AP BIOLOGY – Exploring the Diversity of Life(Kingdom Plantae excluded… for now!)

Complete the questions using the chapters of your textbook Campbell’s Biology.Adapted from assignments prepared by Dave Knuffle and by Kim Foglia, modified by Lisa Marcos.

CHAPTER 25: The History of Life on Earth1. What is the earliest date for which we have clear evidence of life on Earth? _____________________________________________________________________________

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2. In your own words, how did eukaryotes arise from prokaryotes? Include the term serial endosymbiosis in your answer.

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3. What happened in the “Cambrian explosion”? _____________________________________________________________________________

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Chapter 26: Phylogeny and the tree of life1. Why do we want our taxonomy to reflect phylogeny? _____________________________________________________________________________

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2. How is phylogenetic relatedness determined? _____________________________________________________________________________

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3. What does cladistics focus on? _____________________________________________________________________________

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4. Use of molecular clocks relies on what assumption? Is that a reasonable assumption? _____________________________________________________________________________

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5. Some have argued that it’s misleading to divide all life into two groups, prokaryotes and eukaryotes because it implies a close relationship between Archae and Bacteria. Does such a relationship seem to exist, based on the history of the groups?

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CHAPTER 27 – Bacteria and Archaea – Part 1

1. How common are prokaryotes on earth?

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2. How do bacterial cell walls differ from plant cell walls?

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3. How does the cell wall aid in classifying the bacteria?

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4. List the methods bacteria use to locomote.

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5. Give an example if a stimulus and describe how bacteria react to that stimulus (taxis).

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6. How do bacteria typically reproduce?

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7. List three methods that can modify bacteria genetically.

a. _______________________________________________________________________

b. _______________________________________________________________________

c. _______________________________________________________________________

8. Identify and briefly define the four nutritional categories of bacteria.

d. _______________________________________________________________________

e. _______________________________________________________________________

f. _______________________________________________________________________

g. _______________________________________________________________________

9. How has molecular systematics lead to classifying prokaryotes into two domains?

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10. What is the ecological significance of prokaryotes?

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Bacteria and Archaea – Part 2. Directions: Using Table 27.2 on page 567 and the information in the text, outline the key characteristics that distinguish thethree domains. Include examples oforganisms in each domain.

DOMAIN CHARACTERISTICS EXAMPLE

DOMAIN CHARACTERISTICS EXAMPLE

Bacteria

Archaea

Eukarya

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CHAPTER 28 – Protists – Part 1

1. Why are Protists said to be the most diverse of all eukaryotes?

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2. What process is thought to be involved in the genesis of eukaryotes from

prokaryotes?

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3. Why do most systematists currently working on eukaryotic relationships consider Kingdom Protista and the five kingdom system obsolete?_____________________________________________________________________________

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Protists - Part 2. Directions: Using the diagram below and information in the text, outline thekey characteristics that distinguish the major branches of the Domain Eukarya identified onthe diagram.

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BRANCH POINT - CHARACTERISTICS

1. Autotroph / Heterotroph & Decomposers

- Autotroph: organisms that can make their own food using different sources of energy

- Alveolata, Stramenopila, Euglenozoans, Chlorophyta, Plantae, and Rhodophyta

- Heterotroph: organisms that obtain food molecules by eating other organisms- Animalia: Euglenozoans, Choanoflagellates and Metazoa- Decomposers: organisms that take up nutrients from non-living organic material- Fungi

2. Flagella / No Flagella

- Flagella: long cellular appendage for various functions such as locomotion

- Excavates (the euglenozoans) include protists with unique flagella- Chromalveolates (may have originated by secondary

endosymbiosis): hairy and smooth flagella

3. Crystal rods in flagella / No rods

- Excavates have crystal rods inside their flagella, while other protist groups such as Alveolata and Stramenopila do not

4. Symbiosis with fungi

- Some species from Chlorophyta, a division of green algae have symbiotic relationships with fungi (e.g. some lichens)

5. Live in shallow water / live on land

- Charophycean algae inhabit shallow waters, but it needs to survive when water levels drop led to increasing ability to survive on land

- Many plants developed vascular tissues so to survive on land

6. Decomposer / Heterotrophic consumer

- Decomposer: an organism that feeds on and breaks down dead plant or animal matter, thus making organic nutrients available to the ecosystem Fungi

- Heterotrophic consumer: an organism that eats other organisms or organic matter in a food chain

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CHAPTER 31 – Fungi– Part 1

PART 1. Directions: All answers are to be completed on your own and neatly written.

1. How do fungi acquire nutrients?

By secreting powerful hydrolytic enzymes into their surroundings; enzymes break down

complex molecules to smaller organic compounds that the fungi can absorb into their

bodies and use.

2. Because of this mode of nutrition, fungi have evolved what structure to provide for both extensive surface area and rapid growth?

B odies typically form a network of small filaments called hyphae: consist of tubular cell

walls surrounding the plasma membrane and cytoplasm of the cells .

3. How do the cell walls of fungi differ from the cell walls of plants?

_ Cell walls of fungi are called septa, which generally have pores large enough to allow

ribosomes, mitochondria, and even nuclei to flow from cell to cell.

4. How do fungi contribute to an ecosystem?

Mycorrhizal f ungi can improve delivery of phosphate ions and other minerals to plants; free elements

essential to life like carbon and nitrogen ; almost all vascular plants have mycorrhizae and rely on

them for essential nutrients.

5. Give some examples of how fungi are important to humans.

Fungi are food for humans. Many mushrooms are edible and different species are cultivated for sale

w orldwide. Many other fungi also produce antibiotic substances, which are now widely used to control

diseases in human and animal populations. Penicillin, for instance, is derived from a fungus called

Penicillium. Also, Foresters commonly inoculate pine seedlings with fungi to promote growth.

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Fungi - Part 2. Directions: Label the figure below using Figure 31.11 on page 642. Then use the information in Figure 31.11 and in the text to fill in the following table. Outline the key characteristics of each branch of the Kingdom Fungi and include several examples of organisms in each group.

Branch Characteristics ExamplesChytrids (1,000 species) - globular fruiting body forms

multiceullar, branched hyphae- others are single-celled

- one of the earliest groups to diverge from other fungi

Chytridium

Zygomycetes (1,000 species) - hyphae of some grow rapidly Into foods such as fruits and

bread- live as decomposers,

parasites, or as commensal symbionts of animals

Rhizopus stolonifer, Mucor, Pilobolus

Glomeromycetes (160 species) - have mycorrhizal associations with plants

- the tips of the hyphae push Into plant root cells branch into

tiny arbuscules

Glomus mosseae, A. gerdemannii, A. leptoticha

Ascomycetes (65,000 species) - also called sac fungi: saclike asci produce sexual spores- common to many marine, freshwater, and terrestrial

habitats- many are decomposers

Neurospora crassa, Aleuria aurantia

Basidiomycetes (30,000 species)

- often decomposers and ectomycorrhizal fungi

- have a long-lived, dikaryotic mycelium

Mushrooms, puffballs, and shelf fungi

Amanita muscaria

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- fruiting bodies: basidiocarps

CHAPTER 32 – Introduction to Animal Diversity – Part 1

1. Outline the major characteristics Campbell uses to define an animal.

Nutritional Mode, cell structure and specialization , reproduction and development

2. List an hypothesis for the origin of animals.

All animal lineages are monophyletic; diverged from the ancestors of fungi about a billion

years ago; evidence indicate that choanoflagellates are among the closest living

relatives of animals; hypothesize that the common ancestor may have been a stationary

suspension feeder similar to choanoflagellates.

3. Describe the two forms of symmetry in animal body plans.

Radial symmetry: does not have a left side and a right side; bilateral symmetry: one

imaginary cut divides the body into two equal but opposite

halves.________________________

4. What is the significance of cephalization as an evolutionary trend?

A trend in which the sensory equipment concentrates on the anterior end; development of the central

nervous system ; Adaptation for movement on land.

5. What are the three germ layers of an embryo? What’s the difference between being

diploblastic and being triploblastic, and what kinds of animals are in each group?

Ectoderm (surface), endoderm (innermost layer), mesoderm (middle layer); diploblastic

means only two germ layers (cnidarians and comb jellies); triploblastic means having

three germ layers

6. Define the following terms and describe their significance in classifying animals.

a. Acoelomates : lack a body cavity altogether ; some triplobastic animals can be

classified as this

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b. Pseudocoelomates _animals that have a body cavity that is formed from mesoderm

and endoderm   ; e.g. roundworms

c. Coelomates animals that have a true coelom, a body cavity completely lined by tissue

derived from mesoderm   ; e.g.

earthworms _______________________________________________________

d. Protostomes ____________________________________________________________

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e. Deuterostomes __________________________________________________________

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f. spiral, determinate cleavage _______________________________________________

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g. radial, indeterminate cleavage ______________________________________________

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h. blastopore ______________________________________________________________

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7. List a number of the major differences between the Protostomes and Deuterostomes.

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8. Label the stages of early embryonic development of animal.

Animal Diveristy - Part 2. Directions: Using Figure 33.3 on pages 667-669 and the information in the text, list the relative diversity, distinguishing characteristics and examples of the major invertebrate phyla for each branch of the Kingdom Animalia identified on the diagram. Use definitions from question 6 to help you. Include examples of organisms in each division.

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DIVISION CHARACTERISITICS EXAMPLE

1. Porifera(Calcarea and Silicea)

- Informally called “sponges:” lack true tissues- Live as suspension feeders, trapping particles that

pass through the internal channels of their bodies- Consists of 2 layers of cells separated by the mesohyl- Most are hermaphrodites

Azure vase sponge (Callyspongia plicifera)

2. Cnidaria

- Have a diplobastic, radially symmetrical body plan that includes a gastrovascular cavity with a single opening that serves as both mouth and anus

- Carnivores that often use tentacles arranged in a ring around their mouth to capture prey

- Mostly marine, some freshwater

- corals, jellies, and hydras

3. Ctenophora

- Comb jellies- Diplobastic and radially symmetrical- Make up much of the ocean’s plankton- Eight “combs” of cilia that propel the animals through

the water

- cydippids with egg-shaped bodies and a pair of retractable tentacles fringed with tentilla- Mnemiopsis

4. Platyhelminthes

- Have bilateral symmetry and a central nervous system that processes information from sensory structures

- No body cavity or organs for circulation- Live in marine, freshwater, and damp terrestrial

habitats- Gas exchange occurs by diffusion across the body

surface

- Tapeworms, planarians, and flukes

5. Rotifers

- microscopic size- inhibit freshwater, marine, and damp oil habitats- have specialized organ systems including an

alimentary canal- feed on microorganisms suspended in water

Sinantherina semibullata and Cephalodella vittata

6. Nematoda

- Found in most aquatic habitats, in the soil, in the moist tissues of plants, and in body fluids of animals

- Do not have segmented bodies- Covered by a tough cuticle- Have an alimentary canal, though lack a circulatory

system- Longitudinal body wall muscles

Caenorhabditis elegans, Trichinella spiralis

7. Nemertea- Have an alimentary canal and a closed circulatory

system in which the blood is contained in vessels and hence is distinct from fluid in the body

- Proboscis worms, or ribbon worms

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DIVISION CHARACTERISTICS EXAMPLE

8. Mollusca

- Soft body protected by a hard, calcified shell secreted by the mantle

- A muscular foot; a visceral mass containing most of the internal organs; and a mantle, a fold of tissue that drapes over the visceral mass and secrets a shell

- Most have separate sexes

Snails, clams, squids, octopuses, slugs

9. Annelida

- Body composed of separated segments- Live in the sea, in most freshwater habitats, and in

damp soil- Digestive system: two openings; coelomate; closed

circulatory system

Earthworms, sandworms, leeches

10. Arthropoda

- Segmented bodies exoskeleton of chitin; jointed appendages

- Two unusual Hox genes affect segmentation- Largest, most successful animal phylum- Many undergo metamorphosis during development;

open circulatory system;

Spiders, lobster, centipedes, insects, crab, pill bug

11. Echinodermata

- A thin epidermis covers an endoskeleton of hard plates- Live in salt water; larvae have bilateral symmetry- Water vascular system used in excretion, feeding and

locomotion- Tube feet

Sand dollars, sea stars, sea cucumbers and sea urchins

12. Chordata

- Bilaterally symmetrical coelomates with segmented bodies

- Notochord, dorsal hollow nerve cord, pharyngeal slits or clefts, and a muscular post-anal tail during embryonic development

Lancelets, tunicates, hagfish, fish, amphibians, reptiles, birds, and mammals

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CHAPTER 33 – Invertebrates

1. How does the structure of a sponge relate to its method of nutrition?

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2. What is a unique characteristic common to the Cnidarians?

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3. What are the two forms of shape within the Cnidarians?

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4. What are some evolutionary advancements we see in the Platyhelminthes?

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5. In what way are Platyhelminthes significant to humans?

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6. Define parthenogenesis. (We see this in the rotifers, but it will come up in other groups

as well…)

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7. What is unique in the structure and function of the Pseudocoelomates?

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8. List ways in which Nematodes impact humans.

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9. List common examples that could be classified as Coelomate Protostomes.

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10. What are the three major body regions of a Mollusk?

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11. Why do zoologists debate the relationship of Mollusks and Annelids?

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12. What is the evolutionary significance of the coelom as seen in the Annelids?

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13. What is the importance of segmentation?

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14. Why are the Arthropoda regarded as the most successful of all animal phyla?

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15. Identify a characteristic that was most significant to Arthropod success.

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16. List common examples that could be classified as Coelomate Deuterostomes.

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17. What traits are particularly unique to the Echinoderms?

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CHAPTER 34 – VERTEBRATE EVOLUTION & DIVERSITY – Part 1

1. What are the four characteristics of the Chordates?

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2. List and describe an example of an invertebrate chordate.

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3. What characterizes the subphylum Vertebrata?

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4. In the evolution of vertebrates, identify the significance of being tetrapod.

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5. Identify the significance of the amniotic egg and the amniote.

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6. What are the three main groups of mammals, and how do they differ? _____________________________________________________________________________

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Vertebrate Diversity - Part 2 - Fill in the figure below using Figure 34.2 on page 698 as your template. Then, using the figure and the information in the text, outline the key characteristics that distinguish the major branches of the subphylum Vertebrata identified on the diagram. Include examples of organisms in each class (except Urochordata and Cephalocordata).

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Division Characteristics Examples

Myxini

- The least derived craniate lineage; all are marine

- Cartilage skull, but lack jaws and vertebrae

- Swim in snakelike fashion by using segmental muscles to exert force against their notochord

- Small brain, eyes, ears, and a nasal opening

- Can produce slime in face of predator attack

Hagfishes and relatives

Petromyzontida

- The oldest living lineage of vertebrates- About 35 species inhabiting various

marine and freshwater habitats; most are parasites

- As larvae, lampreys live in freshwater streams

- Most lampreys migrate to the sea as they mature into adults

- Cartilage skeleton contains no collagen, but protein matrix

Lampreys

Chondrichthyes

- A skeleton composed predominately of cartilage

- About 750 species; internal fertilization- Tough skin is covered with dermal teeth

also called placoid scales, making it feel like sandpaper

Sharks, rays, skates, ratfishes

Actinopterygii

- An ossified endoskeleton with a hard matrix of calcium phosphate

- Possess fin rays, their fins being webs of skin supported by bony or horny spines ("rays")

- Many, but not all, of the Actinopterygians, have scales

eels, carp, catfishes, goldfishes, piranhas,

seahorses, bass, salmon, and trout.

Actinista- Ancient lineage of aquatic lobe-fins still

surviving In Indian Ocean

Coelacanths

Dipnoi

- Freshwater lobe-fins with both lungs and gills; sister group of tetrapods

- Surface to gulp air into lungs connected to their pharynx

Lungfishes

Amphibia

- Have four limbs descended from modified fins; most have moist skin for efficient gas exchange; many live both in water and on land

- External fertilization; typically lay their eggs in water or in moist areas on land

- Exhibit complex and diverse social behaviours

Salamanders, frogs, caecilians

Reptilia

- One of two groups of living amniotes; have amniotic eggs and rib-cage ventilation

- have scales that contain protein keratin-->protect skin from desiccation and

Tuataras, lizards, turtles, crocodilians,

birds

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abrasion- ectothermic: absorb external heat as

their main source of body heat

Mammalia

- Mammary glands that produce milk for offspring

- hair; a fat layer under skin to retain body heat

- endothermic; high metabolic ratel efficient respiratory and circulatory systems

- differentiated teeth adapted for chewing different kinds of food

Human, mice, primates, rabbits,

horses, bats, sheep, pigs, whales, dolphins

Notes / Page references:

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