AP Government Notes.docx

AP Government

Chapters 1 & 2 Lecture NotesBackground of the American System of GovernmentThe US ConstitutionLea Chapter 1 Power the ability of a person to get another to act in accordance with his wishes. Political power involves this ability within the confines of government influencing government action and behavior. You do not have to be an elected official or government employee in order to wield political power.Authority the right to use power views differ on who has the right to use power. Not all authority is legitimate. Formal authority is derived from gaining elective or appointed political office. Three Meanings of Democracy:1. Democratic Centralism where those in power ascertain the true will and interests of the people. Found in China, Cuba, and other dictatorships.2. Participatory Democracy Aristotelian democracy rule of the many the idea that all citizens participate in the democratic process. The 4th century b.c. Greeks actually limited participation in many ways. Todays New England Town Meeting most approximates this ideal.3. Representative Democracy power is gained through competitive elections for government offices. There must be true competition (as opposed to fake or rigged elections) for the system to work. This is known as a Republican form of government, and is referred to as such in the US Constitution. The Framers did not believe in direct democracy (participatory) for various reasons time, expertise, emotions, and a distrust of the abilities of the masses. Still, there are many problems with our representative system, which we will discuss later. Even representative systems can be very different compare, for example, those of the US, Britain, and Sweden. Power Distribution in a Republican system (in short, it varies):1. Majoritarian politics some issues are governed by public sentiment. Typically, they are issues that affect the masses, are easy to understand, and people care deeply about them. Very often, politicians are forced by political pressure to follow the public will on these issues.2. Elite politics the theory that government is controlled by some identifiable group that holds a disproportionate amount of political power. Marxists, for example, believe that economic forces (like the military industrial complex or the capitalists) control government. C. Wright Mills believes that key corporate, military, and political leaders control government.3. Pluralist politics the belief that various competing elites compete for political power and will, at different times and on different issues, wield larger or smaller shares of power and ability to control government decisions. **Read and analyze the Declaration of Independence.** Chapter 2 The Constitution The American Revolution was about liberty (not equality, like the French Revolution). Certain beliefs of the Framers led to the Revolution:1. Corruption of British politicians2. English constitution inadequate to protect colonial liberty3. Belief in higher law of natural rights (life, liberty, and property pursuit of happiness)4. Violation of inalienable rights (refer to Declaration of Independence) Through revolution, the colonists sought to achieve:1. secure liberty2. government by consent of the governed3. a written constitution that granted powers directly4. legislative superiority (the peoples branch) The Articles of Confederation was the first attempt at a new constitution, but it was fraught with weaknesses:1. national government could not tax2. national government could not regulate commerce3. states were independent and sovereignSovereignty the ability of a state to govern itself while holding final and absolute authority.4. states were equal in Congress one vote each5. supermajorities (9/13) required to pass any measure in Congress6. delegates to Congress picked by states and paid by states7. no national monetary system 8. no real military powers9. no national judiciary10. amendments to the Articles required unanimous approval (nearly impossible)*The bottom line was that the Articles created a national government that was so weak it was destined to fail. Partially because of the shortcomings of the new national government and because of various weaknesses in state governments (look at PA and MA constitutions), life in the States after the revolution was defined by worries over government stability, the future of the States, etc. In 1786, a small group of men led by George Washington called for a convention in Annapolis, MD, to address some of these shortcomings, but it was not well attended. This was followed by Shayss Rebellion in MA, which highlighted the weaknesses (and even potential for collapse) of the state governments as well as the weaknesses in the Articles that prevented effective national aid. Philadelphia Convention, 1787 called for the purpose of amending the Articles of Confederation and attended by delegations from 12 of the States (not RI). Included many of the big names of the day (Washington, Madison, Franklin, Hamilton, etc.), but others were noticeably absent (Jefferson, Sam and John Adams, Patrick Henry). Washington (as President) and Madison (as the primary architect of the Constitution) were the most instrumental men in attendance. Although the delegates to the Philadelphia convention were authorized to revise the Articles only, this convention became the Constitutional Convention of 1787. The framers determined that the Articles were not worth saving, but also noted major problems with creating a new government most notably, how to create a strong national government yet not threaten liberty. There were three primary plans for the new government:1. The Virginia Plan (favored the large states wealth and population)a. strong national governmentb. three branchesc. bicameral legislatured. executive chosen by legislaturee. Council of Revision with veto powerf. national legislature supremeg. one house elected directly by the people 2. The New Jersey Plan (favored the small states equality)a. sought to amend Articles, not replaceb. unicameral legislaturec. one vote per stated. enhanced national power but protected states3. The Connecticut Compromise (the Great Compromise) without this, no US Constitution (5 states for, 4 against, and 4 either split or absent)a. bicameral legislatureb. House of Representatives based upon population and elected by the peoplec. Senate based upon equality (two per state) selected by state legislaturesd. reconciled the problem of large v. small state representation Eventually, a new Constitution was completed and signed by all 12 states in attendance. Why the Framers created a Republic:1. direct democracy was impractical (too large and populous a country)2. distrust of popular whims and passions3. distrust of the abilities of the common man4. representative government best to protect liberty The new government was insulated from popular rule in many ways:1. Senators elected in state legislatures2. Electoral College system to choose President3. Bicameralism voter majority in House but State majority in Senate4. Judicial Review not stated, but inferred5. Stringent and insulated amendment process (historic result is very few amendments) Two key principles embodied by the US Constitution:1. Separation of Powers power is divided on a horizontal basis within the national government into three branches (with the legislature further divided bicameral)2. Federalism power is divided vertically, with the national government supreme in the areas where it has powers but the states supreme in all other areas*These divisions of power were designed to protect liberty by preventing government from acquiring too much power. The process is called Checks and Balances. **Read and analyze the Federalist #10 and #51 commentaries on the Constitution in favor of ratification. Both of these were authored by Madison (others by Hamilton and Jay). Appendix and pp. 32-33.** Federalists (Washington, Madison, Hamilton) v. Anti-federalists (Jefferson, Henry): Anti-federalists believed that liberty would be most secure in small republics where government was closer to the people. Believed strong national government would raise taxes and annihilate state functions. They felt the Constitution needed more restrictions against the national government (a bill of rights was necessary before they would consider ratification). Federalists believed liberty was more secure in large republics, where government was more distant from the passions of the people and factions were larger yet weaker as a whole. They believed a bill of rights was unnecessary or even dangerous (could be construed as a finite list of rights). Further, they believed that the Constitution already limited the national government sufficiently and that state bills of rights would serve any necessary purpose in this arena. Plus, they felt that the national government would struggle to be tyrannical because of its limited powers in our federal system. The Constitutions built-in protections:1. Habeas Corpus2. No bills of attainder3. No ex post facto laws4. Trial by jury5. Privileges and Immunities6. No religious tests7. Obligation of contracts James Madisons views on inclusion of a bill of rights, and his solution when the debate was lost:James Madison had another reason for opposing the inclusion of a bill of rights. He feared that no list of rights could ever be complete, and that the government would thus be invited to abridge the "forgotten" rights. To deal with this problem, Madison proposed what became the Ninth Amendment, which declares that citizens have additional rights beyond those enumerated. When introducing the amendment, Madison told Congress: This is one of the most plausible arguments that I have ever heard urged against the admission of a bill of rights into this system; but, I conceive, that it may be guarded against. I have attempted it, as the gentlemen may see. Many of the small state easily ratified, but narrow battles were waged in many of the large states like PA, VA, and NY. Eventually, all 13 states ratified. Unanimity was seen as critical. Why? The Constitution addressed slavery in three ways:1. 3/5 Compromise (House apportionment and taxation)2. 1808 no Congressional limits on importation until then3. Fugitive Slave Clause Economic interests of the Framers (factored in, but not an overriding factor):1. no clear class divisions2. those who held government debt more in favor of the Constitution3. state economic considerations stronger than personal4. during ratification battles, economic interests were strongerIn favor: merchants, urbanites, western land owners, govt IOUs, no slavesAgainst: farmers, no govt IOUs, slave owners Today, some people believe that the Constitutions Separation of Powers need reform. Current problems include:1. Gridlock inability of government to act swiftly and decisively2. Bureaucracy many problems here Proposed reforms include:1. Members of Congress can serve in Cabinet as well2. President can dissolve Congress3. Congress can call special Presidential elections4. Require Presidential\Congressional candidates to run as teams5. Single six-year term for President6. House members serve four-year terms Others argue that these reforms would make the system less democratic and infringe upon liberties. Ronald Reagan said government does too much, not too little. In fact, certain counter-reforms include:1. Limit tax collections2. Require balanced budgets3. Give President line item veto (temporarily happened in 1996 but quickly declared unconstitutional in Clinton v. NY would require a Constitutional Amendment).4. Narrow the authority of the Federal Courts

AP Government Chapter 3 & 4 Lecture NotesFederalism and American Political CultureLea Chapter 3 Federalism a political system with local governmental units aside from the national unit. These governments are empowered with the ability to make some final decisions and protected in their existence by law (United States, Canada, Germany, India, Switzerland, Australia). Many citizens in many countries would not want such a system different habits, customs, traditions, etc. Unitary System only the national government holds final authority, and local units may not even exist (Britain, France, Italy). In the US, states maintain final authority on certain issues. Still, the federal government is now supreme in nearly all spheres where it can righteously claim power. The idea of dual federalism, where the states and the national government would be supreme in their own spheres and even compete for power at times, is often severely limited. However, a number or recent court rulings have begun a possible swing back towards state sovereignty in areas where the Federal government has overstepped its bounds. Federalism Good or Bad?Positives: often strong, flexible, tends to preserve libertiesNegatives: often blocks progress, gridlock, fosters powerful local interest groupsAmericans have traditionally supported Federalism we are strong supporters of local government. Still, someone who wants to see quick government policy changes (very often liberal or progressive in nature) might likely support a more unitary system. James Madison Federalist #10 Federalism, including a strong national government that was somewhat removed from the people, was desirable to control the problem of factions. Minority rights would actually be protected by competition for power, different groups coming to power at different times and at different levels of government. Dominant majorities would be hard to achieve. **The most obvious effect of Federalism is to mobilize political activity. The number of political contact points for the average citizen are greatly increased and the cost of participation is greatly reduced (running for local office is far less expensive than running for national office). The Founders Why Federalism?1. Protect personal liberty2. Neither level of government could rule the other peoples support would shift There was no previous precedent for Federalism. While the US Constitution clearly limited national powers, the 10th amendment was added as a further protection. This amendment is called by some the sleeping giant. Why? Still, certain Constitutional loopholes have allowed for the expansion of the powers of the Federal government:1. The Necessary and Proper Clause (Elastic Clause) allows the national government to do anything necessary and proper to exercise its powers that are enumerated in the Constitution.2. The Interstate Commerce Clause the national government has the power to regulate anything involved with interstate commerce. Many events and viewpoints shaped Federalism over time.1. Hamilton believed in national supremacy a federalist2. Jefferson states rights people are the ultimate sovereign antifederalist3. Madison began as a federalist, but evolved to a Jeffersonian perspective4. John Marshall US Supreme Court Chief Justice espoused the Hamiltonian viewMcCulloch v. Maryland landmark Supreme Court decision that established the supremacy of the national government main architect of the decision was Marshall. Decided that the national government could establish a bank in MD and MD could not tax said bank. Nullification issue decided eventually by the Civil War states could not declare acts of Congress unconstitutional. Dual Federalism a popular concept early, but virtually extinct today. Rebirth? Grant-in-aid system a way for the Federal government to compel compliance at the state level with Federal objectives in areas where the Federal government lacks authority. Compliance from the states is essentially voluntary. Grants were initially very attractive to states:1. Apparently free money2. Large federal surpluses helped states meet needs3. Federal revenues continued to increase with income taxes Beginning in the 1960s, grants morphed from what states demanded to what Federal officials deemed to be important. Strings were attached to the Federal money (state actions were required to claim the grants). States often did not wish to enact the Federal mandates, but they were addicted to the flow of grant money (examples highway funds linked to speed limits or DUI standards). Intergovernmental Lobbies state and local government groups that lobby in Washington, D.C., for additional grant money for state and local projects. Typically, they seek more money with fewer strings attached. By the 1980s, Federal funds had stopped growing. Unfunded Mandates In the last few decades, especially recently, the Federal government has issued mandates to the states that do not include funding to implement them (examples mandatory background checks on firearm purchasers, many provisions of No Child Left Behind, Americans with Disabilities Act). Many unfunded mandates stem from court decisions. Types of grants:1. Revenue Sharing (ended in 1986) free flow of money, no matching funds required, no strings attached.2. Categorical Grants money for specific purposes only, matching funds often required3. Block Grants general purpose money (very loosely categorized) with few strings attached states given great latitude on how to use such money Ronald Reagan and subsequent conservatives have sought to change the focus of grant monies to block grants success has been very limited. There are several reasons it is hard to shift from categorical to block grants:1. Politics Congressmen, committees prefer to be able to guide state practices through controlling spending.2. Interest groups individual interest groups often have less of a vital interest in a multi-purpose block grant.3. Agencies many state and local bureaucratic agencies survival is tied to a single categorical grant.4. Constituents just giving money to the states does nothing to impress ones constituents. Categorical grants still make up the vast majority (90% +\-) of Federal grants to states. Very few new block grants (AFDC to TANF is an example) have been created. Devolution powers that have become Federal in nature devolving back to the states. Some push for this, but not much progress yet. 10th amendment? Chapter 4 Alexis de Tocqueville Democracy in America commentary on American political culture and why we are the way we are:1. No feudal aristocracy2. Minimal taxes3. Few legal restrictions4. Vast territories5. Opportunity6. A nation of small farmers Political Culture a distinctive and patterned way of thinking about how political and economic life ought to be carried out. American political culture is uniquely distinct in many ways. This is one reason that most attempts to copy our governmental system have met with failure. Elements of most Americans political beliefs:1. Liberty2. Equality (of opportunity, not results)3. Democracy4. Civic Duty5. Individual ResponsibilityIf nearly universal, why so much political conflict? Inconsistent prioritization of beliefs, some beliefs even conflict. Our typical economic beliefs:1. Free enterprise with reasonable limitations2. Equal opportunity over equal results3. Economic individualism (less government control, safety) Comparison Swedens culture:1. Deferential to government authority and expertise2. Court challenges rare3. Seek what is best rather than satisfying what we want4. Equality is at least as important as liberty5. Value harmony and meeting obligations6. Equal pay and top income limits7. Government should guarantee basic standard of living (discuss deserving poor) Several comparisons US v. Europe in general:1. US lags in voting rates (reasons?)2. US excels in other types of political participation3. US has more confidence in government institutions4. US acknowledges flaws yet still proud of national identity5. US highly religious compared to most of Europe6. US religion affects political beliefs (rise of the Christian Coalition) Sources of Americas political culture:1. Revolution over liberty, personal rights2. Adversarial culture (natural distrust of authority and belief that human nature is depraved)3. Peaceful transitions of power the Federalist-Jeffersonian transition in 1800 showed that power could change hands to rival parties and peace still be maintainedBefore this, there was no guarantee that rival parties, liberty, and political change could all co-exist. Many modern elections as examples 1994, 2000.4. Widespread political participation allowed by the US Constitution5. No national religion, tremendous religious diversity6. Puritan heritage our churches continue to promote civic responsibilitya. work ethic (protestant work ethic)b. save moneyc. self relianced. secular lawe. try to do good7. Family less rigidity than in many societies8. Lack of class consciousness (most believe themselves to be middle class) Culture War debate over what type of country we ought to live in Orthodox morality is more important than personal expression fixed rules from God fundamental Protestants generally conservatives Progressive personal freedom more important than tradition, traditional morals rules can change based upon circumstances of modern life more mainline Protestants and those without strong religious beliefs. Mistrust of Government since the 1960s, many more Americans are distrustful of government. Reasons include Watergate, Vietnam, and even the Iraq war. Most of this distrust is directed at individual leaders, though not our system of government. Political Efficacy a citizens capacity to both understand and influence political events. Internal Efficacy confidence in ones own ability to understand and influence events remained steady over the last 50 years. External Efficacy belief that the government will respond to citizens needs and desires steadily declining since the 1960s (government perceived as too big, bureaucratic to respond to citizens desire for change). Political Tolerance free discussion of ideas and acceptance of legitimate rulers or rules with ideas different from our own is necessary for a republic to thrive. America has become more tolerant over time. However, studies show that American tolerance is very high in the abstract yet much lower in concrete situations. Why are unpopular groups and ideas able to survive in America?1. Most people who do not agree with a group do not act on those beliefs2. Officeholders are more tolerant than the general public3. Activists (those who lead political causes) are often more tolerant as well4. Generally little consensus among the general public on whom to persecute5. Courts are insulated from public opinion enough to enforce protections

AP American GovernmentUnit #3 Lecture NotesPublic Opinion, Political Participation, and Political PartiesChapters 5, 6, and 7Lea Chapter 5

Public Opinion v. Public Policy - Government does not always do what people want. Examples include:1. Unbalanced budgets2. Busing3. Failure to enact the ERA4. Aid to Nicaraguan Contras5. No congressional term limits There are several reasons that public opinion and public policy do not always mirror one another, including:1. Many constitutional checks on public opinion (Federalism, Separation of Powers, Bicameralism)2. Many opinions conflict3. Difficult to know true public opinion (opinion polls are often poor reflections of public opinion biased, poor questions, poor sampling, etc.)4. Government listens more to elite views (politically active)5. National media does not always reflect true public opinion6. Public opinion is often volatile7. Public is often ignorant Several factors are typically involved in the formulation of Americans political attitudes. Some of these include:Family:1. Party identification of family often adopted by children (effect sometimes lessens as child grows up)2. Much continuity between generations kids often grow to believe same things as mother and father3. Declining ability to pass on political\party identification in recent decades4. Younger voters exhibit less partisanship; more likely to be independent5. Clear political ideologies passed on in some familiesReligion:1. Catholic families somewhat more liberal2. Protestant families more conservative3. Jewish families decidedly more liberal4. Mormons, Jehovas Witness exceptionally conservative5. Black churches socially conservative (family values) yet favor liberal economic policy -- politically liberal Democrats6. Christian Coalition -- grassroots mobilization, very conservativeThe gender gap:1. Women were likely to be Republicans in 1950s2. Women were likely to be Democrats since late 1960s3. Change due to shift in party policy positionsSchooling and information:1. College education has liberalizing effect exposures, professors2. Effect extends beyond end of college3. Effect growing as more go to college Cleavages in public opinion derive from several major sources:Social class: less important in U.S. than in Europe low degree of class consciousness here most consider themselves middle class1. Occupation depends more on schooling, so upper-class exposed to liberalism2. Non-economic issues now define liberal and conservativeRace and ethnicity:1. Becoming more important even on nonracial matters2. Blacks most consistently liberal group within Democratic Party; little cleavage among blacks3. Hispanic and Asian Americans less liberal4. Whites fairly evenly divided within the political spectrum lean slightly conservativeRegion:1. Southerners and mountain westerners more conservative than northerners and west coasters regarding military and civil rights issues, but difference fading among whites2. Southerners more accommodating of business generally anti-union Prevailing Issues:1. Social Security2. Abortion, stem-cell research3. War in Iraq, War on Terror4. Environment5. Welfare Political ideology: a coherent and consistent set of political beliefs about who ought to rule, the principles rulers ought to obey, and what policies rulers ought to pursue. Most citizens are moderates, yet many have strong liberal or conservative political beliefs. Meaning of liberal v. conservative:1. Early 1800s: liberal - support personal, economic liberty; conservative -restore power of state, church, aristocracy2. Roosevelt and New Deal: liberalism = activist government3. Conservative reaction to activism (Goldwater): free markets, states' rights, individual choices in economics4. Today's meanings are imprecise and changinga. Economic policy: liberals favor jobs for all, subsidized medical care and education, taxation of richb. Civil rights: liberals prefer desegregation, strict enforcement of civil rights lawc. Public and political conduct: liberals tolerant of demonstrations, legalization of marijuana, etc. Four popular labels in recent history:1. Pure liberals: liberal on both economic and personal conduct issues2. Pure conservatives: conservative on both economic and personal conduct issues3. Libertarians: conservative on economic issues, liberal on personal conduct issues5. Populists: liberal on economic issues, conservative on personal conduct issues Political elites defined: those who have a disproportionate amount of some valued resource and thus often possess a disproportionate share of political power. Elites, or activists, display greater ideological consistency than other Americans. They have more information than most people, and their peers reinforce consistency (Hollywood, media, government, big business, big labor, military brass, etc.). The Traditional Middle Class v. the New Middle Class (liberal middle class)1. the New class: those who are advantaged by the power, resources, and growth of government (not business, as elites previously were)2. Two explanations of well-off individuals who are liberalsa. Directly benefit from governmentb. Liberal ideology infusing postgraduate education3. Traditional middle class: four years of college, suburban, church- affiliated, pro-business, conservative on social issues, Republican4. Liberal middle class (or new class): postgraduate education, urban, critical of business, liberal on social issues, Democrat5. Emergence of new class creates strain in Democratic party Chapter 6 Voter turnout in America v. in Europe why do we have a lower turnout?1. Problem: low turnout compared to Europeans-But this compares registered voters to eligible adult populations.2. Common explanation: voter apathy on election day-But the real problem is low registration rates in America3. Proposed solution: get-out-the-vote drives-But this will not help those who are not registered4. Apathy not the only cause of nonregistration-Costs here versus no costs in European countries where registration is automatic examples?-Motor-voter law of 1993 took effect in 1995-increased registration throughout the country Voting is not the only way of participating. In Europe, though, there is very little participation in politics other than party affiliation and voting. In the US, citizens tend to participate in the political process in many more ways:1. Voting2. Party membership3. Grassroots organization4. Campaigning5. Calling, writing to representatives6. Giving money7. Running for office8. Media9. Etc. According to the US Constitution, control over who voted in Federal elections was generally held by the States. Over time, this power has shifted from state to federal control. Initially, states decided who could vote for which offices, which led to wide variations in federal election participation. Congress has since reduced state prerogatives in this area. 1. 1842 law: House members elected by district2. Suffrage to women (19th amendment)3. Suffrage to blacks (15th amendment and Voting Rights Act of 1965)4. Suffrage to eighteen- to twenty-year-olds (26th amendment)5. Direct popular election of U.S. senators (17th amendment) The history of Black voting rights and state prohibitions:1. Blacks first voted heavily in the South during Reconstruction, but the Fifteenth Amendment was gutted by the Supreme Court as not conferring a right to vote shortly thereafter.2. Southern states then used evasive maneuvers:(1) Literacy test(2) Poll tax(3) White primaries(4) Grandfather clauses(5) Intimidation of black voters3. Major change with 1965 Voting Rights Act; black vote increases, federal poll watchers and registrars authorized anywhere Black participation rate is below 50%. The history of women's voting rights:1. Several western states permitted women to vote by 19152. Nineteenth Amendment ratified 19203. No dramatic changes in outcomes of elections stand by your man syndrome The history of 18 year olds voting rights:1. Voting Rights Act of 1970 found unconstitutional with reference to voting in State elections. Federal government had no right to compel states to allow 18 year olds to vote at the state level.2. Twenty-sixth Amendment ratified 1971 18 year olds can vote in ALL elections3. Turnout was and remains low among this demographic; no particular party overwhelmingly supported. The Twenty-third Amendment was ratified 1961, giving District of Columbia residents the right to vote in presidential elections. They still have no voting representation in Congress. Overall, national standards now govern most aspects of voter eligibility. States still run elections, and this is typically done through local government. Debate continues over whether there has truly been a decline in voter turnout over time in the US. Two theories:1. Real decline as popular interest and party competition and membership decreases2. Apparent decline, induced in part by more honest ballot counts of today(1) Parties once printed ballots very slanted(2) Ballots cast in secret today not while being watched(3) Parties controlled counting fraud(4) Australian ballot began to be adopted in 1910 more fair, uniform, not developed by partiesMost scholars see some real decline due to several causes, particularly registration difficulties. Voting is the most common forms of political participation in the US, but 8 to 10 percent misreport it. Typically, those with more information, education, and income are more likely to participate at higher levels in the political process. Church-goers vote more, as do members of higher socio-economic groups. Blacks participate less than whites overall, but at higher rates if socio-economic status is controlled for. Men and women vote at the same rates. Types of participants include:1. Inactives no political activity2. Voting specialists educate themselves at election time and vote3. Campaigners vote, but also willing to help campaign, spend money, etc.4. Communalists participate, but dislike partisanship more into community issues and such.5. Parochial participants will not vote, but willing to call upon government for personal or even community help6. Complete activists active in all areas Most research agrees that there are several factors that decrease turnout today:1. More youths, blacks, and other minorities in population, pushing down percent registered2. Decreasing effectiveness of parties in mobilizing voters3. Remaining impediments to registration4. Voting compulsory in other nations5. Possible feeling that elections do not matter6. So many elections in the US7. Democrats, Republicans fight over solutions, but little has worked. Of historical note: Jesse Jackson in 1984 increased registration of southern whites even more than southern blacks when he ran for President. Also, the extremely tight, well-funded, and (considered by many) pivotal Election of 2004 caused participation rates to rise. Recent foreign-language ballots (Spanish, Chinese, for ex.) increase rates as well. Chapter 7 Political Party - a group that seeks to elect candidates to public office by supplying them with a label (party identification). This label is the most important aspect of parties. American parties have become weaker in recent decades. The party organizations are weaker (machines have lost much control), Americans are becoming more independent voters (willing to change parties or split their tickets), candidates for office are running more on personal (or name, like Kennedy, Bush) rather than party recognition, and party control of Congress has declined (politicians are more constituent oriented and independent on some issues). Reasons for differences with European parties:1. Federal system decentralizes power in U.S. many political jobs (most early in our history) are state or local2. Parties closely regulated by state and federal laws3. Candidates chosen through primaries, not by party leaders, in U.S.4. President elected separately from Congress5. Political culture - parties unimportant in life - Americans do not join or pay dues The history of the American political parties:-The Founding (to 1820s)1. Founders' dislike of parties, viewing them as factions2. Emergence of Republicans (Jeffersons old anti-federalists, aka Democratic-Republicans) and Federalists: Jefferson vs. Hamilton-The Jacksonians (to Civil War)1. Political participation a mass phenomenona. More voters to reach; by 1832, presidential electors controlled mostly by popular voteb. Party built from bottom up grassroots activism, popular influencec. Beginning of national party conventions to allow local control-The Civil War and sectionalism1. Jacksonian system unable to survive slavery and sectionalism2. New Republicans became dominant after Civil War3. Most states one-partya. Factions emerge in each partyb. South becomes almost purely Democratic -The era of reform1. Progressives push measures to reform parties, eventually reducing corruption and weakening political partiesa. Primary electionsb. Nonpartisan elections at city and (sometimes) state levelc. No party-business alliances (corrupting)d. Strict voter registration requirementse. Civil service reformf. Initiative and referendum-The national party structure today1. National convention is ultimate party power; nominates presidential candidate, sets party platform2. National committee composed of delegates from states manages affairs between conventions3. Congressional campaign committees4. National chairman manages daily work Today, the Republican party has become much more bureaucratic (businesslike) in nature, with a focus on fundraising and electing candidates. The Democratic party has become very factionalized and is struggling in many areas. The DNC has begun to adopt many RNC tactics, but feuding factions difficult to overcome. Republicans represent traditional middle class--more conservative. Democrats represent new class--more liberal. Democrats hurt since traditional middle class closer in opinions to most citizens. National conventions delegate selection and allocation1. National committee sets time and place; issues call setting number of delegates for each state2. Formulas used to allocate delegates different. Democrats shift formula away from South, to North and West while Republicans shift formula from East to South and Southwest. Result: Democrats move left, Republicans right. As delegates become more politically polarized, party platforms do the same. Democrat formula rewards large states, Republican formula rewards loyal states. Bottom line: Conventions today only ratify choices made in primaries by primary voters. Superdelegate convention delegate used by Democrats reward for someone in a very high position of political power, like top elected officials. State and local parties - The Political Machine (goals smooth functioning, elect candidates)1. Recruitment via tangible incentives (money, patronage jobs, political favors)2. High degree of leadership control3. Abuses of the system (gradually controlled by Progressive reforms) 4. Machines both self-serving and public-regarding 5. Old-style machines very rare today The Hatch Act of 1939 instrumental in curtailing much machine activity prevented federal civil service employees from taking active partisan roles in parties, elections, etc. They can vote and contribute funds, but active campaigning, running for office, solicitation of funds, etc. is forbidden. Ideological parties are essentially the opposite of the machine.1. Principle above all else - contentious and factionalized2. Usually outside Democratic and Republican parties known as third parties The two-party system is a rarity among nations today. In the US, it is evenly balanced nationally, but not locally. There are several reasons it has become such a permanent feature:1. Electoral system -- winner-take-all and plurality system extremely important2. Opinions of voters -- two broad coalitions work, although times of bitter dissent3. State laws have made it very difficult for third parties to get on the ballotThere are numerous types of minor parties in the US today:1. Ideological parties - comprehensive, radical view; most enduringExamples: Socialist, Communist, Libertarian2. Single-issue parties - address one concern, avoid othersExamples: Prohibition, Right to Life3. Economic protest parties - regional, protest economic conditionsExamples: Greenback, Populist4. Factional parties - from split in a major partyExamples: Bull Moose, Dixiecrat (Segregationist), ReformOver time, factional parties have had the greatest enduring influence and the largest election influence. Minor parties have very little chance of becoming major parties. They lack resources, visibility, and media coverage, they struggle to win elections due to various rules, and if they become popular, their ideas are typically absorbed by one of the major parties. The Presidential Nomination Process: By tradition, the party out of power" - the one not holding the presidency - holds its convention first. The delegates at the convention today are simply officially ratifying the candidate nominated by the people in the states primaries. Convention delegates are often much more politically ideological than the average party voter (Democrats are much more liberal and Republicans are much more conservative), so party platforms (adopted at the convention by the delegates) may represent positions not readily embraced by the rank and file.Primaries are the most numerous (40+ states) means of candidate selection. Primary voters are slightly more partisan than general election voters, but not tremendously so.Caucuses are meetings of party followers who debate and select candidates. The most partisan followers are attracted to caucuses. Democrats have won more congressional elections than presidential contests over the past century. Their presidential candidates are often out of step with average voters on social and taxation issues, yet they have often selected good local (Congressional district) candidates.Rank-and-file Democrats and Republicans differ on many political issues, but differences are usually small. Delegates from the two parties differ widely on these same issues.

AP American GovernmentUnit IV Chapters 8, 9, and 10Elections, Campaigns, Interest Groups, and the MediaLeaChapter 8 Presidential versus congressional campaigns:1. Presidential races are more competitive than House racesa. Presidential winner rarely gets more than 55 percent of voteb. Most House incumbents are reelected (over 90 percent)2. Fewer people vote in congressional midterm electionsa. Unless it coincides with a presidential electionb. Gives greater importance to partisan voters why?3. Congressional incumbents can serve their constituentsa. Credit for government grants, programs, etc., can be claimed by Congress memberb. President can't (power is not local) and must communicate by mass media4. Congressional candidates can campaign against Washingtona. President is held accountableb. But local candidates suffer when their party's economic policies fail5. Power of presidential coattails has declineda. Congressional elections have become largely independent of presidential electionb. Reduces meaning (and importance) of party Running for president getting mentioned, nominated, elected (differences):1. Getting mentioned as being presidential calibera. Using reporters, trips, speechesb. Sponsoring legislation, governor of large statec. Senators often run, rarely win2. Setting aside time to runa. Reagan: six years; Mondale: four yearsb. May have to resign from office first (Dole in 1996 v. Kerry in 2004)3. Moneya. Individuals can give $2,000, PACs can give $5,000 in each election to each candidateb. Candidates must raise $5,000 in twenty states in individual contributions of $250 or less to qualify for matching grants to pay for primary4. Organizationa. A large (paid) staffb. Volunteersc. Advisers on issues: position papers5. Strategy and themesa. Incumbents defend their record; challengers attack incumbentsb. Setting the tone (positive or negative)c. Developing a theme: "trust, confidence," etc.d. Judging the timing (early momentum vs. reserving resources for later)e. Choosing a target voter: who's the audience? Primary versus general campaigns:1. What works in a general election may not work in a primarya. Different voters, workers, media attentionb. Must mobilize activists with money and motivation to win nomination2. Iowa caucusesa. Held in February of presidential election yearb. Candidates must do well or be disadvantaged in media attention, contributor interestc. Winners tend to be most liberal Democrat, most conservative Republican3. The balancing acta. Being conservative or liberal enough to get nominatedb. Move to center to get electedc. Apparent contradiction means neither candidate is appealingd. Primary voters can be more extreme ideologically than average voters Media Effects on Primaries v. General Elections Television, debates, and direct mail:1. Paid advertising (spots)a. Probably less effect on general than primary electionsb. Most voters rely on many sources for information2. News broadcasts (visuals")a. Cost littleb. May have greater credibility with votersc. Rely on having television camera crew aroundd. May actually be less informative than spots3. Debatesa. Usually an advantage only to the challenger (attack the incumbent)4. Risk of slips of the tongue on visuals and debates (Bush\Gore, Bush\Kerry)a. Forces candidates to rely on stock speeches--campaign themesb. Sell yourself as much or more than ideas5. The computera. Allows candidates to address specific voters via direct mailb. Has completely changed the flow of election information Funding Elections How Important is Money? In 2004, both Bush and Gore waived federal matching funds for the election. This allowed them to raise in excess of $200 million each and avoid election spending caps.1. Presidential Primaries part private, part public funds (public matching funds can be waived to avoid spending limits). Private funds include individual ($2,000 maximum per election) and PAC ($5,000 maximum per election) donations. Public matching funds (dollar for dollar) are available only for candidates who raise at least $5,000 in at least 20 states in small contributions ($250 or less each).2. Presidential General Elections historically, the federal government has picked up the entire tab, but George W. Bush (2000 and 2004) and John Kerry both turned down this federal money and used only private funds to avoid spending limits (Congress would have appropriated about $70 million in 2004 to each candidate).3. Third parties only receive federal presidential campaign funds if they receive 5% or more of the vote nationally. Higher percentages receive higher funding.4. Congressional Elections no public funding all private (individuals, PACs, and parties). Campaign finance limits apply.5. Conventions Congress pays for the parties nominating conventions.2002 Bipartisan Campaign Finance Reform Act set new campaign limits of $2,000 per election from individuals and $5,000 per election from PACs. A primary is a separate election. Political Action Committees (PACs) after Watergate, 1974 campaign finance law changes created PACs as part of the solution (making it legal again for corporations, unions, and other associations to donate). PACs have proliferated tremendously. The Federal Election Commission (FEC) was also created at this time. Election law violation are investigated by this agency. The rise of 527s The 2002 campaign finance reforms limited corporations, unions, and associations from electioneering (ads that support or even mention candidates) within 30 days of a primary or 60 days of a general election. PACs could still function in this capacity, but money counted toward their spending limits. Upon challenge, the US Supreme Court upheld the constitutionality (free speech was in question) of the act. This caused the rise of 527's (so named for a loophole in the IRS code) which would serve the same purpose. These organizations were prominent in 2004. Soft Money unlimited and undisclosed contributions to political parties, typically from corporations, unions, etc. The 2002 reforms eliminated soft money. All money to political parties must be hard money (accounted for and limited). Bundling is still allowed, where a corporation, business, union, etc. can take many smaller contributions and bundle them together into one larger contribution to a candidate. Effects of reforms:1. Goal was to expose and publicize fundraising, but2. has greatly increased power of PACs and thus of special interests3. has shifted control of money away from parties to candidatesa. Limits influence of parties4. has given advantage to wealthy challengersa. Can just write out a check for campaign expenses (Corzine of NJ - 2000)5. has given advantage to ideological candidatesa. Direct mail appeals to special interest groups on issues like abortion, gun control, school prayer, etc.6. has penalized candidates who start campaigning late, who don't have war chests7. has helped incumbents and hurt challengersa. PACs more likely to support an incumbent Presidential elections receive federal funding unless candidates opt out. Congressional elections are privately funded. The Supreme Court has ruled that funding limits on candidates not receiving federal funds are unconstitutional. Candidates privately funded may currently spend all they want. Money and winning Studies show that money makes a difference in congressional races. Challengers must spend to be recognized, and big spending challengers do better, as do big spending incumbents. Advantages of Incumbency -- One estimate calculates incumbency as providing an automatic 9 percent vote advantage. Advantages of incumbency include fundraising (PACs give most to incumbents), services to constituency, franked mailings, name recognition, and free publicity through legislation and investigations. Congress won't agree to additional election reforms since incumbents have the advantage. Additionally:1. The constitutional right to campaign" involved2. Public financing of congressional races would give incumbents even more of an advantage3. Abolishing PAC money might allow fat cats to reemerge as a major force4. Shorter campaigns might help incumbents If most voters (a plurality, actually) are Democrats, why don't Democrats always win?1. Democrats are less wedded to their party2. GOP does better among independents3. Republicans have higher turnout Prospective v. Retrospective voting (prospective is used by relatively few voters): Prospective-1. Those voters know the issues and vote accordingly2. Most common among activists and special interest groupsRetrospective- (voting practiced by most voters, so decides most elections)1. Judge the incumbent's performance and vote accordingly2. Have things gotten better or worse, especially economically?3. Usually helps incumbent unless economy has gotten worse4. Other issues can also be important (Iraq War, terrorism, etc.) The Phenomenon of Midterm Elections: voters traditionally turn against Presidents party. Bush in 02 actually saw midterm gains in Congress rather rare. Campaigns make more of a difference in elections than many people believe:1. They reawaken voters' partisan loyalties2. They let voters see how candidates handle pressure3. They let voters judge candidates' characters4. Campaigns tend to emphasize themes over details To win elections, candidates must find a wining coalition. Certain groups of voters can be very loyal, but the candidate must also look at the importance of various groups (i.e., number of voters and turnout). Traditional Democratic coalition:1. Blacks most loyal2. Jews slipping somewhat3. Hispanics somewhat mixed4. Catholics, southerners, unionists departing the coalition latelyTraditional Republican coalition:1. Party of business and professional people2. Very loyal, defecting only in 19643. Usually wins vote of poor due to retired, elderly voters Party Realignments: sharp, lasting shift in the popular coalition supporting one or both parties. This can happen when there is a change in issues that distinguish the parties or when a major party disappears and new party emerges. Historical realignments include:1. 1800: Jeffersonians defeated Federalists2. 1828: Jacksonian Democrats came to power3. 1860: Whigs collapsed; Republicans won4. 1896: Republicans defeated Bryan5. 1932: FDR Democrats came to power Clearest cases of issue-related realignment:1. 1860: slavery2. 1896: economics3. 1932: depression 1980 Reagan not necessarily a realignment, but has a realignment occurred in the South? Strong national support for Republicans, but still often Democratic locally. Defining issue also lacking. Possibly more of a de-alignment from Democrat to Republican. Party powers have declined in general over the last century:1. Fewer people identify with either party2. Increase in ticket splitting The effects of elections on policy:1. Argument: public policy remains more or less the same no matter which official or party is in office2. Comparison: Great Britain, with parliamentary system and strong parties, often sees marked changes3. Reply: evidence indicates that many American elections do make great differences in policy, though constitutional system generally moderates the pace of change Chapter 9 Why interest groups are common in America (nearly 3\4 est. in D.C. post 1960):1. Many kinds of cleavages in the country2. Constitution makes for many access points to government3. Political parties are weak, so interests work directly on government Institutional interests: individuals or organizations representing other organizations, such as those that represent businesses, unions, etc. They push the bread and butter issues that are of concern to their clients. These groups are numerous and well-financed (AMA, trial lawyers, small business, etc.). Membership interests: groups of many types (social, business, professional, veterans', charitable, religious, political, civic, etc.) whose lobbyists represent the views of individual members (NAACP, AARP, NRA, N.O.W., etc.). Americans join these types of groups more frequently than citizens of other nations (we are just as likely to join business interests, less likely to join unions). Most sympathizers do not join civil groups, though, because benefits flow to nonmembers, too. Incentives to join:1. Solidary incentives-pleasure, companionship (League of Women Voters, Rotary, Parent-Teacher Association, American Legion)2. Material incentives-money, things, services (farm organizations, AARP)3. Purposive incentives-goal/purpose of the organization itself (National Rifle Association) Ideological interest groups attract people who are passionate about a particular issue. They seek to benefit the group through legislative success (NRA, AARP). Public interests seek to benefit the public at large (Nader, many conservationists). The activities of interest groups:A. Supplying credible information to politicians1. Single most important tactic2. Detailed, current information at a premium3. Most effective on narrow, technical issues4. Rating systems for politicians, their votesB. Public support1. Insider strategy previously most common--face-to-face contact between lobbyist and member or Hill staff2. Increasing use of outsider strategy-grassroots mobilizationC. Money and PACs1. Money is least effective way to influence politicians despite popular misconception, vote buying is very rare politicians can take money and still decide how to vote (personal ideology, with constituents). Money can buy access, though.2. Campaign finance reform law of 1973 had two effectsa. Restricted amount interests can give to candidatesb. Made it legal for corporations and unions to create PACs Political Action Committees (PACs):1. Almost any organization can create a PACa. Over half of PACs sponsored by corporations, one-tenth unions, and remainder varied - unions and business/professional organizations give the mostb. Recent increase in ideological PACs; one-third liberal, two-thirds conservative - ideological PACs raise more but spend less due to cost of raising moneyc. Incumbents get most PAC money most contributions are small-Labor PACs almost exclusively give to Democrats-Business PACs split money between Democrats and Republicans-Democrats get most PAC money

Chapter 10 Journalism in American political history a progression over time:A. The party press1. Parties created, subsidized, and controlled various newspapers.2. Possible because circulation small, subscriptions expensive3. Newspapers circulated among political and business elitesB. The popular press1. Changes in society and technology made possible self-supporting, mass readership daily newspapersa. High-speed pressb. Telegraphc. Associated Press, 1848; objective reportingd. Urbanization concentrated population to support paper, advertiserse. Government Printing Office established 1860-end of subsidiesC. Electronic journalism1. Radio arrives in 1920s, television in 1940s2. Politicians could address voters directly but people could easily ignore3. Fewer politicians could be covered by these media than by newspapersa. President routinely coveredb. Others must use bold tactics Most cities now do not have competing newspapers. Television and radio, on the other hand, are intensely competitive. Internet news is available nationally. The national media consists of:1. Wire services (AP, UPI)2. National magazines3. Television network evening news broadcasts4. Cable News - CNN, FOX5. Newspapers with national readerships6. In recent national elections, internet has been key Significance of the national media:1. Washington officials follow it closely2. National reporters and editors distinctive from local pressa. Better paidb. From more prestigious universitiesa. More liberal outlook (local news often more conservative)b. Do investigative or interpretive stories Roles played by the media in politics (important):1. Gatekeeper: what subjects become national political issues, for how long2. Scorekeeper: track political reputations and candidacies (the horse race)3. Watchdog: investigate personalities and expose scandals Newspapers are almost entirely free from government regulation. The first amendment has been very narrowly interpreted so as to protect a free press. There is no prior restraint, and any suit or prosecution for libel, obscenity, or incitement is narrowly very narrowly defined. Radio and television are licensed and regulated. Regulations include:1. Equal-time rule (cant sell ad time only to one candidate)2. Right-of-reply rule (if attacked by a candidate)3. Political-editorializing rule (reply if broadcaster editorializes against)4. Fairness doctrine (a right to reply if a show presented only one side of an issue) -abolished in 1987; still voluntarily followed by many broadcasters, and may be reinstated in the future by law. Confidentiality of sources:1. Reporters want right to keep sources confidential2. Most states and federal government disagree3. Supreme Court allows government to compel reporters to divulge information in court if it bears on a crime Campaigning through television media:1. Equal time rule applies - equal access for all candidates2. Rates no higher than cheapest commercial rate3. Debates formerly had to include all candidates-Reagan-Carter debate sponsored by LWV as news event-Now stations and networks can sponsor debates limited to major candidates4. Efficiency in reaching voters varies-Works well only when market and district overlap-More Senate than House candidates buy television time why? The effects of the media on elections vary, but many political scientists believe that the effects are weaker than what people might perceive. Citizens often tune out completely or dont pay much attention until right before an election. While the argument can clearly be made that the national media has a very liberal bias, this is often countered by local media, which often has a conservative bias. Major media effects are on how politics is conducted, candidates perceived (TV news coverage can affect Presidential popularity), policy formulated. Conventions are scheduled to accommodate television, candidates win party nomination via media exposure, and (very importantly) issues are established by media attention. Media influences the political agenda. Are news stories slanted?1. Most people believe media, especially television, where they get most news2. Percentage increasing among those who think media is biased3. Press itself thinks it is unbiased4. Liberal bias of journalists, especially national media Types of news stories:1. Routine stories: public events, regularly covered-Reported similarly by all media; opinions of journalists have least effect2. Feature stories: public but not routinely covered so requires reporter initiative-Selection involves perception of what is important-Liberal and conservative papers do different stories-Increasing in number; reflect views of press more than experts or public3. Insider stories: investigative reporting or leaks B. Reasons for negative reporting (people say they dont like it, but they tune in)1. Adversarial press since Vietnam, Watergate, Iran-contra-Press and politicians distrust each other-Media are eager to embarrass officials-Competition for awards, etc., among journalists People now often believe media slant coverage, have too much influence, and abuse their constitutional protections. Public confidence in big business is down, and now media are big business. Drive for market share forces media to use theme of corruption, and that often caused cynicism among citizens. Government constraints on journalists do exist. Reporters must strike a balance between expression of views and retaining sources. Government can also rely upon:1. Numerous press officers in legislative and executive branches2. Press releases--canned news3. Leaks and background stories to favorites4. Bypass national press to local5. Presidential rewards and punishments for reporters based on their stories

AP Government Chapter 11-12 Lecture NotesLegislative and Executive BranchesLea Chapter 11 Contrasts between a parliament and a congress:1. Parliamentary candidates are selected by partya. Become a candidate by persuading party to place your name on ballotb. Members of Parliament select prime minister and other leadersc. Party members vote together on most issuesd. Renomination depends on remaining loyal to partye. Principal work is debate over national issuesf. Little actual power (individually), low pay2. Congressional candidates run in a primary election, with little party controla. Vote is for the candidate, not the partyb. Result is a body of relatively independent representativesc. Members do not choose presidentd. Principal work is representation of constituency and actione. Party discipline is limitedf. Great deal of power, high pay The evolution of Congress:A. Intent of the Framers1. To oppose concentration of power in a single institution2. To balance large and small states: bicameralism3. Expected Congress to be the dominant institutionB. General characteristics of subsequent evolution1. Congress generally dominant over presidency until twentieth centurya. Exceptions: brief periods of presidential activism The Senate:A. Escaped many of the tensions encountered by the House, because:1. A smaller chamber2. In 1800s, balanced between slave and free statesB. Popular election of senators in 1913-Seventeenth AmendmentC. Filibuster restricted by Rule 22 (1917) cloture Characteristics of a Congressman:A. Sex and race1. The House has become less male and less white2. Senate -- slower to changeB. Incumbency1. Membership in Congress became a career: low turnover by 1960s2. 1992 and 1994 brought many new members due to:a. Redistricting after 1990 censusb. Anti-incumbency attitude of votersc. Republican victory in 19943. Incumbents still with great electoral advantagea. Most House districts safe, not marginal C. Party1. Democrats were beneficiaries of incumbency, 1933-19922. Gap between votes and seats: Republican vote higher than number of seats won:a. Republicans run best in high-turnout districts, Democrats in low-turnout onesb. Gap closed in 1994c. Democrats often field better candidates whose positions are closer to those of district voters, able to build winning district-level coalitions3. Electoral convulsions, as in 1994a. Voters opposed incumbents due to budget deficits, various policies, legislative-executive bickering, scandalb. Other factors were 1990 redistricting and southern shift to voting Republican Getting elected to Congress:**Each state has two senators, but House representation based on populationA. Determining fair representation1. Now elected from single-member districts (House)2. Problem of drawing district boundaries (both of the following are illegal)a. Malapportionment: deliberately creating disparity in number of people in each districtb. Gerrymandering: drawing boundaries to ensure party victory3. Congress decides size of House (fixed currently at 435 by law)4. Congress reapportions representatives every ten years5. 1964 Supreme Court decision requires districts to be drawn to ensure "one person, one vote" (no malapportionment)6. Majority-minority districts remain problematic questiona. Districts drawn to make it easier to elect minority representativesb. Shaw v. Reno: Supreme Court states race can be a factor in congressional redistricting only if there is a compelling state interest" - standard yet to be definedc. Liberal white members of Congress represent black interests as strongly as black members (What about J.C. Watts?)B. Winning the primary1. Candidate needs to win the party primary to appear on the ballot in the general election2. Primaries reduce influence of political party (people choose, not party leaders)3. Incumbents almost always win: sophomore surge due to use of office to run personal campaign4. Candidates run personalized campaigns--offers them independence from party in Congress5. Way people get elected has two consequencesa. Legislators closely tied to local concernsb. Party leaders have little influence6. Affects how policy is made: office geared to help people, gain pork for districtC. Members must decide how much to be delegates (do what district wants) versus trustees (use independent judgment) The organization of Congress:A. Party organization of the Senate1. President pro tempore presides; member with most seniority in majority party2. Leaders are the majority leader and the minority leader - elected by their respective party members3. Party whips - keep leaders informed, round up votes, count noses4. Each party has a policy committee--schedule Senate business, setting schedule and prioritizing bills5. Committee assignments (important most work happens here!)a. Democratic Steering Committeeb. Republican Committee on Committeesc. Emphasizes ideological and regional balanced. Other factors: popularity, effectiveness on television, favors owedB. Party structure in the House--House rules give leadership more power1. Speaker of the House is leader of majority party; presides over Housea. Decides whom to recognize to speak on the floorb. Rules on germaneness of motionsc. Decides to which committee bills god. Influences which bills are brought up for a votee. Appoints members of special and select committeesf . Has some patronage power2. Majority leader (floor leader) and minority leader3. Party whips same as SenateC. The strength of party structure1. Now less party-centered, less leader-oriented, more hospitable to freshmenD. Party unity1. Problems in measuring party votes2. Party-line voting and cohesion more evident in 1990s than past3. Splits often reflect deep ideological differences between parties or party leaders4. Why is there party voting, given party has so little electoral influence?a. Ideological differences importantb. Cues given by and taken from fellow party membersc. Rewards from party leadersE. Caucuses: rivals to parties in policy formulation1. 1995, public funds denied caucuses--had to raise own money2. Types of caucusesa. intra-partyb. Personal interestc. National constituencyd. Regional constituencye. State or district constituencyf. Industry constituency The organization of Congress: committees and their functions (important!)A. Legislative (standing) committees - most important organizational feature of Congress1. Consider bills or legislative proposals Most bills sent to committees are never heard of again. One estimate calculates that only 6 percent of the bills introduced in Congress are ever reported by a committee for floor action. Most bills die in committee. Only about 4 percent ever become law. 2. Maintain oversight of executive agencies3. Conduct investigationsB. Types of committees1. Standing committees--basically permanent bodies with specified legislative responsibilities2. Select committees--groups appointed for a limited purpose and limited duration3. Joint committees--those on which both representatives and senators servea. Conference committees -- joint committee appointed to resolve differences in Senate and House versions of the same piece of legislation before final passageC. Committee practices1. Number of committees has varied; 1995 - significant cuts2. Majority party has majority of seats on the committees3. Each member usually serves on two standing committees but ...a. House members serve on one exclusive committeeb. Senators receive two major and one minor committee assignments4. Chairs are elected, but usually the most senior member of the committee is elected by the majority party, though seniority weakened in 19955. More amendments proposed and adopted (especially in the Senate)a. Additions, changes, and deletionsb. Porkc. Poison pill The organization of Congress: staffs and specialized officesA. Tasks of staff members1. Constituency service-major task of staff2. Legislative functions-devising proposals, negotiating agreements, organizing hearings, meeting with lobbyists and administratorsB. Growth and impact of staff1. Larger staff generates more legislative work2. Members of Congress can no longer keep up with increased legislative work and so must rely on staff3. Results in a more individualistic Congress-less collegial, less deliberative How a bill becomes law:A. Bills travel through Congress at different speeds1. Bills to spend money or to tax or regulate businesses move slowly2. Bills with a clear, appealing idea move fast3. Complexity of legislative process helps a bill's opponentsB. Introducing a bill1. Introduced by a member of Congress2. Congress initiates most legislation3. Presidentially drafted legislation is shaped by Congress4. Resolutionsa. Simple Resolution-passed by one house affecting that houseb. Concurrent Resolution-passed by both houses affecting bothc. Joint Resolution(1) Essentially a law-passed by both houses, signed by president(2) If used to propose constitutional amendment-two-thirds vote in both houses, but President's signature unnecessary C. Bill is referred to a committee for consideration by either Speaker or presiding officer1. Revenue bills must originate in the House2. Most bills die in committee3. Multiple referrals limited after 19954. Mark-up - bills are revised by committees5. Committee reports a bill out to the House or Senatea. If bill is not reported out, the House can use the discharge petitionb. If bill is not reported out, the Senate can pass a discharge motionc. These are routinely unsuccessful.6. Bill must be placed on a calendar to come before either house7. House Rules Committee sets the rules for considerationa. Closed rule: sets time limit on debate and restricts amendmentsb. Open rule: permits amendments from the floorc. Restrictive rule: permits only some amendmentsd. Use of closed and restrictive rules growinge. Rules can be bypassed in the House-move to suspend rules; Calendar WednesdayD. Floor debate-the House:1. Committee of the Whole-procedural device for expediting House consideration of bills but cannot pass bills2. Committee sponsor of bill organizes the discussion3. House usually passes the sponsoring committee's version of the billE. Floor debate-the Senate:1. No rule limiting germaneness2. Committee hearing process can be bypassed by a senator with a rider3. Debate can be limited only by a cloture vote.a. Three-fifths of Senate must vote in favor of ending filibuster4. Both filibusters and cloture votes becoming more commona. Easier now to stage filibusterb. Roll calls are replacing long speechesc. Filibuster can be curtailed by double-tracking: disputed bill is shelved temporarily so Senate can continue other businessF. Methods of voting1. To investigate voting behavior, one must know how a legislator voted on amendments as well as on the bill itself2. Procedures for voting in the Housea. Voice voteb. Division (standing) votec. Teller voted. Roll-call vote3. Senate voting is the same except no teller vote4. Differences in Senate and House versions of a billa. If minor, last house to act merely sends bill to the other house, which accepts the changesb. If major, a conference committee is appointed(1) Decisions are by a majority of each delegation; Senate version favored @ 60% of time(2) Conference reports back to each house for acceptance or rejection(3) Report can only be accepted or rejected-not amended(4) Report accepted, usually 5. Bill, in final form, goes to the Presidenta. President may sign itb. If president vetoes, it returns to house of origin(1) Either house may override President by vote of two-thirds of those present(2) If both override, bill becomes law without President's signature (historically, in @ 4% of veto situations)How members of Congress vote:A. Representational view1. Assumes that members vote to please their constituents, to get reelected2. Constituents must have a clear opinion of the issue; the vote must attract attention (majoritarian issues)a. Very strong correlation on civil rights and social welfare billsb. Very weak correlation on foreign policyc. No clear opinion in the constituency on most issuesB. Organizational view1. Assumes members of Congress vote to please colleagues, to gain status and prestige2. Organizational cuesa. Partyb. Ideologyc. Party members on sponsoring committees3. Party and other organizations do not have clear position on all issuesC. Attitudinal view1. Assumes that personal ideology affects a legislator's vote2. House members tend, more than senators, to have opinions similar to those of the average voter they represent3. Liberal senators tend to be more liberal than the average voter, vice-versa for conservatives Reforming Congress:A. Numerous proposals to reform CongressB. Representative or direct democracy?1. Framers: representatives refine, not reflect, public opinion2. Today: many think representatives should mirror majority public opinion3. Move toward direct democracy would have consequencesC. Proper guardians of the public weal?1. Madison (to prevent rule by factions)a. National laws should transcend local interestb. Legislators should make reasonable compromises on behalf of entire polity's needsc. Legislators should not be captured by special interests2. Problem is that many special-interest groups represent professions and public-interest groupsD. A decisive Congress or a deliberative one?1. Framers designed Congress to balance competing views and thus act slowly2. Today, complaints of policy gridlock3. But if Congress moves too quickly it may not move wiselyE. Imposing term limits1. Anti-Federalists distrusted strong national government; favored annual elections and term limits2. Today, 95 percent of House incumbents reelected, but 80 percent of public supports term limits3. Twenty-two states in 1994 had passed term-limit proposals4. Effects of term limits vary depending on type of proposala. Lifetime limits produce amateur legislators who are less prone to compromiseb. Limiting continuous sequence leads to office-hopping and push for public attentionc. 1995, Congress failed to approve resolutions for a constitutional amendment on term limits (duhhh!)d. Supreme Court ruled states cannot constitutionally impose term limits on CongressF. Reducing power and perks1. Gifts banned in 1995 (extremely small exceptions); concerns remain2. Regulating franking3. Place Congress under law and not exempt itself from lawsa. Congressional Accountability Act of 1995--Congress obliged itself to obey eleven major employment laws 4. Trim pork to avoid wasteful projectsa. Main cause of deficit is entitlement programs, not porkb. Members supposed to advocate interests of districtc. Price of citizen-oriented Congress is pork5. Downsize staff as wella. But staff size same as 1980sb. Cutting staff makes Congress more dependent on executive Ethics and Congress:A. Separation of powers and corruption1. Fragmentation of power increases number of officials with opportunity to sell influencea. Example: senatorial courtesy rule offers opportunity for office seeker to influence a senator2. Forms of influencea. Moneyb. Exchange of favorsB. New ethics rules (104th Congress) limiting the spoils of office:1. Honoraria: House bans, Senators may designate charity2. Campaign funds: ban retaining of surplus3. Lobbying - former members banned for one year4. Gifts: $250 House limit, $100 Senate5. Lobbyist payments banned for travel, legal defense funds, charitable donationsC. Problems with ethics rules1. Rules assume money is the only source of corruption2. Neglect political alliances and personal friendships that are part of legislative bargaining3. The Framers were more concerned to ensure liberty (through checks and balances) than moralityD. Congressional Accountability Act of 1995 bipartisan effort to allow Congress to comply with a variety of national laws without executive branch enforcement (mixing the separation of powers) by creating the Office of Compliance to handle oversight and employee grievances ***Throughout most of American history (with brief exceptions), Congress has been the dominant branch of the federal government that changed during the FDR era, when the executive became entrenched as the dominant branch. There have been numerous attempts by Congress to reassert its authority since the 1970s. Know these!!1. Reaction to Vietnam, Watergate, and divided government2. War Powers Act of 19733. Congressional Budget and Impoundment Reform Act of 19744. Legislative veto included in more laws Chapter 12 Presidents v. prime ministers:A. Characteristics of parliaments1. Parliamentary system twice as common2. Chief executive chosen by legislature3. Cabinet ministers chosen from among members of parliament4. Prime minister remains in power as long as his/her party or coalition maintains a majority in the legislatureB. Differences (affected by our Separation of Powers)1. Presidents are often outsiders (divided government); prime ministers are always insiders, chosen by party members in parliament2. Members of Congress cannot simultaneously serve in a president's cabinet; members of parliament are eligible to serve in the prime minister's cabinet3. Presidents have no guaranteed majority in the legislature; prime ministers always have a majority4. Presidents and legislature often work at cross-purposesa. Even when one party controls both branches (Bush, 2005, Harriett Miers for Supreme Court)b. A consequence of separation of powers, which fosters conflict between the branchesc. Historically, only Roosevelt and Johnson had highly constructive relations with CongressC. Divided government common in U.S. but Americans dislike it for creating gridlock1. But divided government passes as many important laws, conducts as many investigations, and ratifies as many treaties as a unified government2. Unclear whether gridlock is always bad; it is a necessary consequence of representative democracy The evolution of the presidency:A. Delegates feared both anarchy and monarchy1. Idea of a plural executive2. Idea of an executive checked by a councilB. Concerns of the Founders1. Fear of military power of president who could overpower states2. Fear of presidential corruption by Senate3. Fear of presidential bribery to ensure reelection4. Concerned to balance power of legislative and executive branchesC. The electoral college1. Each state to choose own method of selecting electors2. Electors to meet in own capital to vote for president and vice president The actual election of the president and vice president does not occur until January 6, when the sitting vice president, in the presence of both houses of Congress, opens the ballots of the electors. Although usually a formality, some electors have deviated from the way they were supposed to vote (faithless elector). 3. If no majority, House would decideD. The president's term of office1. Precedent of George Washington: historical tradition of two terms2. Twenty-second Amendment in 1951 limits to two terms (6 to 10 years)3. Problem of establishing the legitimacy of the office (Washington)4. Provision for orderly transfer of power (Jefferson, 1800)E. The first presidents1. Office legitimated by men active in independence and Founding politics2. Minimal activism of early government contributed to lessening fear of the presidency3. Appointed people of stature in the community (rule of fitness)4. Relations with Congress were reserved; few vetoes; no adviceF. The Jacksonians1. Jackson believed in a strong and independent president2. Vigorous use of veto for policy reasons; none overriddenG. The reemergence of Congress1. With brief exceptions the next hundred years was a period of congressional dominance2. Intensely divided public opinion-partisanship, slavery, sectionalism3. Only Lincoln expanded presidential powera. Asserted implied powers as commander in chiefb. Justified by emergency conditions created by Civil War The Supreme Court rejected Lincoln's emergency powers rationale for exercising power beyond the president's constitutional authority. In Ex Parte Milligan (1866), the Court declared that the Constitution of the United States is a law for rulers and people, equally in war and in peace.4. President mostly an opposing force to Congress until New Deal (FDR)5. Popular conception of president as center of government contradicts reality; Congress often policy leader The powers of the president:A. Formal powers found in Article II1. Not a large number of explicit powers2. Potential for power found in ambiguous clauses of the Constitution--e.g., power as commander in chief, duty to take care that laws be faithfully executed partial means for current expansionB. Greatest source of power lies in politics and public opinion1. Increase in broad statutory (by law) authority, especially since 1930s2. Expectation of presidential leadership from the publicThe office of the president:A. The White House Office1. Contains the president's closest assistants2. Three ways of structuring, often used in combinationa. Pyramidb. Circularc. Ad hoc3. Staff typically worked on the campaign; a few are experts B. Executive Office of the President1. Composed of agencies (bureaucracy) that report directly to the president2. Appointments must receive Senate confirmation (majority only)C. The Cabinet1. Not explicitly mentioned in Constitution2. President can appoint fewer than one percent of employees in most departments3. Secretaries become preoccupied and defensive about their own departments a. gone nativeD. Independent agencies, commissions, and judgeships1. President appoints members of agencies that have a quasi-independent status (such as the FED or the SEC)2. In general, independent agency heads can be removed only for cause and serve fixed terms; executive agency heads serve at the president's pleasure, though their appointments must be confirmed by the Senate3. Judges can be removed only by impeachment Presidential character during the last half-century:A. Eisenhower--orderlyB. Kennedy-improviserC. Johnson-deal makerD. Nixon-mistrustfulE. Ford-genialF. Carter-outsider, micromanagerG. Reagan-communicatorH. Bush-hands-on managerI. Clinton-focus on detailsJ. Bush-delegates extensively The presidential power to persuade:A. The three audiences1. Fellow politicians and leaders in Washington, D.C. - reputation very important2. Party activists and officials outside Washington3. The various publicsB. Popularity and influence1. Presidents try to transform popularity into congressional support for their programs high approval ratings often equal more support2.Members of Congress believe it is politically risky to challenge a popular presidentC. The decline in popularity1. Popularity highest immediately after an election2. Declines by midterm3. Crises, particularly with decisive response, often improve popularity The power to say no (many opportunities):A. Veto of legislation1. Veto often sends a message to Congress2. Pocket veto (only before Congress adjourns at the end of its second session)3. Congress rarely overrides vetoes (2\3 supermajority of both houses required); no line-item veto (aka enhanced recision) in constitution4. 1996 law permitted enhanced recisions, though its constitutionality was uncertain (later found unconstitutional in Clinton v. NY)B. Executive privilege1. Confidential communications between president and advisers2. Justificationa. Separation of powersb. Need for candid advice3. U.S. v. Nixon (1973) rejected claim of absolute executive privilegeC. Impoundment of funds1. Defined: presidential refusal to spend funds appropriated by Congress2. Countered by Congressional Budget and Impoundment Reform Act (1974)a. Requires president to notify Congress of funds he does not intend to spendb. Congress must agree in 45 days to delete itemc. Requires president to notify Congress of delays in spendingd. Congress may pass a resolution requiring the immediate release of funds The President's program:The preparation of a presidential program was not institutionalized until the administration of Franklin Roosevelt. When Eisenhower assumed office, he failed to submit a program in the belief that initiating legislation was a congressional responsibility. Congress finally requested the president to forward his policies for action. 1. President can try to have a policy on everything (Carter)2. President can concentrate on a small number of initiatives (Reagan)3. Constraintsa. Public and congressional reaction may be adverse (Clinton Health Care)b. Limited time and attention span of the president (Bush I, Ford)c. Unexpected crises (Bush II) Presidential succession:A. Only fifteen of forty-three presidents have served two termsB. The vice president1. Eight vice presidents have succeeded to office on president's death2. Rarely are vice presidents elected presidenta. Unless they first took over for a president who diedb. Only five instances otherwise: Adams, Jefferson, Van Buren, Nixon, Bush (Sr.) and only three after the early founders Both John Adams and Thomas Jefferson were vice presidents prior to the adoption of the Twelfth Amendment, which provided for the election of a single ticket to the top executive offices (president and vice president). Adams and Jefferson, therefore, had no official party connection to the president. 3. A rather empty joba. Vice president presides over Senate and votes in case of tieb. Leadership powers in Senate are weakC. Problems of succession1. What if president falls ill?a. Examples: Garfield, Wilson, Eisenhower, Reagan2. If vice president steps up, who becomes new vice president?a. Succession Act (1886): designated secretary of state as next in lineb. Amended in 1947 to designate Speaker of the House3. Twenty-fifth Amendment (1967) resolved both issuesa. Allows vice president to serve as acting president if president is disabled first example Reagans surgery(1) Decided by president, by vice president and cabinet, or by two-thirds vote of Congressb. Requires vice president who ascends to office on death or resignation of president to name a vice president Agnew, Nixon, and Ford ex.(1) Must be confirmed by majority vote of both housesD. Impeachment1. Judges, not presidents, most frequent objects of impeachment2. Indictment by the House, conviction by the Senatea. Examples: Andrew Johnson, Richard Nixon (preempted by resignation), Bill Clinton both Johnson and Clinton found not guilty by the Senate How powerful is the president?A. Both president and Congress are more constrained todayB. Reasons for constraints1. Complexity of issues2. Scrutiny of the media3. Greater number and power of interest groups C. Worlds most powerful person? Arguably

AP American GovernmentChapter 13-14 Lecture NotesThe Judiciary and the Federal BureaucracyLeaChapter 13 The Bureaucracy The American Bureaucracy:A. Constitutional system and traditions make bureaucracy distinctive1. Oversight shared by President and Congress2. Federal agencies share functions with state and local governments3. Adversarial culture leads to closer scrutiny; court challenges more likelyB. Scope of bureaucracy1. Little public (government) ownership of industry in the United States2. High degree of regulation in the United States of private industries The Federal Bureaucracy Today:A. Direct and indirect growth1. Modest increase in number of government employees2. Significant indirect increase in number of employees through use of private contractors, state and local government employeesB. Growth in discretionary authority1. Delegation of undefined authority by Congress greatly increased2. Primary areas of delegationa. Subsidies to groupsb. Grant-in-aid programsc. Enforcement of regulationsC. Factors explaining behavior of bureaucrats1. Recruitment and retentiona. Still some presidential patronage - presidential appointments, non-career executive assignments(1) Pendleton Act (1883): transferred basis of government jobs from patronage to merit(2) Merit system protects president from pressure and protects patronage appointees from new presidents (blanketing in)b. The buddy system(1) Name-request job: filled by a person whom an agency has already identified. Job description may be tailored for person. Circumvents usual search process - also encourages issue networks based on shared policy viewsc. Firing a bureaucrat(1) Most bureaucrats cannot be fired, although there are informal methods of disciplined. The Agency point of view(1) Agencies are dominated by lifetime bureaucrats who have worked for no other agency2. Personal attributes--so