ap history - question set 5, apeuh

8/9/2019 AP History - Question Set 5, APEUH

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3/7/2010

AP History, Dr.Lewis | Peter Castoldi

AP HISTORY, DR.LEWIS

A DISCOURSE ONHISTORY A FIFTHANALYSIS


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Table of Contents

Question 61 The Main Ideas of Karl Marx and Friedrich Engels ............... ................. .................. ............ 3

Question 62 The Atlantic Migration A Description, Causes, and Consequences; In Accordance toPalmer, Colton, and Kramer ......................................................................................................................... 5

Question 63 A Description of the Failure of the French July Monarch ................................................. 7

Question 64 The Importance of the Year 1848, With Respects to European History ................ ............... 9

Question 65 The Accomplishments and Failures of Napoleon III ................. ................. .................. ....... 11

Question 66 The Austrian Empire and Ethnic Nationalism ................ ................. ................. .................. . 13

Question 67 How and Why Alexander II Changed Russia ................. ................. ................. .................. . 15

Question 68 The Russo-Japanese War, the 1905 Bloody Sunday Massacre, and the Connection to theRussian Revolution of 1905 ........................................................................................................................ 17

The Russo-Japanese War ........................................................................................................................ 17

The 1905 Bloody Sunday Massacre ....................................................................................................... 18

The Russo- Japanese War, Bloody Sunday, and Their Involvement with the R ussian Revolution of 1905 ........................................................................................................................................................ 18

Question 69 How the 19 th Century Italian Nationalist Leaders Brought Unity to Italy ................. .......... 19

Question 70 The Importance of Otto Von Bismarck ............................................................................... 22

Question 71 The Change of the Intellectual, Scientific, and Artistic Europe During the Late 19 th and 20 th Centuries ..................................................................................................................................................... 24

Question 72 Threats to Organized Religion and the Response from Catholics and the Church, InAccordance to Palmer, Colton, and Kramer ............................................................................................... 27

Question 73 The Root Causes of 19 th Century European Imperialism ................ ................. .................. . 29

Cause 1: Social Darwinism ................................................................................................................ 29 Cause 2: Religion ............................................................................................................................... 29

Cause 3: Money .................................................................................................................................. 29

Cause 4: Security and Rivalry ............................................................................................................ 30

Question 74 The Causes of World War One ............... .................. ................. ................. .................. ....... 31

Cause 1: Irreconcilable Hatreds: Germany v. France, England, and Russia ................ .................. .... 31

Cause 2: The Momentum of Events ................................................................................................... 32

Question 75 Why World War One was a Deadly War ............................................................................ 34

Figures and References ............................................................................................................................... 36

Figure One .......................................................................................................................................... 36

Figure Two ......................................................................................................................................... 37

Figure Three ....................................................................................................................................... 38


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Question 61 The Main Ideas of Karl Marx and Friedrich Engels

A Brief Background on the Two Men

Friedrich Engels and Karl Marx were two of the most important men responsible for what was

(and is) commonly called Communism. Communism is a social structure in which classes areabolished and property is commonly controlled, as well as a political philosophy and socialmovement that advocates and aims to create such a society 1. Engels was born in Germany into aprosperous family due to the fact that his father had owned a clothing company, and Engelsshowed a great interest in the field of politics. The other man responsible for this movement Marx was, too, bo rn in Germany (however his birth occurred two years before that of Engels)and had a loving family, whose father was a convert to Protestantism.

The Communist Manifesto Working men of all countries, unite!

Starting the birth of communism and what was known to be called Marxism, came theadvancement of an infamous book titled The Communist Manifesto which was a work collectively written by Karl Marx and Friedrich Engels and son published on February 21 st,1848. The work paved the foundation for the purposes and the various programs of Communism,where it presented an analytical approach to the ever-stretching class struggle between the peoplethat follow the system of capitalism. A spectre is haunting Europe the spectre of Communism.

All the powers of old Europe have entered into a holy alliance to exorcise this spectre: Pope and Tsar, Metternich and Guiznot, French Radicals and German police-spies . This is the beginningto one of the most influential political documents in history, and in this document they presentedan opportunity to present a few basic points as to what communism (and its practices) are about

these are mentioned below:

Communism Round 1

The first point that these two men make is that all of history amounts to one thing: a large classstruggle. This meant that there are always the rich and there are always the well-to-do and thereare always the poor in society this amounts to the fact that history has always been about thosewho are more well-off beating upon the poor.

Communism Round 2

The second point mentioned within the Manifesto is the conditions of the working class. It statesthat the conditions for the working class were overall less than desirable the workers werepoor, hungry, abused, and were not happy with their daily routines. It is mentioned: Not onlyare they slaves of the bourgeoisie class, and of the bourgeoisie states; they are daily and hourly

enslaved by the machine, by the over-looker, and, above all, by the individuals bourgeoisiemanufacturer himself. (Marx and Engels, The Communist Manifesto )2.

1 Information Paired From Wikipedia http://www.en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Communism 2 Excerpt of Original Text can be found here - http://www.anu.edu.au/polsci/marx/classics/manifesto.html
http://www.en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Communismhttp://www.en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Communismhttp://www.en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Communismhttp://www.anu.edu.au/polsci/marx/classics/manifesto.htmlhttp://www.anu.edu.au/polsci/marx/classics/manifesto.htmlhttp://www.anu.edu.au/polsci/marx/classics/manifesto.htmlhttp://www.anu.edu.au/polsci/marx/classics/manifesto.htmlhttp://www.en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Communism


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Communism Round 3

The third point raised within this work is that the Capitalist state is the arm or an extensionof the bourgeoisie. This statement essentially elaborates on one that has been aforementioned inregards to the Capitalists states caring more for the well-off than for those in the society who arepoor.

Communism Round 4

Marx and Engels mention that these members of society including the members of the workingclass are putti ng themselves in harms way, and are making them readily available for combat.

Communism Round 5

Marx and Engels wanted a world including their solutions where the government would bededicated in helping the workers and helping the poor; therefore making the government anarm or an extension of the proletariat and not an arm of the bourgeoisie. Also stated were theideas that all private property would be eliminated and the workers would be the ones who andthe factories and controlled the production within these factories; looking ahead: the short-termeffects of these ideals would lead to failure, due to the evolutions of 1848.

Another idea drafted by Karl Marx was Das Kapital, which was an idea based off of surplusvalue meaning that the worker would not be paid in full ( Example: A worker worksapproximately ten hours and receives compensation for only six of these hours) and the employerwould then take the surplus of this payment for personal gain and enrichment. Following this,Marx and Engels created the International Working Mens Association (also titled the SocialistFirst International).


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Question 62 The Atlantic Migration A Description, Causes, andConsequences; In Accordance to Palmer, Colton, and Kramer

Migration from Europe: 1850-1940

During the same period in which cities were growing, almost 60 million people left Europealtogether, of whom possibly a fifth sooner or later returned. The Atlantic Migration aptly socalled, because all crossed the ocean except those who moved from European to Asian Russia towers above all others in magnitude, and possibly also in significance, for it was by this meansthat earlier colonial off-shoots of Europe were transformed into new societies that carried thevery strong influence of European political, social, religious, and cultural traditions. Below is achart that depicts the migrations from Europe occurring within the time span of 1850-1940:

Emigration From Europe, 1850-1940 3 From: British Isles 18,300,000

Italy 10,200,000

Russia 9,000,000Germany 5,000,000Spain 4,500,000Austria-Hungary 4,200,000Portugal 2,500,000Sweden 1,200,000Norway 750,000Denmark 470,000Finland 390,000France 390,000Switzerland 340,000Netherlands 210,000Belgium 150,000

The table above does not represent the real data amount where as the data mount isapproximated, since in the statistical sources the English, Scots, Welsh, and Irish are mixed, anduntil the First World War, that is until 1914, the Poles, Czechs, and other Slavic peoples,Hungarians, East European Jews, and others were not counted as such but were included amongemigrants from the Russia, Austro-Hungarian, and German empires. The British and the Irishwent to the British dominions and the United States. The Italians divided between the UnitedStates and Latin America. Spaniards settler overwhelmingly in the Spanish American republics,and the Portuguese settled in Brazil. The Germans moved overwhelmingly to the United States,though some went to Argen tina and Brazil states Palmer, Colton, and Kramer. The newcountries received the following amount of inhabitants:

3 A History of the Modern World, Page 570 EMIGRATION FROM EUROPE, 1850 -1940


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Immigration Into Various Countries, 1850-1940 4 To: United States 32,300,000

Asian Russia 7,000,000Argentina 6,600,000Brazil 4,700,000

Canada 4,300,000Australia 2,900,000New Zealand 650,000Uruguay 600,000Cuba 600,000South Africa 250,000Mexico 250,000

Causes of The Atlantic Migration

The Atlantic Migration otherwise described as an exodus by Palmer, Colton, and Kramer; hadmany causes. The first cause was that before the year 1914, the new countries welcomesimmigration. Hands were wanted to farm the land, build houses, dig in the mines and etc. andthis was especially true of Australia and New Zealand, which preferred to limit themselves toEnglish-speaking settlers and which also pioneered as social democracies. In Europe there weremany conditions which were propelling emigrants ou tward. Physically, continued Palmer,Colton, and Kramer, the steamship made it easier and cheaper to cross the sea, and the railroadhelped people to get to the ports as well as to distribute themselves after landing in the newcountries. Economically, people in the mass could for the first time afford a long journey. Peoplemigrated to improve their material circumstances; but some high points in the wave of

emigration coincided with high points in the business cycle in Europe, when jobs in Europe wereplentiful and wages were at their highest.

Freedom of Movement

However, but perhaps the most basic in the whole European exodus was the underlyingliberalism of the age: Never before (nor since) had people been legally so free to move. Old lawsrequiring skilled workmen to stay in their own countries were repealed, as in England in 1824 says Palmer, Colton, and Kramer. The old semi-communal agricultural villages, with collectiverights and obligations, holding individuals to their native groups, fell into disuse except inRussia. The disappearance of serfdom allowed the peasants of Eastern Europe to changeresidences without obtaining a Lords permission.

The mass migration of the late 19 th century thus launched a worldwide movement of people thatcontinues to the present day, grows in importance, and remains one of the most characteristicsocial patterns of the modern world.

4 A History of the Modern World, Page 571 IMMIGRATION INTO VARIOUS COUNTRIES, 1850 -1940


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Question 63 A Description of the Failure of the French July Monarch

A Brief Overview of 19 th Century European Politics

In orde r to understand how the July Monarch came into power and was instated, one must first

learn the background information that was instated prior to the Monarch and this is where 19th

Century European Politics enters the discussion. When you think of politics in the 19 th century,one must think of enormous change starting with the Industrial Revolution. Another changeincluded was the slow decay of the Age of Kings across most of Europe so, that by the year1900, Europe had become a more Democratic nation and Kings had either been appointed forceremonial purposes, or their powers were greatly reduced (in most countries), and as a result,more people were allowed to vote 5. In 1815, the Napoleonic Wars came to an end and theCongress of Vienna was led by Metternich who, which was his goal for the Congress of Vienna, was to restore the balance of power in Europe including the restoration of the oldways in France. In addition, Metternich sought to stem the tide of Liberalism 6.

Entering the July Monarchy

The Revolution of 1830 led to a new regime, known as the July Monarchy because of the monthof its birth. It was headed by Louis Philippe of the house of Orlans, who ruled from 1830 to1848. His supporters in the Orlanist Party were largely drawn from the notable class of wealthylandowners and businessmen. The Orlanists were prepared to endorse the political heritage of 1789 to the extent that they broke with the idea of divine-right monarchy and waved the three-color flag created in the early 1790s. But they did not endorse popular democracy.

The Orlanist regime was challenged on the left by radical republicans and on the right byformer ultraroyalists, but it was devoted to maintaining political and social stability. It did sowith brute force, as when it put down revolts of the Lyonnais weavers in 1831 and 1834.

Although not marked by great new initiatives, the July Monarchy did pass a law in 1833 layingthe foundation for a national system of primary schools. The sponsor of this measure, FranoisGuizot, a Protestant, became chief minister in 1840, lending a slight anticlerical cast to theregime.

Problems Begin to Form 7

Under the July Monarchy, the social problems arising out of the Industrial Revolution becamematters of increasing debate. The regime itself, however, tended to a laissez-faire, or hands-off,policy and did little to solve social problems. Flicit de Lamennais, a philosopher who laterbecame a priest, led an ultimately unsuccessful campaign to interest the pope in the cause of social reform. The left developed a number of sweeping plans of reform to save humanity fromthe perils of modern industrial society. Among the more grandiose were the plans of CharlesFourier and those of the followers of Saint-Simon. Fourier wanted to replace modern cities withutopian communities, and the Saint-Simonians advocated directing the economy by manipulatingcredit. Although few of these programs had much support, they did expand the political and

5 By the end of World War One, in most Western European countries, men and women had the right to vote6 Liberal beliefs revolve around civil liberties (Freedom of the Press, and etc.)7 France. Microsoft Student 2007 [DVD]. Adams, William James, Jordan-Bychkov, Terry G., and Kaiser


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social imagination of their contemporaries, including a German-born exile in Paris named KarlMarx.

They also increased dissatisfaction with the bland policies of the July Monarchy, and in 1848 theregime was overthrown. An economic recession in 1846 and 1847 had already spread discontentin the population. Then in February 1848 opponents of the regime provoked it into ordering acrackdown on dissent. The government failed to master the situation, and crowds in Paris droveout the king. Louis Philippe abdicated on February 24. A new republic was declared, aprovisional government was organized, and the call went out for fresh elections. France was onceagain in revolution.


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Question 64 The Importance of the Year 1848, With Respects toEuropean History

1848: Starting with France

France: From the July Monarchy to 1848

In the 19 th Century, the French political system was much like the systems of other Europeannations there was the instating of education, laws, pensions, and more and many of theseluxuries aroused from Britain. What differed France from Britain, however, was the manner inwhich items on the agenda were achieved; this being that France experienced tremendousviolence. The events that occurred in 1848 were similar to those in 1789: There was theoverthrowing of the government, unrest, inauguration, and the taking of power from a sole,strong power in this case, this man was Napoleon Bonaparte. Louis-Philippe was removedfrom power (due to the fact that it was believe he was not tending to the needs of the people) andbecause t he French people were beginning to call Louis monarchy the Bourgeoisie Monarchy,

since he was tending more towards the well-to-do instead of the lesser-well-off in the society.Much like the events of the Storming of the Bastille, on February 22 nd , 1848, protestors took tothe streets radicals, socialists, liberals demanding voting rights and civil liberties. Inresponse, Louis-Philippe took a familiar course of action that was [previously] taken byNapoleon Bonaparte by firing into the crowds of protestors. Unlike the outcome of the actions of Napoleon, in response more protestors took to the streets leaving Louis-Philippe with no optionbut to flee the nation of France in fear for his personal safety. Following these events, the SecondFrench Republic was established who took decisive action by instating universal male suffrage(meaning men had the right to vote 8 and the abolishing of slavery.

An Empire on the Brink Austria

Austria was a large empire in central Europe by the Hapsburg family that seemed powerful andprosperous in the 19 th century. It was the second most populous nation in Europe; it contained alarge and strong military force, and they were ruled by an (overall) steady family theHapsburgs. Austria had control over much of Italy specifically Lombardy and Venetia and theyhad indirect control over the Papal States. The Austrian Empire was very diverse, as seen by thefollowing statistics:

Germans (35%) 9 Magyars (23%) 10 The Slavs that existed in the nation were consisted of the Czechs, Croats, and the Serbs

Due to its diversity in culture and population, the reason that this nation was held together(figuratively speaking) was due to its tradition of the German Middle Class and the existence of Catholicism. In 1848 Austria began to take note of the situations in France and people in thenation (and others part of the Empire) began to mimic the actions of the French by protesting inthe streets during the events that were known as the March Days and all were demanding forms

8 However, exceptions still did exist to this rule9 Denotes a 35% portion of the population10 Denotes a 23% portion of the population


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of change throughout the Empire. In Prague, Slavic people demanded independence fromAustria. In Hungary, Louis Kossuth 11 advocated for independence and stated that the peoplemust break free from Austrian rule. Violence also occurred in Italy when Sardinia invadedLombardy and Venetia because the kingdom of Sardinia was the only Italian-ruled territory leftin Italy and the mindset of the invasion was to tactically invade while Austria was pre-occupied

with other quarrels. All of these events begin to slowly tear apart the Austrian Empire.The year 1848 would turn out to be one filled with bloodshed, revolution, and unification of anation or, in some cases many nations.

11 A Hungarian Nationalist


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Question 65 The Accomplishments and Failures of Napoleon III

Forward: Napoleons Final Years

Before the dawn of the new power in France Napoleon III, there was still the existence of the

ruler Napoleon Bonaparte, who proved to be a powerful adversary to other European nationswell up until the time of his death. Even in exile, Bonaparte did not give up and escaped with thehelp of a few contacts: With the help of only a few men, Napoleon managed to escape from exileand returned to the coast of France and proceeded to organize a military in hopes of some formof support some accounts call for a number that approximates to around 350,000 men.Subsequent to a standoff with the current king of France at the time, Louis XVIII, Napoleon wasagain arrested and placed under exile on the island of St.Helena where he later died.

After Napoleon Bonaparte: Napoleon III

After the death of Napoleon Bonaparte, in 1851, his nephew Louis-Napoleon III would takepower and come the transfer of power came the central word for France: Change.Once Louis Philippe was ousted in 1848, Louis Napoleon renewed his quest by offering himself as a candidate for the presidency of the new French republic. To the astonishment of politicalveterans, he won in a landslide. His triumph was diminished, however, by a Royalist victory inthe legislative elections in 1849 and by the constitution's limiting him to one four-year term. Heresolved that dilemma by a coup d'tat on December 2, 1851, assuming dictatorial powers andextending his term of office to ten years. Despite continued pockets of opposition, clear evidenceof widespread popular support encouraged him a year later to convert the Second Republic intothe Second Empire; because Napoleon I's son had been known to his followers as Napoleon II,Louis Napoleon took the title Napoleon III. Historians divide his reign into two periods. Thedictatorship persisted until 1860. During the dictatorship, Napoleon limited the freedom of thepress and the freedom of intellectual thought; he censored newspapers and exiled many writers,including Victor Hugo, banning their works. During this period, opposition began to mount andNapoleon was forced to limit his powers. After 1860, Louis Napoleon began a series of liberalreforms that culminated in a limited monarchy, the Liberal Empire, on January 2, 1870. Thisliberalization was marked by labor legislation, a movement toward free trade, and a revival of opposition parties. In 1868 he granted freedom of assembly and loosened restrictions on thepress. Napoleon also greatly extended the French railways and tried to improve the conditions of poor people. Perhaps Napoleon III's most durable work was the reconstruction of Paris, overseenby urban planner Baron Haussmann.

A Success Short-Lived 12

His successes, however, were overshadowed by a foreign policy that was too often idealistic,blinding the emperor to real dangers to French security. From 1854 to 1856 France joinedEngland, the Ottoman Empire, and the kingdom of Sardinia in the Crimean War fighting againstRussian advancement. In 1859 France went to war again with the kingdom of Sardinia in orderto oust Austria from Italy. Although France received Nice and Savoy in 1860 because of itsefforts, French intervention created other problems. The war was a costly one, and Napoleon hadnot foreseen the possibility that Italy would unite in 1861, creating another European power with

12 Excerpts Taken From: Napoleon III. Microsoft Student 2007 [DVD] . Williams, Roger L.


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which France must contend. In 1863 Napoleon encouraged Maximilian, the archduke of Austria,to become emperor of Mexico. Angered by French intervention, the United States demanded thatthe French leave. However, Maximilian did not leave and was killed by the Mexicangovernment. The threat from Prussia, in particular, was perceived too late and caught the Frenchunprepared in every respect when war came in 1870. Swift defeat in the field led to Napoleon's

capture, and his regime was overthrown in Paris on September 4, 1870. He died in exile atChislehurst, England.


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Question 66 The Austrian Empire and Ethnic Nationalism

The Age of Nationalism 13

Nationalism became more prevalent in Europe and around the world after 1848. The supremacy

of the nation-state was gaining ground in organizing the political, social, economic, and culturalactivities of a group. Ethnic identities were central to the development of nationalism, whichshould not be confused with patriotism, or the level of support for a nation-state. Referring back to previous discussions, Louis Napoleon was the nephew of Napoleon (Napoleon I) who despitedefeat, exile, and death, was considered by the French to be one of their greatest leaders. LouisNapoleon was elected president of France by a landslide in 1848, largely because of hisillustrious name. Between 1852, when he had proclaimed a Second Empire, and 1870, afterFrances ignominio us defeat in the Franco-Prussian War, he had restored the economy, laid thefoundations for democratic reforms, and renewed the national pride of the French people.

The Austrian Empire in 1848 14

The Austrian Empire of the Hapsburgs, with its capital of Vienna, was in 1848 the mostpopulous European state with the exception of Russia. Its inhabitants were of about a dozenrecognizably different nationalities or language groups Germans, Czechs, Magyars, Poles,Ruthenians, Slovaks, Serbs, Croats, Slovenes, Dalmatians, Romanians, and Italians. In someparts of Austria these nationalities lived in groups, however in many regions two or more of these groups were together with many changes to languages in households.

Out of all of these language groups, the Germans were the most numerous and they occupied allof Austria and many parts of Bohemia they could also be found throughout parts of Hungary.The Czechs occupied Bohemia and Moravia, and the Magyars resided in Hungary. The Czechs,Poles, Ruthenians, Slovaks, Croats, Slovenes, and Dalmatians in the empire were all Slavic

people; with reason being that their languages were respectively related to some forms of Russian.

These groups had all felt the effects of the Volksgeist , cultural nationalism; and the Germans,Italians, Poles, and Hungarians there was a great deal of political agitation and reforms wereafoot. The problem that was faced was the unification of these groups to one governmentalsystem and the obstacles were the beliefs and the existence of such things as Liberalism,Constitutionalism, Nationalism, and most importantly: democracy .

The March Days and the Fall of the Austrian System

In the brief span of the events commonly known as the March Days the political structure

based upon Vienna was now in pieces and the Austrian Empire had fallen into its maincomponents: Prussia had cautioned revolutionaries, Germany was preparing for unification, andwar manifested in Italy. There were demands of a liberal government and national freedom written constitutions, representative assemblies, responsible ministries, the extension of suffrage,restrictions upon police action, jury trial, civil liberty, and freedom of the press and assembly 15.

13 Excerpts Taken From BARRONS AP EUROPEAN HISTORY. [2009]. Eder, James M; Roberts, Seth A 14 A History of the Modern World pp. 490-492. Palmer, Colton, and Kramer15 Stated in A History of the Modern World pp. 492, 3. Palmer, Colton, and Kramer


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Following the upheaval of nationalism n 1848, the Hapsburgs had reasserted their imperialauthority over Czech nationalists in Prague, Magyars in Hungary, Italian patriots in north Italy,and liberal revolutionists in Vienna itself. Methods would be concluded by a discourse of theliberation of Italy from Austrian influence by war between powers.


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Question 67 How and Why Alexander II Changed Russia

Tsarist Russia in the 19 th Century

While other nations were ahead, in the 19 th Century Russia was behind in developments. It was

an autocratic nation who was ruled by tsars that ruled with (what seemed like) limitless power:Reforms were non-existent; there was no parliament, no welfare state, or any other benefits thatother nations such as Britain had instated. Since 1825, Tsar Nicholas I instated a politicalpol ice force called the Third Section that would enforce Nicholas policy to oppose anyreforms, and with the enforcement of these harsh rules, there would soon come a pressure for amuch-needed wave of change.

Pressures for Reform

In Russia, there were pressures to reform the nation and to modernize it with the rest of Europe specifically, three pressured existed:

Agriculture The Crimean War Intellectuals

Source 1: Russian Agriculture

Farms in Russia were extremely unproductive and the farmers that were tending to their land andto their crops were using old tools and old techniques. With the remnants of old techniques especially in agriculture this means that the nation (specifically Russia) will not get ahead.

Source 2: The Crimean War 16

Fought from 1853-1856, the Crimean War was a battle fought between France and Englandversus Russia. The cause of the war was the wanting of Russia to take over some principalitiesthat were located to the west of the Black Sea, and in addition, were looking to claim the straitsof Constantinople: if the Russians controlled these straits, this would mean you would haveaccess to the Mediterranean (and, therefore, better access to trade). Adding to the need forwarfare, the Russians were also unhappy with the treatment of the Orthodox clergy in Jerusalemand felt that it was their duty to protect these groups. At the conclusion of the battle the outcomewas far from desired: Russia had been defeated and took alongside them 500,000 casualties 17 anda blockade was placed upon them and the Black Sea (located directly near Russia) by theBritish.

Source 3: Russian Intellectuals

Existing in Russia were many famous writers that, alongside them, compiled many famouswritings and books that were considered to be some of the best. All of the intellectuals haddifferent ideas, but, collectively, were critical of the power of tsars specifically the power of the Romanov family and desired change. Despite one common interest, there were

16 One should note that the failure for Russia to succeed in battle is what, also, drove change17 This number is approximated


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disagreements amongst the intellectuals which divided them up into different groups: TheSlavophiles and the Westernizers. Slavophiles encouraged the Slav way and the Westernizerswere in favor of most western practices. Also existing was a group called the Nihilists;specifically a man named Nikolay Chernyshevsky Nihilists wanted to do away with theRussian political system and believed that there were no need for Russian laws and government

(or anything that the Romanov family represented, for that matter).Enter Tsar Alexander II

The ruler of Russia from 1855-1881, Tsar Alexander II realized that the time for change inRussia had arrived. On April 5 th, 1861; Alexander II abolished serfdom and freed 22,000,000Russian peasants and he also created two political institutions called the Zemstvos and theDumas. The Zemstvos were local governments that were created for the rural areas and theDumas were focused more towards the urban or city areas. Zemstvos would elect delegates thatserved on assemblies and the Dumas had limited the control over taxes. In addition, Alexandersought to modernize the Russian army by supplying them with better equipment and morerefined training tactics and this Russian influence could be seen all throughout Siberia.


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Question 68 The Russo-Japanese War, the 1905 Bloody SundayMassacre, and the Connection to the Russian Revolution of 1905 18

The Russo-Japanese War

Introduction

The Russo-Japanese War was an armed conflict between Russia and Japan in 1904 and 1905 thatwas caused by the Russian expansion into Eastern Asia meanwhile Japans plans to gain afoothold into the Asian mainland. In 1898 Russia leased Port Arthur (now Lshun) from China,with the intention of making it a great Asiatic port and the headquarters of Russian naval powerin the Pacific. Russia had poured troops into Manchuria during the Boxer Uprising in 1900 but,faced with the Anglo-Japanese alliance of 1902, promised to leave Chinese territory. Following arefusal of an agreement proposed on behalf of Japan, the Japanese launched a surprise attack onPort Arthur and proceeded to blockade the damaged Russian fleet.

Early Battles

It was March of 1904 and the Japanese First Army landed at Chemulpo (now Inchn) and at Nampo . By late April, they came face-to-face with the Russians and the Commander in Chief (of the Russians, at the time) Aleksey Nikolayevich Kuropatkin made the decision to hold adefensive position on the Liaodong Peninsula until reinforcements had arrived to help him moveon the offensive towards the Japanese. Out-numbered four to one, the Japanese CommanderGeneral Tamemoto Tamesada Kuroki pushed through Yalu on May 1 st and cone consequenceswere far less for the Japanese than that of the Russians, as shown: Japanese casualties amountedto approximately 1,100 out of 40,000 men and the Russian losses far greater when placed into

perspective of the overall unit count 2,300 out of 7,000 men. Further battles resulted inWafangdian and amounted to another loss for the Russians, who, at the time of the current battle,had approximately 25,000 men. Between August 25 th and September 4 th, the Battle of Liaoyangwas fought amounting to yet another win for the Japanese and a loss for the Russians (despite theJapanese being outnumbered [130,000 troops versus the 180,000 Russian troops]).

Despite further efforts on both accounts, a final assault taking place on the river Sha He lastingfrom October 5 th to October 17 th, following another attack on January 26-27 th in 1905 led to astalemate, therefore, leading the war indecisive.

Results of the Russo-Japanese War

After Port Arthur and the defeats at Shenyang and Tsushima, mediation was offered by UnitedStates President Theodore Roosevelt. The Japanese and the Russians agreed to negotiate and onSeptember 5 th, 1905, the Treaty of Portsmouth was signed leaving Russia to surrender Liaoyangand Port Arthur, and Korea was to be reco gnized as the Japanese sphere of influence.

18 Excerpts Taken From: Russo -Japanese War. Microsoft Student 2007 [DVD]


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The 1905 Bloody Sunday Massacre 19

Introduction 20

The Bloody Sunday was a massacre of peaceful demonstrators by members of the RussianImperial Guard in Saint Petersburg on January 9 (or January 22, in the Western, or Gregorian,calendar), 1905, when some 200,000 workers gathered outside the Winter Palace, residence of Russian emperor Nicholas II. They intended to appeal directly to the emperor for better pay andconditions, following the failure of numerous organized strikes at the end of 1904. Thedemonstrators carried religious icons and pictures of Nicholas to show their peaceful intent. Theywere led by a priest, Georgy Apollonovich Gapon, who was also the leader of a workersorganization.

Nicholas was absent at the time, but his uncle, Grand Duke Vladimir, commander of the ImperialGuard, gave the order to fire on the crowd. More than 100 of the demonstrators were killed, andmany more were wounded. News of the massacre soon spread, provoking strikes in numerouscities, peasant uprisings in the countryside, and mutinies in the armed forces. This becameknown as the Russian Revolution of 1905.

In 1906 Nicholas attempted to appease the protesters by introducing Russias first electedlegislative assembly, the Duma. Mass opinion had, however, been radicalized by the massacreand ensuing violence. Socialist parties, workers, and peasants continued to agitate against theimperial regime, culminating in the overthrow of the monarchy in the Russian Revolution of 1917.

The Russo- Japanese War, Bloody Sunday, and Their Involvement with theRussian Revolution of 1905

Faced with the growing unrest of the working class, Tsar Nicholas II commissioned a RussianOrthodox priest, Father Gapon, to organize a conservative union to counteract the radicalMarxists. Horrified by the conditions in St.Petersburg, Gapon led a peaceful protest march of tens of thousands of workers and their families on January 22 nd, 1905. Following these events,troops fired into the crowd of protestors killing hundreds. Bloody Sunday in Russiaprovoked strikes, peasant uprisings, and the formatio n of workers revolutionary councils theSoviets.

19 Excerpts Taken From: Bloody Sunday (Russia). Microsoft Student 2007 [DVD]20 Compiled and Edited from Original Article: Los Angeles Times , January 23 rd, 1905


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Question 69 How the 19 th Century Italian Nationalist Leaders Brought Unity to Italy

The Triumph of Nationalism: Italy

The Kingdom of Sardinia was the most prosperous kingdom and it would soon become thecenter of operations, figuratively speaking, for the Italian nation however, unity wasblocking this achievement and many factors contributed to a non-unified Italy: a) There was nohistory of unity 21; b) Disagreements existed between the Northern and Southern parts of theregion the Northern section was well-educated and well-industrious, and the South section wasless educated, more rural, and more agricultural); c) Venetia and Lombardy lied under Hapsburgcontrol; d) Drawbacks from the Catholic Church specifically the Papal States; e) Conflictbetween the Liberals and the Conservatives (Liberals favored change, while Conservativesfavored rule under the King, Queen, and the Church).

Leaders of Unification

Despite problems, some were determined to fix the non-existence of a unified Italy theseleaders were as follows:

Giuseppe Mazzini Camillo Di Cavour Giuseppe Garibaldi

Giuseppe Mazzini

Sometimes referred to as the soul of Italian Nationalism, Mazzini was a writer who published a

work titled Duties of Man in which he stated that the love of ones country was equal to that of ones family, or for the love of God. He was the creator of th e Young Italy Society 22 and hemade many efforts to unify Italy in the 1830s and in the 1840s. However, his efforts weredefeated.

Camillo Di Cavour

A believer in the Realpolitik, Cavour was a realistic nationalist essentially meaning that hewas a person who believed in accomplishing tasks and also encouraging others to do the same.He also founded a newspaper titled il Risorgimento 23 and all interested in Italian Nationalismwas a reader of this newspaper. After numerous revolutions in Italy occurring in 1848, Camillodeveloped a plan for Italy stating that the nation needed to learn from its mistakes. In 1852,

after being appointed the Prime Minster of Sardinia, Camillo developed a plan that would bedeveloped into multiple parts:

21 However, one could argue that Rome was evidence of the first unified Italy 22 A movement designed to encourage the youth (needed to be under the age of 40 to join)23 Meaning The Resurgence


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Part 1

The first part of Camillos plan, called for the construction of better schools, the building of railroads (for the purpose of closing the distance gap between peoples and areas), and bylowering tariffs in efforts to centralize the Italian economy.

Part 2

Part two encouraged secularization which taxed the church and reduced the number of holdays.This reduced the churchs influence on the state, since, in the mind of Camillo, the church wasthe enemy. Despite angering Catholics, Camillo sought this sacr ifice to be essential.

Part 3 24

The third part in the program called for the modernization of Piedmont -Sardinias army, to thebreech-loaded rifle. The breech-loaded rife achieved the opposite effect as the muzzle-loadingrifle, by instead of loading the cartridge through the front of the barrel; loading it through therear of the barrel. The advantage to such technology is a reduction in loading time, and whenreloading the weapon, soldiers are not exposed to enemy fire (when this technology was used inhowitzers), nor did it require the soldier to reposition the piece.

Breech-loading weapons were developed as far back as the late 14 th century in Burgundy;however, they were successful when perfected through precision engineering and machining inthe late 19 th century.

Part 4

The Crimean War: fighting against Russian advancement. In 1859 France went to war again withthe kingdom of Sardinia in order to oust Austria from Italy. Although France received Nice andSavoy in 1860 because of its efforts, French intervention created other problems. The war was acostly one, and Napoleon had not foreseen the possibility that Italy would unite in 1861, creatinganother European power with which France must contend. In 1863 Napoleon encouragedMaximilian, the archduke of Austria, to become emperor of Mexico.

Part 5

The Italian alliance with France against Austria, called the 1859 Plombieres Agreement.

Part 6

When Italy and France go to war with Austria (France was involved for the aide of Italy).

Part 7 Following the defeat of the Austrians, the 1860 Treaty of Turin proclaimed that Piedmont-Sardinia gained the Lombardy, Tuscany, Modena, Parma, and Bologna.

24 References From: Breech -Loading Weapon, Wikipedia the Free Encyclopedia


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Giuseppe Garibaldi

Garibaldi was a soldier during the time of the Italian unification efforts. Leading a group knownas the Red Shirts 25 he led 1,000 Red Shirts and managed to take Sicily. As a result of thetaking of Sicily, the Papal States realized that the momentum was now favoring the side of Italian unification, and decided to join in the effort. Following these events; in 1861 Italyproclaimed Victor Emmanuel II as the King of Italy (he was formerly the King of Sardinia) andby this time [1861] most of Northern Italy with the exception of Venetia, most of SouthernItaly, and the Papal States, were united. The addition of Venetia would not come until 1861,when Austria was at war with Prussia: While Prussia was distracted when fighting Austria; theItalians took Venetia in 1866. In 1870, the French who were protecting the Pope in Rome were called off to help fight against the Prussians. When the French moved in, some Italiansmoved out to go and take Rome after taking Rome in 1870, Italy was completely unified 26.

25 Called the Red Shirts due to their wearing o f red shirts26 The Vatican was an exception, since the Pope opposed Nationalism (for a short period of time, however)


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Question 70 The Importance of Otto Von Bismarck

Germanys Iron Chancellor

A new chapter began for Germany begins with the successor to Fredrick William King

William I. After being appointed King, William I appointed a man named Otto Von Bismarck asthe Prussian Prime Minister. Overall, Bismarck had four main accomplishments:

1. Strong Military2. Defeated Austria3. Destroyed France4. Unified Germany

A Lutheran, Bismarck was a follower of realpolitik (the belief in practical politics, rather than inideological politics) and he was known to make sacrifices in order to get things accomplished and, believed in also fighting to getting things accomplished. Bismarck had his own program,so-to-speak, for German unification:

Step 1

The first step was focused primarily on building up the Prussia army , by doing thefollowing: instituting the universal draft; require elementary education; create military academiesand by using things such as war plans; creating railroads and using the electric telegraph;instating the breech- loading rifle and the Prussian needle gunners; and instating thecommander of the military to be General Helmuth von Moltke.

Step 2

The second step was to obtain two territories south of Denmark and north of Prussia, by going

to war with Denmark and Austria . In 1864, Bismarck achieved victory over Denmark with thehelp of Austria and after obtaining these two territories Schleswig and Holstein there wereimmediate debates between Germany and Austria as to who gets control over the two territories.To solve the dispute, in 1866 they went to war starting what was known as the Seven WeeksWar, in which the Prussians emerged as the victor, being the next German power.

Step 3

Third, was the creation of the North German Federation and, after signing the Treaty of Prague in 1866, Austria was removed from the German Confederation. Following these events,the German Confederation created two houses: The Upper House (The Bundesrat) and the LowerHouse (The Reichstag).

Step 4

The forth step was to go to war with France . Bismarck wanted German unity and he wantedPrussia to be a leader of the Confederation and he needs people to recognize Prussia as themaster of Germany. He decided that the final piece to accomplishing such a feat was the victoryover France in order for Germany to have a sense of pride within the nation. Bismarck neededprobable cause to go to war with the French, and it came to him when the Spanish throne in the


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late 1860s was left without a king and the Spanish decided that their empire was declining andthey asked a member of the Prussian Royal Family to become a king of Spain, since it was of rising power. Bismarck saw an opportunity in this offer, and since he is the Prime Minister of Prussia he had a cousin whose name was Leopold, which is whom the Spanish offered the throneto. He declined and this was because the French said they would be upset if they took the offer

they protested, and they cared because they wanted a balance of power (France and Germanydont get along). More protests went on three times this went on - and three times the Prussiansdidnt wish to anger the French in the spirit of diplomacy, and Bismarck was enraged because heknew if they went to war, he could create a large German nation and he needed a plan. Heconvinced the Prussian royal family to ask one more time, and they did this time the royalfamily accepted the offer of the throne for France. Once again, the French were protesting andthey decided that they were going to send an ambassador to meet with the Prussian king to havea private talk and the ambassador was named Vincent Benedetti to see William I at a resort. TheFrench told William that they needed to turn down the offer and he then said that he would turndown his offer, and the French ambassador said that you are not only going to turn this down, butyou won t accept any offer from the Spanish. With these remarks, Bismarck sent a telegram

called the Ems Telegram and he broadcasted French demands, and this will get the Prussiansenraged since the French were telling the Prussians what to do.

They went to war and it began in July of 1870, which was quickly solved and Prussia named, andthe French were forced to sign the 1871 Treaty of Frankfurt and Germany took Alsace andLorraine and the French were forced to pay 5 billion gold francs. The German princes agreed torecognize King William I of Prussia as Emperor William I of Germany of a united Germany.


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Question 71 The Change of the Intellectual, Scientific, and ArtisticEurope During the Late 19 th and 20 th Centuries

The European Intellectual and Artistic World

Generally speaking, 19th

century European art and thought distanced itself from theEnlightenment (which represented reason, logic, and tolerance). After experiences from WorldWar One (WWI), Europeans began to question the value of reason, logic, and those that they hadsuch held dear.

European Art

The birth of modern art was thought to stem from Europe, since these artistic styles went againstnormal artistic traditions by the creation of new tools, and techniques. Impressionism whichwas the practice of capturing a moment of ordinary an everyday scenes that were not religious,was featured here and used light and many styles and different dabs of paint to conveymovement. Expressionism also can be thought of as distorted reality uses dramatic colormixes to express deep emotions. Good examples of European art during the 19 th and 20 th centuries come from the following artists and their paintings (please note, these are only a fewexamples of some of the many artists during the 19 th and 20 th century):

Pierre-Auguste Renoir Renoirs Luncheon of the Boating Party 27 Claude Monet Water Lilies 28 Manet Luncheon on the Grass 29

European Thought

Two men in particular were known for European thought and intellect and they represented themain ideals passed around during this time: Friedrich Nietzsche and Sigmund Freud. FriedrichNietzsche was a Prussian critic of the Enlightenment and he was an Atheist that believed in theneed for a heroic superman. He believed that Europeans of the 19 th century were enslaved tothe values of Christianity and to the Enlightenment and also believed that these values werethose of the weak. Selected quotes from Friedrich are presented herein: Not mankind, but

superman is the goal ; What is good, to be brave is good What is bad? All that comes fromweakness. ; Everything in woman is a riddle, and everything in woman hath one answer: itsname is child rearing Man is for woman a means; the end is always the child. Nietzsche saidif a man was in love he should not be able to decide if the wife or girlfriend has a child or not,and this is because it may make the man too attached and he is afraid that they will developweaknesses; and he is not fond of weakness. Nietzsche wanted the strong to stay with the strongand the intelligent to stay with their respective type!

Living in Vienna, Sigmund Freud specialized in studying the unconscious mind through themeans of psychoanalysis (the study of dreams) and in the year 1900, Freud published a work

27 Refer to Figure 128 Refer to Figure 229 Refer to Figure 3


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titled The Interpretation of Dreams . Like Nietzsche, Freud wanted to move beyond theEnlightenment and he believed that if you wanted to understand people, you must understandwhat goes on in their unconscious mind the illogical. He stated that there were three parts tothe human psyche:

Id The inborn sexual/aggressive side. Freud argued that when you dream, your id isportrayed

Ego Your Conscious mind/reason Superego This, he stated, permitted your ego to control your id this was the wisdom

of the ages

The European Scientific World

When discussing science, one needs to keep in mind the name Charles Darwin. Born inShrewsbury, England; and chastised by his father for his hobbies, Darwin would go on to lead a

seemingly unproductive life until the creation of his few works in a span of a few years. Darwindeveloped his ideas after reading an essay titled Essay on the Principle of Population (1798)which raised a key question of who would survive when the population became to immense andthere were just not enough resources to go around for every person. After reading Malthus,Darwin developed his central idea known as the Theory of Evolution 30 in which he stated that inthe state of nature there was an ongoing war in which some will survive, and some will not.Those who would die, Darwin argued, were the weak and the strong (those who survived) wouldpass their traits to their children: This be came known as Darwins Theory of Natural Selection .Following this, Darwin wrote a 240 page essay in 1844 and then ceased writings forapproximately 15 years, for the fact that Darwin feared chastisement from the people in hiscommunity (for his ideals). In fact, he spent years writing about barnacles and after pursuing

this subject for about 8 years was known to have said: I hate barnacles as no man ever did before. It was not until 1859 when Darwin began his normal course of writings when hewrote On the Origins of Species by Means of Natural Selection otherwise known as ThePreservation of Favoured Races in the Struggle for Life . Following these writings, Darwinreceived criticism from the editor of a newspaper called The Quarterly Review, sug gesting thatDarwin instead write a book about pigeons. In 1871 Darwin wrote Descent of Man and in 1881he wrote The Formation of Vegetable Mould through the Actions of Worms . He later died in1882, where he was buried in Westminster Abbey next to Isaac Newton.

Albert Einstein

A towering figure of science in the 19 th and 20 th century, Albert Einstein was a German scientist

that left Germany in the 1930s due to the Holocaust and the anti-Semitism from the Nazi party.During his youth, Einstein was not a stellar student and spent many years working at a Swisspatent office, after being rejected for positions at a high school and a college. Well before the1900s, peoples view on the atom was that it made up matter and that they were hard, staticsubstances. However, in the late 1800s and early 1900s, a group of scientists would begin torevolutionize how people thought of matter and the atom. These scientists included Maria Curie,

30 Darwin did not use the term Evolution until the 6 th edition of his work


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Ernest Rutherford, and Niels Bohr: all made significant contributions to the study of the atom.General conclusions about the atom stated that the atom was in fact not a hard substance and itwas in fact a changing substance (and not static , as otherwise believed) and they could emitenormous amounts of energy.

Referring back to Albert Einstein, he published two important papers: The first was in 1905 titledSpecial Theory of Relativity , in which he coined his famous formula E=MC 2; and the secondwere in 1917 titled General Theory of Relativity in which Einstein stated that space and time arerelative, particularly to things that approach the speed of light.

Edwin Hubble

Another notable inventor was named Edward Hubble, who invented the famous HubbleTelescope that has the capability of photographing deep space. From his experiments and views,Hubble concluded that the universe is expanding rapidly and that the Milky Way Galaxy is justone out of billions.

Other notable figures in the European scientific world are Louis Pasteur (Who founded theGerm Theory and Pasteurization ); Joseph Lister (Discovered the disinfecting qualities of carbolic acid); Wilhelm Rontgen (Founded the X-Ray ); and Robert Kotch (Discovered theTuberculosis Germ )

All of these case studies, experiments, inventions, and other things of the sort; were to disturb thefoundation of European society. Scientists like Albert Einstein and Charles Darwin had nointention of misleading, or confusing, the public however, their ideals had (unintentionally)done just that, and it placed doubt into the minds of Europeans.


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Question 72 Threats to Organized Religion and the Response fromCatholics and the Church, In Accordance to Palmer, Colton, and Kramer

The Churches and the Modern Age 31

Religion was more threatened after 1860 or 1870 than ever before in the past, because neverbefore had science, or philosophies drawing upon science, addressed themselves so directly tothe nature of life and of human existence. Never before had so many of the fundamentalpremises of traditional rel igion been questioned or denied. Darwins theories of Evolutionchallenged the value of Christian ethics as well as the traditional picture of Creation, andanthropologists questioned the uniqueness of the most sacred Christian tenants. A form of critical, textual analysis, going back at least to the seventeenth century, now took on significantproportions and was applied both to the Old Testament and the New Testament. The Germantheologian David Friedrich Strauss, one such critical scholar, was the author of a widelydiscussed Life of Jesus , in which many miraculous and supernatural episodes were reverently butfirmly explained away as myth. The sensitive French historian and man of letters Ernest Renan

in a somewhat similar vein wrote on Jesus and the origins of Christianity and on the life of ancient Israel, giving secular explanations for the oldest religious stories and beliefs.

Challenges to Protestantism

The Prot estant churches were less successful than the Catholic in protecting their membershipfrom the disintegrating effects of the age, says Palmer, Colton, and Kramer. Church attendanceamong Protestants became increasingly casual, and the doctrines set forth in sermons seemedincreasingly remote. Protestants traditionally trusted their own private judgment and regardedtheir clergy as their own agents, not as authoritative teachers placed above them. Protestants hadalways set special emphasis on the Bible as the source of religious belief; and as doubtsaccumulated on the literal truth of Biblical narratives there seemed no other authoritative sourceon which to rely.

Protestants tended to divide between modernists and fundamentalists. The fundamentalists, asthey were called in the United States, in an effort to defend the literal word of Scripture, wereoften obligated to deny the most un-arguable findings of science. The modernists were willingenough to accept science and to interpret much of the Bible as allegory, but only with difficultycould they recapture a strong sense of spirituality or urgent feeling of Christian truth. MostProtestant churches were slow to face the social problems and injustices produced by theeconomic system, through a group of Christian socialists who had emerged in some Protestantdenominations. To the regret of many of the followers, Protestantism became increasingly acustomary observance by people whose minds were set elsewhere not until after WWI did a

strong Protestant revival begin to take shape.

A Resistance from Catholicism

The Roman Catholic Church proved more resistant to the trends of the age (Palmer, Colton,Kramer; 620). In 1864, in the Syllabus of Errors , Pope Pius IX denounced as erroneous a long

31 Excerpts and Information Taken From: A History of the Modern World pp. 619-622, Palmer, Colton, andKramer


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list of widely current ideas, including the faith in rationalism and science, and he vigorouslydenied that the head of the church should reconcile and align himself with progress, liberalism,and modern civilization. The Syllabus was a warning to Catholics to believe. Pius IX alsoconvened a general Council of Trent some 300 years before. The Vatican Council, and theacceptance of papal infallibility by Catholics, was the climax of centuries of development within

the church. As the word became more national Catholicism became more international . By1870 the net effect was to throw Catholics into the Holy See and while the 600 prelates of theVatican Council were sitting, the new Italian state unceremoniously entered and annexed the cityof Rome, thus removing the Po pes temporal power.

Rerum Novarum

Pius IXs successor Leo XIII carried on the counteroffensive against irreligion and instituteda revival of medieval philosophy as represented by Thomas Aquinas. Leo XIII is mainlyremembered for formulating Catholic social doctrine, especially in the encyclical 32 Rerum

Novarum (meaning of modern things) of 1891, to which subsequent pontiffs have adhered, andfrom which various movements of Catholic socialism are derived. Rerum Novarum upheld

private property as a natural right, within the limits of justice; but if found fault with capitalismfor the poverty, insecurity, and even degradation in which many of the laboring classes were left.It declared that much in socialism was Christian in principle; but criticized such things likeMarxism. The pope also recommended that Catholics, if they wished, form socialist parties of their own, and that, Catholic workers, from labor unions under Catholic auspices.

Jewish Emancipation

As for Judaism, the Jews were a small minority and in the nineteenth century the basic trend wasmoving toward emancipation and assimilation. Science and secularism had the same dissolvingeffect upon Orthodox Judaism as upon traditional Christianity. Reform Judaism grew up as theJewish counterpart to modernism in other faiths. Secular Jews altogether moved away fromworship.

The Rise of Anti-Semitism

Toward the end of the century tow important and new tendencies began to challenge of counterearlier trends that were leading to the assimilation of Jewish communities and individuals. Once,a cultural and political nationalism, originated with Jews themselves, some of whom feared theassimilation would lead to a loss of Jewish identity and perhaps even the disappearance of Judaism itself. The other counter-tendency, or barrier to assimilation, was the rise of a virulentnew anti-Semitism, noticeable in many quarters by 1900 (Palmer, Colton, Kramer; 621). Racisttheories, dislike for Jewish competitors in business and the professions, socialist scorn for Jewish

capitalists like Rothschilds, upper-class fears of Jewish revolutionists and Marxists, together witha growth of ethnic nationalism, which held that France should be purely French and Latin,Germany purely German and Nordic, or Russia purely Russian and Slav, all combined to raise ananti-Semitic hue and cry. In Russia there were fierce massacres of Jews, and in France theDreyfus case.

32 Roman Catholic Papal Document


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Question 73 The Root Causes of 19 th Century European Imperialism

The Causes of Imperialism

Cause 1: Social Darwinism

What would Charles Darwin have to do with the European Imperialism? Well, this was becausehe said that species adapt different from others and Europeans abused Darwins ideas and theyadopted or constructed a term called social Darwinism. There was a man who was aproponent of Social Darwinism, meaning to basically say that some humans were better thanothers and those that were better were the white Europeans they were superior to the black man this man was Herbert Spencer who was a British philosopher. A British poet namedRudyard Kipling wrote a poem called White Mans Burden in which he says: Take up the WhiteMans Burden and reap his old reward The blame of those ye better The hate of those ye guard.

meaning that it is the white mans burden to have the ones that they protect hate them. Thewhite man would go to the savage man and they would tell them what to do and if they did

not listen, they would be beaten or killed. The British, Germ ans, French they went off of thesenations with a Bible and a gun. Another example was in 1903 the German soldiers massacred55,000 Southwestern Africans, since they would not listen to the Germans. The Germans took no prisoners. They killed thousands of women and children along the roadsides. They bayonetedthem and hit them to death with the butt ends of their guns They were lying exhausted andharmless along the roads, and as the soldiers passed they simply slaughtered them in cold blood.Mothers holding babies at their breasts, little boys and little girls; old people too old to fight andold grandmothers, none received mercy; they were killed, all of them, and left to rot for thevultures and wild animals to eat (Written by Jan Kubas, who ac companies the Germansoldiers).

Cause 2: Religion

The religious aspect also motivated the Europeans to do some good things, as well good thingscame as a result of the Imperialism, and they were largely inspired by Christian values. Thepeople fought hard to abolish slavery in the Empire, and they eventually did abolish slavery inBritain (as opposed to the United States, who did not abolish slavery until about 30 years after).The religion also motivated the British to abolish practices that were brutal in Africa, Asia,and India: they wanted to eliminate cannibalism. They also sought to clamp down in an Indianpractice called suttee, which was the burning the practice of a wife who had lost her husband and the British spent a lot of time building schools, railroads, hospitals, and etc.

Cause 3: Money

Europeans were motivated to travel to nations such as Africa and Asia in search of naturalresources, as depicted by the table presented below:


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African / Asian Nation Raw Material Imperial NationCongo Ivory and Rubber BelgiumNigeria Palm Oil EnglandSenegal Peanuts FrenchSouth Africa Gold and Diamonds England

Indochina Rubber FranceIndia Cotton England

J.A. Hobson was a British Socialist that argued that there is no other reason why the Europeansdid what they did was the desire for markets and there was a lot of truth in this statement. V.ILenin one of the towering figures of European history; the creator of Soviet Communism; andhe was famous for arguing that money motivated Europeans and he said that Imperialism was thehighest state of Capitalism. And he said that Capitalism nations that have private control of enterprise and control of private land, they n eed constant growing markets and eventuallythey are going to fight each other (there was also some truth to the market theory, as well). oneof the famous examples of the large desire for money from the Europeans was the The Boer War

where the Europeans fought the Boer people in Africa and they were descendent from theDutch people who and settled in South Africa in the 17 th century. The British wanted control of South Africa, since they wanted the diamonds and the gold and the British sent 300,000 men andresources and they established concentration camps where they rounded up men, women, andchildren where thousands had died according to some studies, 20,000 people died in theseconcentration camps. The British had won the war and the Dutch agreed to pledge their loyaltyto the British empire and the British then merged the territory that the Boars held, including therepublic of Transversal and the Orange Free State to form the British Union of South Africa. TheBoers established a system of racial segregation called apartheid and the white peoplediscriminated against the South Africans by denying them of jobs, government positions, andproviding them with some of the worst schools.

Cause 4: Security and Rivalry

If the desire was initially economic, it became something else a bit later on one good examplewas India: The British went there for economic gain and then in 1885 they took Burma and in1890 the British took Afghanistan and the reason why they took these territories because theywanted to protect India and form a ring around India.

All of these items presented above were chief causes of 19 th Century European Imperialism.


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Question 74 The Causes of World War One

A War Unlike the Rest: World War I (WWI)- [Introduction]

Beneath the surface of all of the change taking place in Europe, there were many troubling issues

and in 1914 this feeling of optimism would fade. All of these feelings would eventually lead toWorld War I. Europe would fall into a period considerably known as the Age of Death . Europe.This was a war that would last for four year and it would destroy the civilized values of Europe,and it would leave 35,000,000 dead and 10,000,000+ more were injured both physically andpsychologically. There were two sides: Central Powers (Germany, Austria-Hungary, and theOttoman Empire) versus the Allied Powers (Great Britain, France, Russia, Serbia,Belgium, and more than 25 other nations) . The war would see an introduction of new weapons

machine guns, airplanes (as fighting instruments), Tanks, Flamethrowers, Chemical Weapons,Submarines. This was also a war that saw a collapse of four empires: The Austro-HungarianHapsburg Empire, Romanovs, Hohenzollern German Empire, and Turkish Ottoman Empire.WWI was the cause of WWII as well. WWI increased, vastly, the power of European nations

wage and price controls, and vast campaigns.The Causes of WWI

Cause 1: Irreconcilable Hatreds: Germany v. France, England, and Russia

This was a hatred that had grown out of the Franco-Prussian war, the Germans kicked out theFrench and seized territories, and France therefore wanted revenge against the Germans. Afterthis war, the Germans were a nation for the first time not only territories but a nation, andnow the German people were determined to become a power they will not listen to any other nation and they want to have their place in the sun, as they referred to it. Over the course of the1880s and the 1890s, their economy grows and so does their military, and they are determined toassert themselves. In 1888 Kaiser William II (related to Queen Victoria) took over the rule of theGermans and in 1879 they built an alliance with Austria (the Dual Alliance) and in 1882 theyadded Italy, and therefore called it the Triple Alliance. William II was going to be one of the keyfigures to the start of WWI, and he hated democracy and he wanted to assert German power andhe wanted to crush anyone in his way. William begins to do things that will aggravate the Frenchand the British. In 1896, William said that he would help support the Boers in South Africa andin 1898 William announced to the world that they would build a strong navy, which is a directchallenge to the British, whose navy is unbeatable, of course. The Germans are rising theywere powerful.

In response, the British and the French responded by forming an alliance with each other and

they signed what was called the Entente Cordiale in 1904 and both Britain and France areworried that Germany is becoming too big. The French said that if the British said that if theyhelped them out, they could have Egypt and the British said that the French could takeMorocco. Also, the British responded to the Germany by - in 1906 by building the mostmassive battleship in the history of the world, and it was the Dreadnought which was equippedwith 10 massive guns. In 1907, the Russians joined France and Britain and they singed what wascalled the Triple Entente.


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The Second Irreconcilable Hatred

The second hatred that will be a major cause of WWI was the hatred that developed betweenAustria and Russia, and this situation was developed from the Balkans and the good number of the people in the Balkans are Slavs, and so are the Russian people. The Serbians were Slavs and

they had a kingdom called the Kingdom of Serbia and it was taken over by Austria in 1878. TheSerbs would like to get their kingdom back, and not only do they want to do this, they also wantto bring all the Slavic people from the Balkans together under one nation (that is not Austria). Toappeal for help, they will go to Russia for help, since they are Slavs. The Austrians want theSlavs to sit down and shut up. The Russians were willin g to help, however they wantedsomething in return and the Russians are interested in two important pieces of land: a) Bosporusand the b) Dardanelles Strait.

Cause 2: The Momentum of Events

Event 1: The First Moroccan Crisis (1905)

In 1905 Germany decided that they were going to try to get a piece of Morocco (and the Frenchstated that Morocco was theirs) and in 1905 William II sailed into Tangier and he told them thatthey should be free and should not be ruled by the French, and he also mentioned that theyshould have equal trading rights and he was trying to incite the French. The French, in response,said that they could not do that and eventually the Germans backed down on their attempts to dosomething like this.

Event 2: The Bosnian Crisis

In 1908, Austria invaded and took over Bosnia and Herzegovina and the kingdom of Serbia, dueto the annexation of Bosnia and the other nation; they (the Serbs) wanted all of the Slavs togetherunder one rule. The Serbians begin to mobilize a military force and before fighting theAustrians, they consulted the help of the Russians because they know that they could win if theygot the support. The Germans responded by telling the Russians to essentially back off andthey told the Austrians were their allies, and if the Russians were to start something, they would

be finished off. Again the French and the Russians back off from each other.

Event 3: The Second Moroccan Crisis

In 1911 the Kaiser, William II, goes to Morocco and he goes there with a gunship and he saidthat they should give him Morocco or else he will take the French Congo and the French object,yet again by calling the actions unjust and protested the action. They eventually agreed to givethem 100,000 square miles of the Congo. This small effort on behalf of the Germans worked out.

Event 4: Two Balkan Wars (1912-1913)

Meanwhile, in the Balkans, in 19112 and in 1913 there were two wars fought in the Balkans andthe result of these wars would be that the Serbians would arise very powerful. In 1912 the FirstBalkan war was fought and all of the Slavic people in the Balkans formed a league calledThe Balkan League and they said that before they took out the Germans, they went to waragainst the Turks and they easily won (the Ottomans by this time were in decline) and they took Albania and Macedonia.


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Once they kicked out the Ottomans the Serbians and the Bulgarians fought over who got tocontrol the territory in which the Serbians won this war, and the result of this war was that theSerbians were strong. Their next target: Austria.


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Question 75 Why World War One was a Deadly War

Theaters of War 33

Land Warfare

Most of the decisive land campaigns of World War I occurred on the continent of Europe. Thetwo chief centers of operations were the western front and the eastern front. On the western front,German armies confronted those of the British Empire, France, Belgium, and, later, the UnitedStates. Most of the fighting on this front took place in northeastern France. The trenches of thewestern front ran from the North Sea to the border of Switzerland. On the eastern front, whereGerman and Austro-Hungarian armies faced the Russians, the fighting began

World War I saw advances in the area of battlefield weapons. At the start of the war, theprincipal infantry weapon was the bolt-action magazine rifle, which was capable of firing 6 to 10aimed shots per minute. The machine gun, which had been developed in the 1880s, was justgaining acceptance by the major European armies as the war began. It could fire rifleammunition automatically at a rate of 200 to 250 shots per minute. It was an excellent defensiveweapon, capable of devastating waves of cavalry and infantry. Other important weaponsdeveloped during the war were the flamethrower, the hand grenade, poison gas, and the tank. Allthese weapons were designed to restore mobility to the troops huddled in the trenches avoidingmachine gun and heavy artillery fire.

Naval Warfare

Naval operations were carried out primarily in the North Atlantic Ocean and in the North Sea. Atthe start of the war, Britain had decisive superiority in heavy battleships, which were thecornerstone of sea power at that time. But Germany eventually challenged British dominance of the seas with its submarine, or U-Boat, campaign.

The war at sea was mainly important economically. The Allies were concerned with keepingopen the vital sea lanes by which ships transported supplies, war materials, and troops to Europefrom the United States and other overseas sources.

Aerial Warfare

Airplanes were first used in large numbers for military purposes during World War I. At the startof the war, airplanes and other aircraft were generally used for reconnaissance and for observingand adjusting artillery fire. Both the Allies and the Central Powers made extensive use of small

tethered balloons for observing stationary battlefronts, of dirigible balloons for scouting at sea,and of airplanes for scouting coastal waters. Later, airplanes specially equipped for combat cameinto wide use on the western front. Both sides also employed airplanes carrying machine gunsand light bombs to attack enemy ground forces. Shore-based naval aircraft capable of landing onwater proved useful in antisubmarine warfare. The Germans launched the first air raids in 1914.During 1915 and 1916 a German dirigible known as the Zeppelin raided eastern England and

33 Excerpts Taken From: World War I Microsoft Student 2007 [DVD] . Keylor, William R.


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London more than 50 times. From mid-1915 aerial combat between planes or groups of planeswas common. The Germans initially had superiority in the air on the western front, but theBritish gained the advantage in mid-1916. The Allied advantage in the air gradually increasedthereafter and became overwhelming when the United States entered the war in 1917.

Conclusion

World War One (WWI) became such a deadly war with the advancement, and the introduction,of weaponry. From the introduction to the armored tank and long-range artillery to aerial warfarecombat methods, casualties were more than commonplace on the battlefield with many dangers from the land, from the air, and from the sea.


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Figures and References

Figure One

Renoirs Luncheon of the Boating Party The painting Luncheon of the Boating Party (1881), by French artist Pierre Auguste Renoir, depicts a group of friends enjoying a meal at a cafe along the River Seine, outside Paris. Train travel had recently made it possible forworking-class city dwellers to enjoy the countryside on weekends. The painting is in the Phillips Collection inWashington, D.C.Francis G. Mayer/CorbisMicrosoft Encarta 2007.

1993-2006 Microsoft Corporation. All rights reserved.


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Figure Two

Monets Water Lilies

From about 1895 on, French painter Claude Monet frequently painted the lily pond in his garden at Giverny, avillage near Paris. The canvases are large in size, and the lilies are painted at close range and seem to dissolve intothe shimmering water surrounding them. Several panels of Les Nymphas (The Water Lilies), including the paintingshown here, line the walls of the Orangerie, a museum in Paris. 2006 Artists Rights Society (ARS), New York / ADAGP, Paris/Art Resource, NYMicrosoft Encarta 2007. 1993-2006 Microsoft Corporation. All rights reserved.


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Figure Three

Le Djeuner sur lherbe Le Djeuner sur lherbe (Luncheon on the Grass) by douard Manet was painted in 1863. When it was firstdisplayed, the rough brushwork and undefined areas of color were as distressing to the public as the nude womanwho was neither a classical goddess nor a symbol in an allegory. Manet claimed that the real subject of the paintingwas light, and it was that philosophy that gave birth to impressionism.Bridgeman Art Library, London/New YorkMicrosoft Encarta 2007. 1993-2006 Microsoft Corporation. All rights reserved.

ap history - question set 5, apeuh

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