrutiny byothers and might behave in anembarrassing or humiliating way.

667. socialpsychologist

focuses on how the individual's behaviorand mental processes are affected byinteractions with other people

668. SocialPsychology

The scientific study of how people thinkabout, interact with, influence, and areinfluenced by the thoughts, feelings, andbehaviors of other people.

669. Sociobiology A discipline based on the premise thateven day-to-day behaviors are determinedby the process of natural selection - thatsocial behaviors that contribute to thesurvival of a species are passed on via thegenes from one generation to the next.

670. socioculturalpsychology

perspective concerned with how culturaldifferences affect behavior

671. Socrates Ancient Greek philosopher. Promotedintrospection by saying, "Know thyself."

672. Solomon Asch conformity; showed that social pressurecan make a person say something that isobviously incorrect ; in a famous study inwhich participants were shown cardswith lines of different lengths and wereasked to say which line matched the lineon the first card in length

673. somatic nervoussystem

division of peripheral nervous system;controls voluntary actions

674. soundlocalization

the process by which the location ofsound is determined

675. Specific phobia Anxiety disorder characterized byirrational and persistent fear of aparticular object or situation, along witha compelling desire to avoid it.

676. spinal cord portion of the CNS that carries messagesto the PNS; connects brain to the rest ofthe body

677. split brainpatients

people whose corpus callosum has beensurgically severed

678. SpontaneousRecovery

Recurrence of an extinguishedconditioned response, usually following arest period

679. sportspsychologist

helps athletes improve their focus,increase motivation, and deal withanxiety and fear of failure

680. standarddeviation

a descriptive statistic that measures thevariability of data from the mean of thesample

681. Standard score A score that expresses an individual'sposition relative to the mean, based onthe standard deviation

682. Standardization Process of developing uniform proceduresfor administering and scoring a test andfor establishing norms

683. Stanford-Binetintelligencetests

constructed by Lewis Terman, originallyused ratio IQ (MA/CA x 100); now basedon deviation from mean

684. StanleyMilgram

obedience to authority; had participantsadminister what they believed weredangerous electrical shocks to otherparticipants; wanted to see if Germanswere an aberration or if all people werecapable of committing evil actions

685. StanleySchachter

emotion; stated that in order to experienceemotions, a person must be physicallyaroused and know the emotion before youexperience it

686. state-dependentlearning

the tendency to recall information learnedwhile in a particular physiological statemost accurately when one is in thatphysiological state again

687. statistics branch of mathematics that deals withcollecting, classifying, and analyzing data

688. Stereotypes Fixed, overly simple and often erroneousideas about traits, attitudes, and behaviorsof groups of people; stereotypes assumethat all members of a given group arealike.

689. Stimulant A drug that increases alertness, reducesfatigue, and elevates mood

690. StimulusDiscrimination

Process by which an organism learns torespond only to a specific stimulus and notto other stimuli

691. StimulusGeneralization

Process by which a conditioned responsebecomes associated with a stimulus that issimilar but not identical to the originalconditioned stimulus

692. storage the process of maintaining or keepinginformation readily available; thelocations where information is held

693. strain studies studies of hereditability it be a behavioraltraits using animals that have been inbredto produce strains that are geneticallysimilar to one another

694. Stress A nonspecific, emotional response to realor imagined challenges or threats; a resultof a cognitive appraisal by the individual

695. Stressor An environmental stimulus that affects anorganism in physically or psychologicallyinjurious ways, usually producing anxiety,tension, and physiological arousal

696. structuralism school of psychological thought thatconsidered the structure and elements ofconscious experience to be the propersubject matter of psychology

697. Subgoalanalysis

Heuristic procedure in which a problem isbroken down into smaller steps, each ofwhich has a subgoal.

698. Sublimation Defense mechanism by which people redirectsocially unacceptable impulses towardacceptable goals.

699. Subliminalperception

Perception below the threshold ofawareness.

700. SubstanceAbuser

A person who overuses and relies on drugs todeal with everyday life

701. Suckingreflex

Reflex that causes a newborn to makesucking motions when a finger or nipple ifplaced in the mouth

702. Superego In Freud's theory, the moral aspect of mentalfunctioning comprising the ego ideal (what aperson would ideally like to be) and theconscience and taught by parents andsociety.

703. SuperstitiousBehavior

Behavior learned through coincidentalassociation with reinforcement

704. Survey One of the descriptive methods of research; itrequires construction of a set of questions toadminister to a group of participants

705. surveyresearch

the measurement of public opinion throughthe use of sampling and questioning

706. sympatheticnervoussystem

a branch of the autonomic nervous systemand prepares the body for quick action inemergencies; "fight or flight"

707. Symptomsubstitution

The appearance of one overt symptom toreplace another that has been eliminated bytreatment.

708. synapse the space between two neurons whereneurotransmitters are secreted by terminalbuttons and received by dendrites

709. synaptic cleft synaptic gap or synaptic space; tiny gapbetween the terminal of one neuron and thedendrites of another neuron (almost nevertouch); location of the transfer of an impulsefrom one neuron to the next

710. synapticvesicles

tiny oval-shaped sacs in a terminal of oneneuron; assist in transferring mineralimpulse from one neuron to another neuronby releasing specific neurotransmitters

711. Syntax The way words and groups of words combineto form phrases, clauses, and sentences.

712. Systematicdesensitization

A three-stage counterconditioningprocedure in which people are taught torelax when confronting stimuli thatforming elicited anxiety.

713. Temperament Early-emerging and long-lastingindividual differences in disposition and inthe intensity and especially the quality ofemotional reactions

714. temporal lobes main area for hearing, understandinglanguage (Wernicke's area),understanding music; smell

715. Teratogen Substance that can produce developmentalmalformations (birth defects) during theprenatal period

716. terminalbuttons (axonterminals)

ends of axons that secreteneurotransmitters

717. thalamus motor sensory relay center for four of thefive senses; and with a brain stem andcomposed of two egg-shaped structures;integrates in shades incoming sensorysignals; Mnemonic-"don't smell thellamas because the llamas smell bad"

718. Thanatology The study of the psychological and medicalaspects of death and dying

719. theory a collection of interrelated ideas and factsput forward to describe, explain, andpredict behavior and mental processes

720. Theory of mind An understanding of mental states such asfeelings, desires, beliefs, and intentionsand of the causal role they play in humanbehavior

721. thyroid gland located in neck; regulates metabolism bysecreting thyroxine

722. thyroxine released by thyroid; hormone thatregulates the body's metabolism;OVERACTIVE-over-excitability,insomnia, reduced attention span, fatigue,snap decisions, reduced concentration(hyperthyroidism); UNDERACTIVE-desireto sleep, constantly tired, weight gain(hypothyroidism)

723. timbre the quality of a sound determined by thepurity of a waveform

724. Time-out An operant conditioning procedure inwhich a person is physically removed fromsources of reinforcement to decrease theoccurrence of undesired behaviors.

725. Token economy An operant conditioning procedure inwhich individuals who display appropriatebehavior receive tokens that they canexchange for desirable items or activities.

726. token economy operant training system that usessecondary reinforcers (tokens) to increaseappropriate behavior; learners canexchange tokens for desired rewards

727. Tolerance The characteristic of requiring higher andhigher doses of a drug to produce the sameeffect.

728. Tolman cognition; studied rats and discovered the"cognitive map" in rats and humans

729. top-downprocessing

information processing guided by pre-existing knowledge or expectations toconstruct perceptions

730. Trait Any readily identifiable stable quality thatcharacterizes how an individual differsfrom other individuals.

731. Transduction Process by which a perceptual systemanalyzes stimuli and converts them intoelectrical impulses; also known as coding.

732. transferappropriateprocessing

occurs when initial processing ofinformation is similar to the process ofretrieval; the better the match, the betterthe recall

733. Transference Psychoanalytic phenomenon in which atherapist becomes the object of a patient'semotional attitudes about an importantperson in the patient's life, such as aparent.

734. triarchictheory ofintelligence

Robert Sternberg's theory that describesintelligence as having analytic, creativeand practical dimensions

735. Trichromatictheory

Visual theory, stated by Young andHelmholtz that all colors can be made bymixing the three basic colors: red, green,and blue; a.k.a the Young-Helmholtztheory.

736. Trichromats People who can perceive all three primarycolors and thus can distinguish any hue.

737. twin studies studies as identical and rhetorical twins todetermine relative influence of heredity andenvironment on human behavior

738. Type Abehavior

Behavior pattern characterized bycompetitiveness, impatience, hostility, andconstant efforts to do more in less time

739. Type Bbehavior

Behavior pattern exhibited by people whoare calmer, more patient, and less hurriedthan Type A individuals

740. Types Personality categories in which broadcollections of traits are loosely tied togetherand interrelated.

741. UnconditionedResponse

Unlearned or involuntary response to anunconditioned stimulus

742. UnconditionedStimulus

Stimulus that normally produces ameasurable involuntary response

743. Unconscious Freud's level of mental life that consistsof mental activities beyond people'snormal awareness.

744. unconscious level of consciousness that includesunacceptable feelings, wishes, andthoughts not directly available toconscious awareness

745. Undifferentiatedtype ofschizophrenia

a schizophrenic disorder that ischaracterized by a mixture of symptomsand does not meet the diagnostic criteriaof any one type.

746. Validity Ability of a test to measure what it issupposed to measure and to predict whatit is supposed to predict

747. variability the extent to which scores differ from oneanother

748. variable a condition or characteristic of asituation or a person that is subject tochange (it varies) within or acrosssituations or individuals

749. Variable-intervalSchedule

A reinforcement schedule in which areinforcer (reward) is delivered afterpredetermined but varying amounts oftime, provided that the required responseoccurs at least once after each interval

750. Variable-ratioSchedule

A reinforcement schedule in which areinforcer (reward) is delivered after apredetermined but variable number ofresponses has occurred

751. Vasocongestion In the sexual response cycle,engorgement of the blood vessels,particularly in the genital area, due toincreased blood flow

752. vestibular sense body sense of equilibrium and balance

753. visual acuity sharpness of vision

754. Visual cortex The most important area of the brain'soccipital lobe, which receives and furtherprocesses information from the lateralgeniculate nucleus; also known as thestriate cortex.

755. Von Restorffeffect

occurs when recall is better for adistinctive item, even if it occurs in themiddle of a list

756. Vulnerability A person's diminished ability to dealwith demanding life events.

757. Walter B.Cannon

motivation; believed that gastric activityas in empty stomach, was the sole basisfor hunger; did research that insertedballoons in stomachs

758. Wechslerintelligence tests

three age individual IQ tests: WPPSI (children), WISC (children), WAIS (adults)

759. Wernicke's area located in left temporal lobe; plays role in understanding language and making meaningful sentences

760. Wilhelm Wundt structuralism; in 1879 founded first psychology laboratory in world at University of Leipzig; introspection, basicunits of experience

761. William Dement Sleep researcher who discovered and coined the phrase "rapid eye movement" (REM) sleep.

762. William James founder of functionalism; studied how humans use perception to function in our environment

763. William Sheldon personality; theory that linked personality to physique on the grounds that both are governed by geneticendowment: endomorphic (large), mesomorphic (average), and ectomorphic (skinny)

764. WithdrawalSymptoms

The Reaction experienced when a substance abuser stops using a drug with dependence properties

765. Wolpe learning; systematic desensitization

766. working memory Temporarily holds current or recent information for immediate or short-term use; Information is maintained for 20-30 seconds while active processing (e.g., rehearsal) takes place

767. Workingthrough

In psychoanalysis, the repetitive cycle of interpretation, resistance to interpretation, and transference.

768. Zajonc &Markus

intelligence and development; discovered that first born and only children tend to have higher IQs than latter bornchildren

769. zone of proximaldevelopment

the range between the level at which a child can solve a problem working alone with difficulty, and the level atwhich a child can solve a problem with the assistance of adults or children with more skill

770. Zygote A fertilized egg