ap biology macromolecules you are what you eat!. ap biology polymer is a long molecule consisting...
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AP Biology
Macromolecules
You are what you eat!
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AP Biology
Polymer
Is a long molecule consisting of many similar building blocks called monomers
Specific monomers make up each macromolecule
E.g. amino acids are the monomers for proteins
2
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AP Biology 3
The Synthesis and Breakdown of Polymers Monomers form larger molecules by
condensation reactions called dehydration synthesis
(a) Dehydration reaction in the synthesis of a polymer
HO H1 2 3 HO
HO H1 2 3 4
H
H2O
Short polymer Unlinked monomer
Longer polymer
Dehydration removes a watermolecule, forming a new bond
Figure 5.2A
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AP Biology 4
The Synthesis and Breakdown of Polymers Polymers can disassemble by
Hydrolysis (addition of water molecules)
(b) Hydrolysis of a polymer
HO 1 2 3 H
HO H1 2 3 4
H2O
HHO
Hydrolysis adds a watermolecule, breaking a bond
Figure 5.2B
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AP Biology
Carbohydrates Structure / monomer
monosaccharide Function
energy raw materials energy storage structural compounds
Examples glucose, starch, cellulose, glycogen
glycosidic bond
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AP Biology
Sugars Most names for sugars end in -ose Classified by number of carbons
6C = hexose (glucose) 5C = pentose (ribose) 3C = triose (glyceraldehyde)
OH
OH
H
H
HO
CH2OH
HH
H
OH
O
Glucose
H
OH
HO
O H
HHO
H
Ribose
CH2OH
Glyceraldehyde
H
H
H
H
OH
OH
O
C
C
C6 5 3
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AP Biology
Bonding of Carbohydrates
DisaccharidesConsist of
monosaccharidesAre joined by a
glycosidic linkage
7
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AP Biology
Simple & complex sugars Monosaccharides
simple 1 monomer sugars glucose
Disaccharides 2 monomers sucrose
Polysaccharides large polymers starch
OH
OH
H
H
HO
CH2OH
H
H
H
OH
O
Glucose
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AP Biology
Polysaccharides Polymers of sugars
costs little energy to build easily reversible = release energy
Function: energy storage
starch (plants) glycogen (animals)
in liver & muscles structure
cellulose (plants) chitin (arthropods & fungi)
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AP Biology
Polysaccharide diversity Molecular structure determines function
isomers of glucose structure determines function…
in starch in cellulose
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AP Biology 11
GlycogenConsists of glucose monomers Is the major storage form of glucose
in animals
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AP Biology
Cellulose Most abundant organic
compound on Earth herbivores have evolved a mechanism to
digest cellulose most carnivores have not
that’s why they eat meat to get their energy & nutrients
cellulose = undigestible roughage
But it tasteslike hay!
Who can liveon this stuff?!
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AP Biology 13
Chitin, another important structural polysaccharide Is found in the exoskeleton of
arthropodsCan be used as surgical thread
(a) The structure of the chitin monomer.
O
CH2OH
OHHH OH
H
NH
CCH3
O
H
H
(b) Chitin forms the exoskeleton of arthropods. This cicada is molting, shedding its old exoskeleton and emergingin adult form.
(c) Chitin is used to make a strong and flexible surgical
thread that decomposes after the wound or incision heals.
OH
Figure 5.10 A–C
Structural polysaccharides
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Regents Biology
Lipids Lipids are composed of C, H, O
long hydrocarbon chains (H-C) “Family groups”
fats phospholipids steroids
Do not form polymers big molecules made of smaller subunits not a continuing chain
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Regents Biology
Fats Structure:
glycerol (3C alcohol) + fatty acid fatty acid =
long HC “tail” with carboxyl (COOH) group “head”
dehydration synthesis
H2O
enzyme
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Regents Biology
Fats store energy Long HC chain
polar or non-polar? hydrophilic or hydrophobic?
Function: energy storage
concentrated all H-C!
2x carbohydrates cushion organs insulates body
think whale blubber!
Why do humanslike fatty foods?
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Regents Biology
Saturated fats All C bonded to H No C=C double bonds
long, straight chain most animal fats solid at room temp.
contributes to cardiovascular disease (atherosclerosis) = plaque deposits
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Regents Biology
Unsaturated fats C=C double bonds in
the fatty acids plant & fish fats vegetable oils liquid at room temperature
the kinks made by doublebonded C prevent the molecules from packing tightly together
mono-unsaturated?poly-unsaturated?
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Regents Biology
Hydrogenation Hydrogenation adds more H and changes
double bonds to single bonds
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Regents Biology
Phospholipids Structure:
glycerol + 2 fatty acids + PO4
PO4 = negatively charged
It’s just like apenguin…
A head at one end& a tail
at the other!
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Regents Biology
Steroids Structure:
4 fused C rings + ?? different steroids created by attaching different
functional groups to rings different structure creates different function
examples: cholesterol, sex hormones
cholesterol
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Regents Biology
Cholesterol Important cell component
animal cell membranes precursor of all other steroids
including vertebrate sex hormones high levels in blood may contribute to
cardiovascular disease
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Regents Biology
From Cholesterol Sex Hormones What a big difference a few atoms can make!
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Regents Biology
Proteins Most structurally & functionally diverse group Function: involved in almost everything
enzymes (pepsin, DNA polymerase) structure (keratin, collagen) carriers & transport (hemoglobin, aquaporin) cell communication
signals (insulin & other hormones) receptors
defense (antibodies) movement (actin & myosin) storage (bean seed proteins)
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Regents Biology
Proteins Structure
monomer = amino acids 20 different amino acids
polymer = polypeptide protein can be one or more polypeptide
chains folded & bonded together large & complex molecules complex 3-D shape
Rubisco
hemoglobin
growthhormones
H2O
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Regents Biology
Amino acids Structure
central carbon amino group carboxyl group (acid) R group (side chain)
variable group different for each amino acid confers unique chemical
properties to each amino acid like 20 different letters of an
alphabet can make many words (proteins)
—N—H
HC—OH
||O
R
|—C—
|
H
Oh, I get it!amino = NH2 acid = COOH
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Regents Biology
Protein structure & function
hemoglobin
Function depends on structure 3-D structure
twisted, folded, coiled into unique shape
collagen
pepsin
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Regents Biology
Building proteins Peptide bonds
covalent bond between NH2 (amine) of one amino acid & COOH (carboxyl) of another
C–N bond
peptidebond
dehydration synthesisH2O
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Regents Biology
Protein structure
amino acid sequence
peptide bonds
1°
determinedby DNA R groups
H bonds
R groupshydrophobic interactions
disulfide bridges(H & ionic bonds)
3°multiple
polypeptideshydrophobic interactions
4°
2°
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Regents Biology 30
Sickle-Cell Disease: A Simple Change in Primary Structure
Results from a single amino acid substitution in the protein hemoglobin
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Regents Biology
Protein denaturation Unfolding a protein
conditions that disrupt H bonds, ionic bonds, disulfide bridges temperature pH salinity
alter 2° & 3° structure alter 3-D shape
destroys functionality some proteins can return to their functional shape
after denaturation, many cannot
In Biology,size doesn’t matter,
SHAPE matters!
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Regents Biologyproteinsproteins
DNADNA
Nucleic Acids Function:
genetic material stores information
genesblueprint for building proteins
DNA RNA proteins
transfers informationblueprint for new cellsblueprint for next generation
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Regents Biology
Nucleic Acids Examples:
RNA (ribonucleic acid) single helix
DNA (deoxyribonucleic acid) double helix
Structure: monomers = nucleotides
RNA
DNA
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Regents Biology
Nucleotides 3 parts
nitrogen base (C-N ring) pentose sugar (5C)
ribose in RNA deoxyribose in DNA
phosphate (PO4) group
Are nucleic acidscharged molecules?
Nitrogen baseI’m the
A,T,C,G or Upart!
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Regents Biology 35
The Structure of Nucleic Acids
Each contains a sugar, phosphate group, and nitrogenous base
The bonds are called phosphodiester bonds
3’C
5’ end
5’C
3’C
5’C
3’ endOH
Figure 5.26
O
O
O
O
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Regents Biology 36
DNA Pairing Adenine pairs with Thymine (or Uracil
in RNA) Guanine pairs with Cytosine Pairing is anti-parallel Ex. If 1 side is 5’-A-T-C-G-A-A-C-C-3’
the other side is 3’-T-A-G-C-T-T-G-G-5’
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Regents Biology 37
DNA The nitrogenous bases in DNA
Form hydrogen bonds in a complementary fashion
Purines ( Adenine and Guanine)
bond only with pyrimidines ( cytosine, thymine and uracil)
CHCH
Uracil (in RNA)U
Ribose (in RNA)
Nitrogenous bases Pyrimidines
CNNC
OH
NH2
CHCH O C N
HCH
HN CO
C CH3
NHN C
CH
O
O
CytosineC
Thymine (in DNA)T
NHC
N CC N
CCHN
NH2 ON
HCNHH
C C
N
NHC NH2
AdenineA
GuanineG
Purines
OHOCH2
HH H
OH
H
OHOCH2
HH H
OH
H
Pentose sugars
Deoxyribose (in DNA) Ribose (in RNA)OHOH
CHCH
Uracil (in RNA)U
4’
5”
3’OH H
2’
1’
5”
4’
3’ 2’
1’
Pyrimidines
Purines
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Regents Biology 38
RNA directs protein synthesis
1
2
3
Synthesis of mRNA in the nucleus
Movement of mRNA into cytoplasm
via nuclear pore
Synthesisof protein
NUCLEUSCYTOPLASM
DNA
mRNA
Ribosome
AminoacidsPolypeptide
mRNA
Figure 5.25
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Regents Biology 39
Tape Measures of Evolution Can examine familial similarities in DNA
sequences Examine molecular genealogy of DNA
to find similar species Ex. Humans and gorillas differ by only 1
amino acid
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Regents Biology 40