“mushroom consumption and poisoning risk” · 2018. 3. 15. · incidence of mushroom poisoning...

Proceedings of the Seminar

on

“Mushroom Consumption and Poisoning Risk”14th January, 2014 (30th Paush, 2070)

Khumaltar, Nepal

Jointly Organized

By

Nepal Academy of Science and Technology (NAST)

and

Ministry of Science, Technology and Environment (MoSTE)

January, 2014

Proceedings of the Seminar

on

“Mushroom Consumption and Poisoning Risk”14th January, 2014 (30th Paush, 2070)

Khumaltar, Nepal

Editor

Jay Kant Raut, PhD

Jointly Organized

By

Nepal Academy of Science and Technology (NAST)

and

Ministry of Science, Technology and Environment (MoSTE)

January, 2014

Copyright : Nepal Academy of Science and Technology (NAST)Khumaltar, Lalitpur, Nepal

Published by: Nepal Academy of Science and Technology (NAST)P. O. Box No. 3323, KathmanduTel: 5547714, 5545715, 5547717, 5547721Fax: 00977-1-5547713Website: www.nast.org.np

Cover Photographs (Front)

Amanita hemibapha (Edible) - LeftAmanita phalloides (Deadly poisonous)-Right

The views and interpretation in this proceeding are those of the author(s) and do notnecessarily reflect the views of NAST.

Citation

Adhikari, M.K. 2014. The Status of Collection and Utilization of Nepalese Mycobiota. In:Proceedings of the seminar on mushroom consumption and poisoning risk (Ed. J.K.Raut), 14th January 2014. Nepal Academy of Science & Technology, Khumaltar, Lalitpur. p13-18.

Preamble

Nepal has all the requisities of low cost labour, favourable climatic conditions, plentiful cheapsupply of raw substrates, spawns and other inputs to become a leading mushroom producer.The mushroom industry is gradually taking root in Nepal but the pace is rather slow because ofinsufficient scientific research and discourse. Mushroom, a protein rich wonder food needsmore publicity as it deserves. It is then this precious vegetable would solve the problem ofprotein malnutrition in our country. In future, the ever increasing population, depleting agriculturalland, changes in environment, water shortage and need for quality food products are going tobe the vital issues. To meet these challenges and to provide food and nutritional security to ourpeople, it is important to diversify the agricultural activities in areas like horticulture. Mushroomsare one such component that not only uses vertical space but also help in addressing the issuesof quality food, health and environmental sustainability. There is need to promote both mushroomproduction as well as consumption for meeting the changing needs of food items. The mushroomsector holds huge potentials to contribute significantly in nation’s socio-economic transformation.The nation can grab this potentiality enforcing a concrete national mushroom policy. Allconcerned stakeholder organizations and individuals should go ahead as integrated for theholistic development of mushroom industry across the country. Taking these points intoconsideration, NAST has initiated few research and development programs on Mushroom(study of mushroom diversity, development of in vitro mycorrhization techniques for thecultivation of high value mycorrhizal mushrooms such as truffles, screening of bioactivecompounds from highly prized mushrooms, etc.). I believe this document will be very usefulfor policy makers, mushroom researchers, growers, consumers, entrepreneurs and otherconcerned stakeholders.

Iswor Prasad KhanalChiefFaculty of Science&Member,Seminar Organizing Committee

Acknowledgements

First of all on the behalf of organizing committee, I would like to express my sincerest thank toMinistry of Science, Technology and Environment for collaborating with us and making this seminarsuccessful. I would also like to extend my utmost gratitude to Prof. Dr. Surendra Raj Kafle, Vice Chancellorof Nepal Academy of Science and Technology (NAST) for his full support and encouragement to organizethe seminar. I am deeply indebted to senior mycologist Dr. Budhi Ratna Khadge for chairing the technicalsessions with his enthusiasm, energy and excellent insight. My sincere thanks go to senior mycologistDr. Keshari Laxmi Manandhar and Dr. Mahesh Kumar Adhikari for their thematic remarks on the program.I am very much thankful to members of technical committee for their critical comments and suggestionson the research papers of this proceeding. Dr. Deegendra Khadka is also highly acknowledged for hiskind support in drawing the some chemical structures. I would also like to extend my heartfelt gratitudeto all mushroom experts from various organizations, who actively participated and contributed theirhighly valuable papers in the seminar. Likewise, Dr. Bhoj Raj Pant is deeply acknowledged for sharing hisexperiences and valuable guidelines to organize the seminar properly. I am deeply indebted to Mr. PawanNeupane, Mr Om Basukala, Ms Neel Kamal Kozu, Ms. Smita Shrestha, Ms Poonam Yadav, Mr. AgniDhakal, Mr. Biswa Nath Yadav, Mr. Dev Raj Sapkota, Mr. Mahesh Adhikari, Mr. Pursottam Bhattarai, Mr.Priya Darshan Manandhar, Mr. Bhim Bahadur Thapa who worked extremely hard with variousresponsibilities to make the program grand success.

I would like to thank Mr. Mahendra Kapali for setting, layout design and his editorial inputs thathelped us improving this document and bring the publication into its present shape. My heartfelt thanksalso go to the Promotion Division of NAST for their kind cooperation and support in audiovisual recordingsand others.

Finally, I would also like to acknowledge all those who have helped directly or indirectly to achievethe goal.

Thank you all and hope for similar cooperation in future as well.

Jay Kant Raut, PhDMember SecretaryOrganizing Committee

Executive Summary

Incidence of mushroom poisoning in various parts of the country is becoming more tragic, terribleand challenging in recent years. To overcome on this very burning issue, one day seminar on “MushroomConsumption and Poisoning Risk” was organized. The primary goal of this seminar was to analyze thecurrent situation of mushroom poisoning incidents in Nepal and sketch a roadmap for its mitigation. Theseminar was conducted in two sessions namely Inaugural session and Technical session. The programwas inaugurated by Prof. Dr. Surendra Raj Kafle, Vice Chancellor of NAST by picking the mushroom. Mr.Iswor Khanal, Chief Faculty of Science had highlighted the program. Thereafter, the senior mycologistDr. Keshari Laxmi Manandhar and Dr. Mahesh Kumar Adhikari had remarked on the theme of the seminar.Likewise, in technical session altogether seven technical papers from different organizations were presentedwhich was chaired by senior mycologist Dr. Budhi Ratna Khadge. There were more than 120 participantsfrom various government & non-governmental organizations, universities, research institutes andindividual mushroom grower, entrepreneur & consumer. During the technical session there was extensiveand active discussion on various aspects of mushroom among the participants. This document which isthe outcome of the seminar is a landmark endeavor to provide guiding light to government agencies andother concerned stakeholders for holistic development of mushrooms industry including mitigation ofmushroom poisoning incidences across the country.

Opening Remarks

Mahesh Kumar AdhikariRetired Deputy Director General, DPR

Namaste !!!

Vice Chancellor and chief guest, NAST

Secretary, Guest of the ceremony, NAST

Mr. I.P Khanal, Chairman and Chief, Faculty of Science, NAST

Dr. K. L. Manandhar, Senior mycologist

Senior scientists, senior mycologists, Officers from different organizations, senior mushroom growers,interested armatures and fungi lovers.

Today, I welcome you all in this august gathering for the seminar on "Mushroom consumption andpoisoning risks” organized by NAST and Ministry of Science, Technology and Environment.

I do much appreciate for this kind effort and thank the organizers to conduct this seminar, which wasthought much necessary since last few years, to create and or make aware the fungi lovers, ethnicgroups, consumers, collectors, traders and mycophagous societies about the consequences of mushroomconsumption and risk of poisoning.

Nepal the land of diverse geographical settings and phytodiversity, situated in the centre of globe,is well known to be the center of immense biological diversity. It is the Central Himalayan region, whichis known to be the center for origin, adaptation, growth and dominance of different biotypes. Manybiotypes are described as new species within this narrow belt from tropical to alpine zones. This regionis also known as the store house of Plant Resources.

Regarding the mycobiota, the credit of first report goes to Llyod (1808). There after the reports werepublished by Berkeley (1854) and Balfour- Browne (1950). Since then, about 190 foreigners and 50 Nepalesehave contributed their findings. Among these, most of the reports were on mushrooms of Nepal. Till now,5 monotypic and 52 endemic species of mushrooms are described from Nepal. Near about 1150 species ofmushrooms have been recorded. Among these 147 are said to be edible, while 100 species are poisonousand 73 have medicinal values. The annual mortality rate due to wild mushroom poisoning ranges inbetween 20 – 30. Among them, most of the victims age between 10 – 45 years.

The cultivation of mushroom started since 1976 and now it has been progressed into commercializedway. Eight exotic strains are in practice of farmers for cultivation. Among the 147 wild species found inNepal none of the indigenous species are used as cultivars. At least 30 species can be immediately takeninto consideration for cultivation.

So following points should be taken into consideration by related institutes to develop the

mycological researches in Nepal.

• Fungal legislation to assist collection and research activities

• Need of well equipped Mycological Institute acting as “Germplasm Center for Mycological Studies”

• Investigation of Nepalese myco-resources.

• Control for quality of edible species.

• DNA isolation or molecular or phylogenic studies

• Hybridization or breeding of good commercial species.

Lastly again , I thank NAST and MOSTE for organizing this valuable seminar (collection, consumption,cultivation and poisoning risk) for the benefit of Nepalese mycophilian societies.

Thank you all !

Table of Contents

Page No.

An Overview of Mushroom Poisonings in NepalJay Kant Raut, Prabina Rana and Anjana Giri 1-12

The Status of Collection and Utilization of Nepalese MycobiotaMahesh Kumar Adhikari 13-18

Mushroom Research in Nepal: Current Status and ProspectsGopal Prasad Parajuli 19-22

Present Scenario and Prospects of Mushroom Cultivation in NepalJagadish Bhakta Shrestha 23-28

Grass Based Mushroom Production TechnologyPadam Raj Devkota and Hari Bahadur Bhandari 29-33

g]kfndf Rofp v]tLsf] jt{dfg l:yltwd]Gb| dx{hg 34-38

Annex-I Recommendation 39-39

Annex-II Program of the Seminar 40-41

Annex-III Committees for the Seminar 42-42

Annex-IV Glimpses of the Seminar 43-43

Nepal Academy of Science and Technology (NAST)Khumaltar, Lalitpur

P.O.Box 3323, Kathmandu, NepalWeb: ww.nast.org.np

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Proceedings of the Seminar on Mushroom Consumption and Poisoning Risk

An Overview of Mushroom Poisonings in Nepal

Jay Kant Raut*, Prabina Rana and Anjana GiriNepal Academy of Science and Technology (NAST)Khumaltar, Lalitpur*E-mail: [email protected]

Abstract

Incidence of mushroom poisoning in various parts of the country is becoming more tragic, terrible andchallenging. It is emerging as a medical emergency representing both a diagnostic and treatment dilemma for physicians.Many physicians still consider all mushroom poisonings as similar, but actually based on the toxins contained,there are different groups of poisonous mushrooms. More than 95% of lethal mushroom poisoning occurs due toamanitin and misidentification of a toxic mushroom as an edible. Late hospitalization and conservative managementof the incidences are major causes of higher mortality rate. Various types of community awareness programs aboutthe dangers of poisonous mushrooms and management of well trained health workers, advanced technology such asliver transplantations or plasma exchange, facility to do high performance liquid chromatography (HPLC) orradioimmunoassay (RIA) for detection of amanitin and other toxins from plasma, feces, urine or vomitus seems tobe the most effective way to tackle this problem. The purpose of this review paper is for informational andpreventive.

Key words: Amanitin, Atropine, Mycetism, Mycophagous, Toxins

Detrimental effects appeared after ingestionof toxic substances present in a mushroom iscalled mushroom poisoning. It is also known asmycetism. The effects may vary from slightgastrointestinal discomfort to life-threateningorgan failure resulting in death. The toxins presentare secondary metabolites produced in specificbiochemical pathways in the fungal cell.Mushroom poisoning is usually the result ofingestion of wild mushrooms due tomisidentification of a toxic mushroom as an ediblespecies. More than 95% of mushroom poisoningincidences around the world occur due tomisidentification (Thomas 2008). Even thoughpoisonous mushrooms represent less than 1% ofthe world’s known mushrooms, we cannot ignorethe existence of the relatively few dangerous andsometimes fatal species (Chang 2004). Death ofseveral historical figures like Roman EmperorClaudius, Pope Clement VII, Tsaritsa NataliaNaryshkina, Holy Roman Emperor Charles VI andSiddharth Gautama are considered to beassociated with mushroom poisoning (Stamets2000, Marmion &Wiedemann 2002). Recently,incidence of mushroom poisoning is increasingas a result of the increasing popularity of wildmushroom consumption. The incidence is more

frequent in Western Europe with 50-100 fatal casesreported annually. Likewise, the incidence is0.005% in USA and 0.05% in Iran (Kavalci et al.2010). True statistics for mushroom poisoningare hard to obtain for several reasons. Mushroompoisoning occurs during the same season andmay exhibit the same symptoms as other foodpoisoning. A child probably will not admit eatingmushrooms when he or she has been warnedagainst such action. Those who experiment withpossible hallucinogenic mushrooms and arepoisoned may not admit it, fearing legalinvolvement. Wild mushroom eaters may not admitthey made a wrong identification. The most deadlygroup of mushrooms, the Amanitas are theslowest to show onset of symptoms and the victimmay truly forget that he/she had eaten wildmushrooms the night before. Tradition ofcollection & consumption of wild mushrooms arevery old in Nepal as well. Various mycophagouscommunity such as Sherpa, Chepang, Tamang,Gurung, Magar, Tharu, Danuwar, Newar, Kami,Damai, and Sarki are directly concerned with thecollection and consumption of wild mushrooms.Due to poor socio-economic condition andignorance the practice is very common in thesecommunities. (Aryal 2009, Raut 2013). Though,

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there is no exact data available due to lack ofregular and well managed poison registry systemin Nepal. Based on local & national media everyyear dozens of people die; hundreds are admittedto hospital, while hundreds more rely on localtreatments. Moreover, most of members from thesame family are wiping out every year byconsuming wild mushroom. The real numbers ofcasualties may be much more than published onesbecause most of the incidences occur in remoteareas which are out of any media coverage.Gordon Wasson, who researched the variouscultural uses of mushrooms, divided societies into“mycophobic” and “mycophilic” (fearing andloving mushrooms). He considered themycophobic cultures to include the Scandinaviancountries, Great Britain, Canada and the UnitedStates. Countries considered mycophilic includedFrance, Austria, Italy, Switzerland and the Slaviccountries. In those countries, photographs anddescriptions of both toxic and edible fungi oftendecorate the walls of primary schoolrooms.

Numerous myths/beliefs are in practiceamong the wild mushroom collectors to determinewhether mushrooms are safe to eat. However,none is accurate. They are dangerous and can bedeadly. Here are some examples

• If a clove of garlic turns black when cookedwith mushrooms, this is supposed to meanthe mushrooms are poisonous.

• A silver coin is supposed to blacken or a silverspoon tarnishes if placed in the cook pot withpoisonous mushrooms.

• Poisonous mushrooms will lose their poisonwhen cooked with some vinegar or timur(Zanthoxylum alatum).

• Mushrooms having a fruity smell are safe toeat.

• Mushrooms with bitter, acrid, or pungenttaste are poisonous.

• Smooth-capped mushrooms are edible.

• Some use a rule of thumb that mushroomsthat stain or secrete a milky fluid when bruisedor have caps that do not peel are poisonous.Some edible mushrooms have thesecharacteristics and more importantly, the

highly poisonous amanitas do not.

• Some feel that no poisonous mushrooms growon rotting wood. Some do!

• The fact that slugs, insects or animals feedon a species of mushroom does mean that itis safe for humans.

• Parboiling, salting, pickling or drying maydetoxify some species, but one can’t counton any of these methods for all mushrooms.

• An edible mushroom can become poisonousthrough some strange influence exercised bysnakes or amphibians.

• The first picked mushroom should be offeredto God so that subsequent mushrooms willbe safe.

• Mushrooms growing in a cluster or group areedible, but those growing alone are not. (Arora1988, Thomas 2008, Aryal 2009)

There are no general rules for safemushroom collecting. One must learn to recognizethe safe mushrooms species by species, thencollect only those that he/she recognizes fullyconfidently. The wild mushroom collector mustbe aware of “look-alikes”. Morel mushrooms areamong the most desirable and tastiest species.The false morel closely resembles the true morels,but is included in one of the two deadly groupsof mushrooms. It is said that all puffballs areedible; however, the poisonous earthball andimmature Amanita buttons both resemblepuffballs. There are many other “look-alikes”.

Mushroom Toxins

Based on the toxins contained, there areeight recognized groups of mushroompoisonings.

Toxin Group

I – Amanitins (Cyclopeptides)

II – Gyromitrin (Monomethylhydrazine)

III – Orellanine

IV – Muscarine

V – Ibotenic acid and Muscimol

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VI – Coprine

VII – Psilocybin (psilocin)

VIII – Gastrointestinal irritants

Based on physiological action these toxingroups are categorized into four classes

Class-1 Cellular /Protoplasmic Toxins

They are deadly toxic causing celldestruction and cell death. They mainly damageliver and kidney. This class includes

• Amanitins - Cyclopeptides

• Gyromitrin - Monomethylhydrazine

• Orellanine

Class-2 Toxins Affecting Autonomic NervousSystem

• These toxins affect the autonomic nervoussystem which controls the involutaryregulation of smooth and cardiac muscles,organs of the GI tract, endocrine system, andexcretory system

• Not deadly unless large quantities eaten• Some edible and sought after• It includes two toxin groups (Muscarine and

Coprine)

Class-3 Toxins Affecting the Central NervousSystem

It includes• Ibotenic Acid and Muscimol• Psilocybin and Psilocin

Remember these can be fatal if enough areingested

Class-4 Gastrointestinal Irritants• Large variety of mushrooms contain toxins

that can cause gastrointestinal distress,including but not limited to nausea, vomiting,diarrhea, and abdominal cramps

• Symptoms similar to those caused by thedeadly protoplasmic poisons - but usuallyhave a rapid onset

• Some mushrooms may cause vomiting and/or diarrhea which lasts for several days

Group I — Amanitin Poisoning

Amanitins are a group of complex cyclicpolypeptides which damage tissues by inhibitingRNA synthesis within each individual cell. Thetoxin molecules are made up of amino-acids in adouble ring, and so are called cyclic oligopeptidesor cyclopeptides. They come in two varieties,known as amatoxins (amanitins), which contain 8amino-acid molecules, and phallotoxins(phalloidins), which contain 7 amino-acidmolecules. Phallotoxins are found ten times morelethal than cyanide when injected into mice: theirLD50 is 2 mg/kg. But when taken by mouth, theyhave no effect. They may be neutralized or brokendown by digestive juices, or may not be absorbedby the gut. In contrast, the much more deadlyamatoxins are actively toxic when eaten (LD50 =0.1 mg/kg). Amanitin poisoning is extremelyserious with fatality rate of about 50% (Kendrick2001). It is doubly dangerous due to the fact thatthe symptoms are delayed for 6 to 24 hours afteringestion, by which time the toxins have beencompletely absorbed by the body and after theinitial state of gastric distress, the patient appearsto recover and is sometimes sent back to home.

General Structure of Amatoxin

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Distribution

Amanita bisporigera, A. phalloides, A.verna, A. virosa, Galerina autumnalis, G.marginata, Lepiota spp, Conocybe filaris

Symptoms

Amanitin poisoning usually manifests itselfin four stages• First stage is a latency period of 6 to 24 hours

after ingestion, in which the toxins areactively destroying the victim’s kidneys andliver, but the victim experiences no discomfort.

• Second stage is a period of about 24 hourscharacterized by violent vomiting, bloodydiarrhea, and severe abdominal cramps.

• Third stage is a period of 24 hours duringwhich the victim appears to recover (ifhospitalized, the patient is sometimesreleased!)

• Fourth stage is a relapse, during which kidneyand liver failure often occurs, leading to death.Patients may also “bleed out” and die due tothe destruction of clotting factors in theblood. There may be more than one relapse.

Treatment

Even if the problem is correctly diagnosed,there is currently no antidote for amanitin. Treatmentis largely supportive and symptomatic. Penicillin,kutkin, and silibinin/silymarin show promise astreatments, along with oral activated charcoal andelectrolytes. Basically, treatment consists ofattempts to: (1) remove toxin from the system; (2)increase the rate at which the patient excretes it; (3)support the patient’s various systems.(1) Removal of toxin. If the condition is

diagnosed within an hour or two, it isobviously appropriate to empty the stomachby emesis and gastric lavage (getting thepatient to throw up, and then washing outthe stomach). If the usual latent period haselapsed, this approach would be pointless.Three blood-cleansing techniques havebeen applied to late-diagnosed amanitinpoisoning. (A) Haemodialysis (circulatingthe blood through a semipermeablemembrane bathed in an isotonic medium) isused in long-term treatment of kidney failure,or until a transplant becomes available. Its

use in Amanita poisoning is questionable,since it removes substances of molecularweight 300 or less. Amanitin itselfhas a molecular weight of 900, and itmay often become complexed withmuch larger molecules, such as proteins.(B) Haemoperfusion (circulating the bloodover activated charcoal) is used to supportthe detoxifying function of ailing livers. Ithas been used experimentally to treatAmanita poisoning in recent years, and hasbeen shown to remove some toxin fromamanitin-spiked blood.

Unfortunately, the amounts of amanitindetected in the blood of poisoning victimsare usually very low, especially if more than12 hours have elapsed since the mushroomswere eaten. Keeping in mind the possibleunfavourable effect of haemoperfusion ona blood coagulatory pattern alreadyunbalanced by the effects of the toxin, thistechnique should be applied with caution.It may, of course, be indicated if the effectsof the toxin cause liver failure. (C) Apheresis(centrifuging the blood to segregate itsmajor components plasma, erythrocytes,leucocytes, platelets - then discarding andreplacing the fraction containing theunwanted agent) is being increasingly usedto treat many diseases of the immunesystem, and some kinds of poisoning.Again, the actual kinetics of amanitin in thebody are not yet well-enough understoodfor us to be sure which blood fraction, ifany, should be replaced. This technique mayprove to be of value when the movementsof amanitin in the body are betterunderstood (Kendrick 2001).

(2) Increase excretion of toxin. Although thebody’s natural excretion of amanitin isobviously not efficient enough to preventcell damage, a new and sensitiveradioimmunoassay for amanitin in bodyfluids has shown that the toxin is present inthe urine of patients at far higher levels thancan be found in their blood. This suggeststhat attempts to increase urine productionby giving intravenous fluids, and anappropriate diuretic, might be helpful.

(3) Supportive measures involve carefulmonitoring of electrolyte and fluid balance,

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and blood sugar, with appropriatereplacement therapy as required. Liver andkidney functions must be closely followed.If kidney and/or liver failure occur,haemodialysis and/or haemoperfusion maybe necessary. In addition, variousresearchers have suggested several otherstrategies to support the damaged liver orkidneys: intravenous infusion of B vitamins,vitamin K, Penicillin-G, corticosteroids, andthioctic acid (a coenzyme in the Krebs cycle).The therapeutic value of some of theseagents has not been firmly established, butin a potentially fatal condition, the shotgunapproach is worth trying.

Meixner test- a qualitative test for amatoxins

Presence of amatoxins can be detected byMeixner test. It is a simple and fairly accurate testif performed correctly. Dr. Theodor Wieland firststudied the test on high-lignin paper but later Dr.Axel Meixner showed that it would work onordinary newspaper and the test is simply knownas the “Meixner test”

Avoiding sunlight or high heat, a small circleis made on newspaper (or other high-lignin paper)

with a pencil. A small amount of mushroom juiceis then squeezed on to this and left to dry at roomtemperature. When dry, a single tiny drop of 8-16concentrated hydrochloric acid is placed in thecenter of the circle. The grayed bluish-green thatis typical of amatoxins slowly appears over 1-3minutes, but the test sheet should be observedup to 20 minutes. The color on high lignin paperis usually 25B3-5 in the Methuen Handbook ofColour (Kornerup & Wanscher 1978) but may varyfrom 25B3-5 to 25B5-26B4. There has beenconsiderable concern about false positives(Beutler &Vergeer 1980). However, if done withreasonable knowledge of colors seen with variousgenera, falsely positive tests are not of greatconcern

Group II — Gyromitrin(Monomethylhydrazine) Poisoning

After hydrolysis gyromitrin converted intomonomethylhydrazine (MMH), which is acolorless, volatile, highly toxic, carcinogeniccompound used as a rocket fuel. Gyromitrinpoisoning has puzzled scientists for many yearsbecause of the very narrow threshold betweensafe and lethal dose. This is due to its volatilenature which is removed by cooking or drying.

H3C C

HN N

CH3

CHO

H3C NCH3

CHO

H2N NHCH3

N-methyl N-formyl hydrazine actaldehyde (Gyromitrin)

Rapid decomposition if adequate stomach acid

Slow hydrolysis

N-methyl N-formylhydrazine (MFH) and actaldehyde

Monomethylhydrazine (MMH)

Hydrolysis of Gyromitrin to monomethylhydrazine (MMH)

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Distribution

Several Gyromitra species (especially G.esculenta, G. ambigua, G. infula. G. montanum,G. gigas, G. fastigiata (=brunnea), G. californica,G. sphaerospora and also many relatedAscomycetes, such as some species of Helvella,Verpa, and Cudonia

Symptoms

Gyromitrin poisoning resembles Amanitapoisoning but is less severe. Very few fatalitiesare in USA while it is 2-4% in Europe from thistype of poisoning. Symptoms appear within 2 to24 hours and include headaches, abdominaldistress, severe diarrhea, and vomiting. In severecases, liver, kidney, and red blood cell damagemay occur, possibly resulting in death.

Treatment

Treatment is largely supportive, and aphysician should be consulted.

Group III — Orellanine Poisoning

An extract of Cortinarius orellanus hasyielded a crystalline substance orellanine.Orellanine now appears to be a group of bipyridylcompounds (Antowiak & Gessner 1975, 1978).Dried specimens of Cortinarius orellanus haveretained toxicity up to 60 years (Rapior et al. 1988).Orellanine poisoning is extremely serious. Onsetof symptoms from orellanine poisoning can bevery greatly delayed (as much as three weeks),the toxin isn’t very well understood, and specifictreatments are not available.

venenosus, C. gentilis may possibly causeorellanine like poisoning.

Symptoms

Symptoms occur within 36 hours to 3 weeksof ingestion (average is about 8 days), and includenausea, vomiting, lethargy, anorexia, frequenturination, burning thirst, headache, sensationsof coldness and shivering (fever generallyabsent), evidence or progressive kidneyfailure.

Treatment

Beyond the standard management of kidneyfailure, there is little but supportive treatment ofuse in cases of orellanine poisoning. Patients withsevere, but not irreversible damage may begin torecover kidney function between two and fourweeks after the onset of symptoms.

Qualitative tests for Orellanine

Test-1

The fresh or dried mushroom is crushed inwater and after 10 minutes the mixture is filtered.The filtered solution is mixed in equal portionswith 3% ferric chloride hexahydrate dissolved in0.5 N hydrochloric acid. A dark gray blue colorsuggests orellanine (Schumacher & Høiland1983)

Test-2

The fresh, dried or even cooked specimenis added to a small amount of water, just enoughto pound or grind to a pulp. The mixture is thencentrifuged to obtain the liquid test material. Adrop of this liquid is then placed onto previouslyprepared white blotting paper or laboratory“bibulous paper” (paper used to mop up excessfluid from microscope slides). The bibulouspaper is pretreated by soaking with a 2%solution of ferric chloride in 0.5 N HCl acid andallowed to dry. A control spot is done on a secondpiece of non-treated bibulous paper. A positivetest for orellanine is one showing a central reddishcolor with an encircling lilac halo (Pöder & Moser1989).

N+

N+

OH

O-

HO

O OH

HO

N

N

O

OH

HO OH

HOOrellanine

O

Distribution

Cortinarius orellanus and C. rubellus(=C. orellanoides , C. speciosissimus, C.rainierensis). C. splendens, C. atrovirens, C.

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Group IV — Muscarine Poisoning

Amanita muscaria and Amanita pantherina werepreviously thought to have contained primarilymuscarine - but they contain insignificantamounts. Muscarine is an oxoheterocyclicquarternary salt, 2-methy-3-hydroxy-5-trimethyl-ammoniummethyl tetrahydrofuran chloride.Muscarine poisoning occurs primarily in thegenera Clitocybe and Inocybe. This toxinproduces muscarine poisoning by stronglyattaching to muscarinic acetylcholine receptorsin the parasympathetic nerves and initiating anacetylcholine effect on organs supplied by thesenerves (part of the non-voluntary nervoussystem). The enzyme acetylcholinesterase, whichbreaks down acetylcholine, is not effectiveagainst muscarine.

Repeat doses of 0.5-1.0 mg can be given at 10-20minutes intervals to either of two endpoints:

A. 1 mg doses until bronchial hyper secretion,pulmonary edema and significant cardiacarrhythmias have cleared or

B. 0.5 mg of atropine until the pupils is normalor nearly so. The second end-point may takelonger to achieve; its use requires increaseddiligence and slower administration ofatropine to avoid over dosage. Usually nomore than 2.5 mg of atropine is required.

Group V — Ibotenic/Muscimol (isoxazole) Poisoning

Ibotenic acid (an amino acid in the form ofan isoxazole ring) and muscimol are the majortoxins of this type of poisoning. Amanitamuscaria contains a substance that specificallyaffects the central nervous system. Regardingthe principal toxins of Amanita muscaria and A.pantherina a lot of contradictions can be foundin literatures. Needless to say, this was discoveredlong ago, and has been exploited by variouspeoples. The Soma hymns of the 3,000 years oldsacred Indian book, the Rig Veda, have beeninterpreted as a glorification of A. muscaria andits effects. Moreover, R. Gordon Wasson in hisbook SOMA: The devine mushroom of immortalitymentions for it being the mystical Soma plant ofthe RigVeda. It has been also linked to the originof Christianity (The Sacred Mushroom and theCross). Many tribes in Siberia used it for centuriesas a religious or recreational intoxicant, andalthough it has now largely been replaced byvodka, some Siberians still prefer mushrooms. Itmay have been used throughout Eurasia inancient times .

Drying and cooking convert most of theibotenic acid in these amanitas to muscimol. Onlyblanching and throwing out the cooking watersignificantly lower the toxicity. Japanese foundthat muscimol in very small amounts was twentytimes more effective in enhancing food flavorsthan sodium glutamate, the commonly used saltof glutamic acid (Thomas 2008).

Symptoms

Muscarine activates the parasympatheticnervous system. Symptoms of sweating,salivation, nausea, teary eyes, small pupils and/or pupils sluggishly reacting to light, slow heartrate, increased urination and sometimes diarrheaoccur within 20-30 minutes. Severe poisoningsmay produce more serious symptoms, includingbronchial constriction, slow heart rate with faster“escape rhythms” and pulmonary edema.

Treatment

The treatment for this symptom complex isatropine titrated to reduce symptoms, induce slightdryness of mouth and restore normal or nearlynormal pupil size. The initial adult dose of atropineis 0.5 to 1.0 mg given very slowly intravenously.

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Distribution

Amanita muscaria, A. pantherina, A.gemmata, Amanita multisquamosa (syn. A.cothurnata), A. frostiana, A. crenulata, A.strobiliformus, Tricholoma muscarium.

Group VI - Coprine (Antabuse-like) Poisoning

This kind of poisoning can occur at anytime for up to 5 days after Coprinus atramentariushas been eaten. The mushrooms by themselvesare not toxic. They contain a protoxin “coprine”which is converted to 1-aminocyclopropanol— acompound with an antabuse-like reaction withalcohol. Symptoms appear 30-60 minutes after themushroom-eater has a drink containing alcohol

Symptoms

Symptoms appear within 30 minutes to 2hours after ingestion, and last for several hours.Nausea and vomiting are quite common, but theprinciple effects are on the central nervoussystem: confusion, visual distortion, a feeling ofgreater strength, delusions and convulsions.Drowsiness is a common symptom, and manywho ingest these mushrooms fall asleep andcannot be roused. In rare cases the coma-like statecan last for more than 24 hours. This facet of thesyndrome can be particularly frightening for theattending physician, as most cases involvepatients who arrive in this apparently comatosestate

Treatment

Although fresh mushrooms containibotenic acid, which has some effect on thenervous system, dried mushrooms have beenfound to be much more potent. This is becauseibotenic acid degrades to muscimol on drying.Muscimol is 5-10 times more psychoactivethan ibotenic acid. Dried mushrooms retaintheir potency for 5-10 years. Although very fewdeaths have been reported from this kind ofpoisoning, 10 or more mushrooms can constitutea fatal dose.

Treatment of humans and animals is largelysupportive — reassuring the patient that theeffects are only temporary. Recovery is normallyspontaneous. Atropine is not indicated.

Distribution

Coprinopsis atramentaria (=Coprinusatramentarius), C. insignis, C. quadrifidus, C.variegatus.

Symptoms

The symptoms are tachycardia (racingheart) and palpitations, tingling arms and legs,warmth and flushing, and sometimes headache,heavy limbs, salivation.

Treatment

This is an unpleasant combination, but itisn’t fatal. The only treatment necessary may beto control arrhythmia (irregular heartbeat). Thesyndrome will persist as long as there is anyalcohol in the system usually 2-4 hours after whichrecovery is spontaneous, and the victim may wellswear off booze.

Group VII - Psilocybin/Psilocin Poisoning

These indole derivatives are very popularfor their psychedelic properties and psilocybinmushrooms are often consumed for recreationalpurposes. These mushrooms have playedimportant roles in religion and medicine in someparts of the world, notably in South America.Many psilocybes blue with bruising or cutting,apparently a reaction catalyzed by cytochromeoxidase. This reaction in hallucinogenic generacorresponds roughly with the amount of psilocin.The exact compound producing this bluing

N

O

CH COO-

NH3

HO N

O

H2C NH3

-O

+

+

Ibotenic acid Muscimol

9


reaction remains to be isolated, although itappears to be a quinone derivative. Psilocin (adephosphorylated version of psilocybin) is aboutten times active as psilocybin. Most psilocybin-containing mushrooms have only a trace ofpsilocin, but the human body converts most ofpsilocybin into psilocin. A blueing reactionassociated with the presence of psilocybin andpsilocin is caused by an enzyme that oxidizespsilocin. However, not all mushroom that stainblue contain psilocybin or psilocin, and not allpsilocybin mushrooms stain blue.

The psychoactive principles in theseagarics are indole alkaloids called psilocybin andpsilocin, hydroxyltryptamine derivatives relatedto the neurotransmitter, serotonin.

mushrooms are eaten, the hallucinogenic effectsmay be rather overwhelming, but seriouspoisoning is unlikely unless huge numbers ofmushrooms are consumed. Adults on ‘bad trips’may become extremely anxious or even paranoid,and may need considerable reassurance or, morerarely, tranquilizers. Children who eathallucinogenic mushrooms may develop a highfever or convulsions. They should not be givenaspirin. Tepid baths or wet sheets should be used.Hallucinations may be suppressed bychlorpromazine, and convulsions by diazepam

Group VIII — Gastro-Intestinal Irritants

The most frequent form of mushroom poisoningis caused by a wide variety of gastrointestinalirritants. It is the largest and most prevalent groupof mushroom toxins. Although a number of toxinsare known to cause only GI symptoms, most ofthese are poorly understood. They are rarely fatal.Allergic reactions to edible mushrooms normallytake the form of gastrointestinal upset.

Distribution

Agaricus hondensis, A. placomyces;Amanita brunnescens; Boletus luridus, otherblueing Boletus spp.; Chlorophyllum molybdites;Entoloma grande, E. lividum, E. sinuatum, E.strictius; Hebeloma crustuliniforme; Lactariuspiperatus, L. rufus, L. uvidus, L. vellereus;Marasmius urens; Naematoloma fasciculare;Omphalotus olearius; Pholiota squarrosa;Ramaria formosa and relatives; Russula emetica;Scleroderma spp.; Tricholoma pardinum; etc.

Symptoms

Symptoms usually appears shortly afteringestion (20 minutes-4 hours). They includeinclude nausea, vomiting, cramps, and diarrhea,which normally pass after the irritant had beenexpelled. Severe cases may requirehospitalization.

Treatment

Treatment is largely supportive - helpingthe patient’s body to eliminate what it’s notequipped to handle. Recovery is complete,though a bout with severe gastro-intestinal

Distribution

About 20 Psilocybe species including P.cyanescens, P. stuntzii, P. cubensis, and P.semilanceata, several Panaeolous speciesincluding P. cyanescens and P. subbalteatus, atleast three Gymnopilus species most notablyGymnopilus spectabilis plus at least one Mycena,one Pluteus, one Conocybe and one Inocybe.

Symptoms

Initial symptoms, starting around 20minutes after ingestion, present with a variety ofvery individual responses—relaxation, anxiety,light-headedness, nausea and vague abdominaldiscomfort usually followed by a sharpness ofoutline or heightened color for objects and visualimagery with closed eyes

Treatment

An average effective dose of psilocybin is4-8 mg, the amount contained in about 2 g ofdried mushrooms. If larger quantities of

NH

N(CH3)2

OPO(OH)2

NH

N(CH3)2

OH

Psilocybin Psilocin

10


distress may put one off ever eating mushroomsagain! IMPORTANT: If the gastrointestinaldistress begins 6 to 24 hours after ingestion ofthe mushrooms, there is a possibility of a veryserious toxicity from Amatoxins. GI onset of 4-11hours with impaired kidney function could be dueto Allenic Norleucine (2-amino-4, 5-hexadienoicacid). GI onset greater than 24 hours and up to 21days could be due to Orellanine

Besides above there is the danger ofcontamination by pesticides and otherenvironmental poisons. So there is necessaryalways to be aware of this possibility, especiallywhen picking mushrooms in towns, along welltravelled roads, and in forests, fields, or rangeland where herbicides and pesticides are used.Mushroom poisoning has emerged as a medicalemergency representing both a diagnostic andtreatment dilemma for physicians. Diagnosis ofmushroom poisoning is difficult. Because thesuspect mushrooms have; probably been eaten,so that none remain available for identification. Ifa sample of the mushroom is available, acompetent mycologist can be of great help inidentifying the mushroom. Many physicians stillconsider all mushroom poisonings as similar, butactually, based on the toxins contained, there aredifferent aforementioned groups of poisonousmushrooms. Among them amanitin group is themost lethal and cause more than 95% humancasualty worldwide. Delay in onset of symptoms,individual susceptibility variation and lack of rapidand reliable identification have contributed to thesignificant morbidity and mortality of this type ofpoisoning.

The time between ingestion and onset ofsymptoms and the type of systemic involvement(for example, neurologic versus gastrointestinal)can be helpful indexes for characterizing the typeof mushroom poisoning. Mushroom poisoningcan be divided into cases in which symptomsappear within several minutes to six hours afteringestion and those in which symptoms developmuch later. Most nonlethal poisonousmushrooms produce symptoms soon afteringestion, whereas A. phalloides-type mushroomsproduce life-threatening reactions 6 to 24 hoursafter ingestion. However, since a mixture of wildmushrooms is often ingested; early onset of

symptoms does not exclude the possibility ofmore serious poisoning. Poisoning withimmediate onset of symptoms is furtherdistinguishable by the type of symptoms; that is,gastrointestinal disturbance, parasympatheticstimulation and hallucinations. Such poisoningis rarely serious, and recovery usually occurswithin 24 hours (Becker et al. 1976). Variations inclinical effects may depend on an individual’ssusceptibility and on the presence ofconfounding factors such as contamination and/or co-ingestion. In general, children, olderpersons, and persons with disabilities are at ahigher risk of developing serious complicationswith mushroom poisoning than are healthy youngadults. There are few studies on mushroomtoxicology in Nepal (Prasad & Karki 1997,Rauniyar et al. 1999, Ghimire et al. 2004, Paudyal2005, Das et al. 2007, Joshi et al. 2007, Adhikari2008, Adhikari et al. 2008, 2012, Aryal 2009, Syedet al. 2009, Lohani et al. 2010, Patowary 2010, Raut2012, 2013). Based on these studies it has beenfound that most of mushroom poisoningincidences in Nepal also occur due tomisidentification of a toxic mushroom and majorityof human casualty are due to amanitin group.Late hospitalization and conservativemanagement of the cases are major causes ofhigher mortality rate within country. In Europe,early hospitalization, rapid diagnosis andaggressive management with charcoalhemoperfusion, thioctic acid, plasma exchange,extracorporeal liver assist device (ELAD) ororthotopic liver transplantation have shown toreduce mortality to 10% whereas 60-hour delayincreases it to 50-90% (Das et al. 2007). Rate ofmushroom poisoning has found different indifferent areas in Nepal. It has found 1-4% in themajor leading tertiary hospital of Kathmandu whileit is 4.89% in a tertiary care center in eastern Nepaland 1% in another urban district level hospital ofChitwan. In USA, It was <0.5% of all reportedtoxic exposures from 1979 to 1995 (Joshi et al.2007). For the effective management of mushroompoisoning incidences within country immediateactions are necessary.

Mitigation

To tackle and mitigate the problem somerecommendations are made here.

• Mushrooms from each part of country should

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be extensively explored and documented

• Regional toxicology/poison centers should beestablished which would impart publiceducation on dangers of wild mushroomconsumption

• Nationwide awareness programs throughnational & local media (radio, television,newspaper) should be conducted. Miking,postering, mushroom exhibition, etc. abouthazards of mushroom poisoning at thebeginning of the rainy season might be moreeffective.

• Physicians and other health workers shouldbe trained for the effective management ofdifferent types of mushroom poisoning. Anappropriate protocol for each type should belaunched to hospitals or poison centers.

• If there is suspicion about poisonousmushroom consumption, immediately nearbyhealth institute or poison center should becontacted

• It is best and safe to avoid alcohol whileconsuming mushrooms

• It is worth remembering that there is nospecific antidote for lethal mushroompoisoning and most lethal mushroom toxinsare not destroyed or deactivated by cooking,canning, freezing, drying or other any meansof food preparations.

• Amanita toxicity should be considered indifferential diagnosis of acute hepatic andrenal failure especially in high prevalentregions.

• Edible mushroom cultivation should bepromoted throughout country to decrease thereliance of peoples on wild mushrooms.

References

Adhikari, M.K. 2008. Nepalko parvatiya kshetrakabishalu chyauharu:chhoto janakari (=Poisonousmushrooms found in Nepalese Himalayan belts)Banaspati Shrota Samacharpatra.12(2):4–8 .

Adhikari, M.K. 2012. Researches on the Nepalesemycoflora-2: checklist of macrofungi(mushrooms). Published by K. S. Adhikari ,Kathmandu, Nepal. 90p.

Adhikari, M.K. et al. 2008. Nepalma paine bishaluchyauharu 1-3 (= Poisonous Mushrooms foundin Nepal) (Poster) Each set with 10 species(Total 30 species) Published by JICA incollaboration with DPR & DOA.

Adhikari, M.K. et al. 2012. Poisonous Mushrooms ofNepal (Poster) – containing 50 species. Publishedby JICA in collaboration with NARC.

Antowiak, W.Z. and W.P. Gessner. 1975. Isolationand characteristics of toxic components ofCortinarius orellanus Fries. Bull. Acad. Pol. Sci.Ser. Sci. Chim. 23:729–733.

Antowiak, W.Z. and W.P. Gessner. 1978. Structureelucididation of orellanine. 11th IUPAC Int. Symp.Chem. Nat. Prod. 2:45–47.

Arora, D. 1986. Mushrooms demystified: Acomprehensive guide to the fleshy fungi. Berkeley:Ten Speed Press. 959p.

Aryal, T.R. 2009. Mushroom Poisoning Problem inNepal and Its Mitigation. FUNGI 2(1):44–46.

Becker, C.E., T.G. Tong, U. Boerner et al. 1976.Diagnosis and treatment of Amanita phalloides-type mushroom poisoning-Use of thioctic acid.West J Med 125:100–109.

Beutler, J.A. and P.P. Vergeer. 1980. Amatoxin inAmerican Mushrooms: Evaluation of the MeixnerTest. Mycologia 72(6): 1142–1149.

Chang, S.T. and P.G. Miles. 2004. Mushrooms:Cultivation, Nutritional Value, Medicinal Effect,and Environmental Impact (Second Edition).CRC Press. Boca Raton, 451p.

Das, R.N., S. Parajuli and J. Jayakumar. 2007. “Lastsupper with mushroom soup”: a case report ofamatoxin poisoning. McGill Journal of Medicine10(2):93–95.

Ghimire, R.H., S.P. Sharma and K.R. Pandey. 2004. Acomparative study of acute poisoning in Nepalat tertiary and secondary level hospitals, J NepMed Assoc 43: 130–133.

Joshi, A., P. Awale and M. Lee. 2007. Acute MushroomPoisoning: A report of 41 cases. J Nep Med Assoc46(165): 7–12.

Kavalci, C., G. Kavalci, A. Guzel et al. 2010. Wildmushroom poisoning in Trakya. Hong Kong j.emerg. med. 17(4): 341–346.

Kendrick, B. 2001. “The Fifth Kingdom” 3rd Edition.Focus, Newburyport/Mycologue, Sidney. 373p.

Kornerup, A. and J.H. Wanscher .1978. MethuenHandbook of Colour, third edition, EyreMethuen, London.

Marmion, V.J. and T.E. Wiedemann. 2002. “The deathof Claudius”. J R Soc Med 95 (5): 260–1.

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doi:10.1258/jrsm.95.5.260.Meixner, A. 1979. Amatoxin-Nachweiss in Pilzen. Z.

Mykol. 45(1) 137–139.Pajoumand, A., S. Shadnia, H. Efricheh, A. Mandegary,

H. Hassanian-Moghadam and M.A. Abdollahi.2005. Retrospective study of mushroompoisoning in Iran. Hum Exp Toxicol. 24(12):609–13.

Paudyal, B.P. 2005. Poisoning: Pattern and profile ofadmitted cases in a hospital in central Nepal, JNep Med Assoc 44: 92–96.

Prasad, P.N. and P. Karki. 1997. Poisoning cases atTUTH emergency: a one year review. J Inst Med19: 18–24.

Prast, H. et al. 1988. Toxic properties of the mushroomCortinarius orellanus: I. Chemicalcharacterization of the main toxin of Cortinariusorellanus (Fries) and Cortinarius speciosissimus(Kühn. & Romagn.) and acute toxicity in mice.Arch. Toxicol. 62:81–88.

Pöder, R. and M. Moser. 1989. Eine einfache,empfindliche Methode zum makochemischenNachweis von Orellanin. Mycologia Helvetica3:283–290.

Rapior, S. et al. 1988. Chemotaxonomic study oforellanine in species of Cortinarius andDermocybe. Mycologia 80:741–747.

Rauniyar, G.P., B.P. Das, M.A. Naga Rani et al. 1999.Retrospective analysis of profile of acutepoisoning cases in a tertiary care hospital ineastern Nepal: A four year database from 1994to 1997. J Nep Med Assoc 38: 23–28.

Raut, J.K. 2012. Jangali chyau ra chepang samudaya(=Wild mushroom and Chepang community).Bigyan Lekhmala. 380: 7–9.

Raut, J.K. 2013. “Adhunik chyau kheti prabidhi”(=Modern Mushroom Cultivation Technology)1st ed. Heritage Publisher and Distributor Pvt.Ltd. Kathmandu, Nepal.p10–15.

Schumacher, T. and K. Høiland. 1983. MushroomPoisoning Caused by Species of the GenusCortinarius. Arch. Toxicol. 53:87–106.

Stamets, P. 2000. Growing Gourmet and MedicinalMushrooms. Ten Speed Press, Berkeley andToronto, 339 p.

Tebbet, I.R. and B. Cady. 1984. Toxins of the GenusCortinarius. Experientia 40:441–446.

Thomas, J.D. 2008. Toxic Fungi of WesternNorth America. Published by MykoWeb(www.mykoweb.com).

Vergeer, P. 1986. The Meixner Test Evaluated.McIllvainea 7(2):61–66.

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The Status of Collection and Utilization of Nepalese Mycobiota

Mahesh Kumar AdhikariGPO Box no. 21758, Kathmandu, NepalEmail:[email protected]

Abstract

Nepal, the land of diverse geographical settings and mycodiversity, is well known to be the center for origin,adaptation, growth and dominance of different mycobiota. First publication of mycoelements was done by Llyod(1808) and then followed by Berkeley (1854) and Balfour- Browne (1950). Since then, many researchers havecontributed their findings. Among 1150 species of mushrooms 5 monotypic and 52 endemic species of mushroomsare recorded from Nepal. This mushroom biota embraces 147 edible, 100 poisonous and 73 medicinal species. Theannual mortality rate due to mushroom poisoning ranges in between 20 – 30. The cultivation of mushroom startedsince 1976 and all are the exotic strains. There is now need of cultivation of indigenous species, fungal legislation toassist research activities, a center for mycological studies, quality control of edible species, DNA isolation ormolecular or phylogenic studies, screening of mycochemicals and breeding of good commercial species.

Key words – Decoration, Endemic, Mycogeographic, Poisonous, Wild

Introduction

Nepal, the Himalayan kingdom, situated inthe lap of well known high snow peakedHimalayan chain in the north and vast terrain ofplain in the south, is famous as the centre fororigin and house of immense biological diversity.Among the biotypes the Phanerogamic floraldiversity has been studied immensely but thestudies on cryptogamic especially myco diversityhas got less attention in Nepal. While talking ofother countries there are several institutesrelated to studies on mycological fields inEurope, America, Germany, Japan, India, Chinaand Russia and they have contributed immenselyas an authority for several taxa. Nepal has toundergo several challenges to meet the currentadvances seen in development of mycologicalfield.

The credit of starting investigation on theNepalese fungi goes back to the work of Lloyd(1808), Berkeley (1854) and Balfour-Browne (1955,1968) from where the fungi of Nepal came to light.Since then more than 540 papers have beenpublished by several researchers from abroad(more than 190 persons) and Nepal (more than 50persons). The papers mostly embrace the studiesrelated to taxonomy, ethnomycology, pathology,

biogeographic or ecological distribution pattern,screening results and mycorrhizal mycobiota. Themost well known compiled literature are“Mushrooms of Nepal” (Adhikari 2000),“Researches on the Nepalese mycoflora” 1 and 2(Adhikari 2009 & 2012), “Fungi of Nepal” (part 1,2, 3) (Adhikari & Manandhar 1996, 1997, 2001)and ‘Fungi of Nepal. IV, Basidiomycotina:Ustilagiales’ (Manandhar & Adhikari 2006)

Besides these, the other major literaturesconcerned with the mycoflora are ‘Flora ofEastern Himalaya’ (Hara 1966), ‘Expedition toKhumbu Himal’ (1976), ‘Reports on theCryptogamic study in Nepal’ (1982), ‘Cryptogamsof the Himalayas Vol. 1: The Kathmandu valley’(1988), “Cryptogams of the Himalayas. Vol. 2:Central and Eastern” (1990), ‘Research trendson Nepalese mycoflora’ (Adhikari 1991),‘Cryptogams of the Himalayas’ vol. 3: Pakistanand Nepal’ (1995), ‘The check references list ofplant pathogen in Nepal’ (Pawsey 1989),‘Annotated check list of rust fungi (Uredinales)of Nepal’ (Ono, Adhikari & Kaneko, 1996),‘Gasteromycetes from Nepal’ (Adhikari, 1999d),‘The Clavarioid fungi of Nepal’ (Adhikari & Devkota2007), ‘The diversity of Cordycepioid fungireported from Nepal’ (Adhikari 2008) ‘The familySclerodermataceae: ectomycorhizal fungi from

14


Nepal’ (Manandhar & Adhikari 2009). Some of thesechecklists now need revision as many species areadded to the list of Nepalese mycobiota.

Taxa reported from Nepal

The glimpse to Nepalese mycobiotaencompasses 608 genera and 2025 species with 5

monotypic species, 52 genera and 145 species ofendemic fungi out of 177 species discovered byvarious mycologists in time to time (table no. 1).Thirty two (32) species are now reported fromother countries; while near about 22 species haveundergone the synonym or basionymes (Adhikari2009, 2012).

Table 1. Mycodiversity

While visualizing Nepal Himalaya as centrefor origin, appearance and dominance of numberof mycobiota and their distribution patternbetween high and low altitude forms, the presentnumber of species is 10 times smaller in comparisonto India (Adhikari 1990, 2000, 2009). Yet themycoflora Nepal serves as a connecting link withSino-Japanese, Western and Central Asiatic, NorthEast American, partly North African and mostlyIndian subcontinent. The eastern sector showssome of the flora characteristic to South-East Asia,while the rest shows their affinity with the North-West Himalayan elements of India.

Adhikari (2000) also considered 3mycogeographic regions on the basis of findings

of Amauroderma rugosum in (Sanghu, Dhankuta)Eastern Himalaya and Aecidium urticae in(Bajhang) North-West Himalaya, which supportsthe view of Stearn (1960) to be divided into 3phytogeographic regions.

Till now near about 270 genera and 1150species of mushrooms have been investigatedbelonging to near about 100 families. Among themAscomycota embraces 157 species, whileBasidiomycota has 993 species (Adhikari 2012).About 52 species of mushrooms are describedfrom Nepal among these 9 species are found inother countries. Thirty two (32) species areendemic to Nepal, while 10 species have turnedinto synonyms.

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Utilization of mycoresources

(a) Wild edible and poisonous species

While talking of the wild edible species itencounters around 147 species and the poisonousspecies are recently recorded to reach near about100 species (Adhikari 2008c; Adhikari et al. 2008,2012). The medicinal are 73 species (Adhikari2008a), while 20 species can be utilized indecoration.

The daily consumption of wild mushroomsis found in tropical forest areas, midlands, thetemperate and subalpine region of Nepal, wherethe local inhabitants dwell near by the forest(Adhikari & Adhikari 1996-97, 2000). The highconsumption is found in temperate region incomparison to others. This mishappening alwaysoccurs in the areas where there is nearness toforest and or scarcity of food. But till now theamount of collection and consumption isunknown. The mortality rate due to theconsumption of wild mushrooms encircles around20 to 25 persons annually, where there is poorfacility of prompt communication and first aidservices. The collectors are mostly traditionalmycophagous society, herds of animals or woodcollectors, which age between 10 to 45 years.Among them infants and old age persons are thevictims. Their necessity to earn money forlivelihood and serve hand to mouth invites thefatal cases. They are illiterate and ignorant todifferentiate between edible and poisonous ones(Adhikari 2004).

In rainy season near about 30 species aresold in Kathmandu market and elsewhere in urbancities (Adhikari & Adhikari 19996- 97; Adhikari2000, 2009). The cities like Kathmandu andPokhara valley are no longer exception to thiscase especially during the raining season.

The wild delicious taxa like, Hericium (3species), Amanita (3 species), Laetiporussulphureus, Pleurotus (4 species), Cantharellus(3 species), Morchella (6 species: 6 – 10 tonsannually), Ophiocordyceps sinensis (1 tonsannually) and Scleroderma texens andTermitomyces (7 species) collected and sold inthe market. Some of these are collected in huge

amount and exported to other countries (Adhikari2000a, b, 2008b, 2012; Adhikari & Adhikari 1996-97). The species of collection also depend up onthe difference between the ethnic casts, theirphysiologic condition and the phyto orphysiographic condition of the area. Chepangsare traditionally expert in collecting Amanitachepangiana, a species of subtropical region.The screening of nutrient present in some of thesewild mushrooms has also been done. There aremany literatures published on wild ediblemushrooms of Nepal by different authors, whichnow is under revision based on FAO report andvarious literatures (Adhikari 2009).

So, to create awareness about the concepton the collection and the consequence producedby consumption of wild mushroom in the ruralareas three posters of poisonous mushroomswere released. These three posters containingphotographs of 30 poisonous species werepublished in the year 2008 along with theirdescription in collaboration with DPR, DOA andJICA. The team was headed by me along withJapanese senior volunteer and other researchersof DOA. Recently later in 2012 a poster again wasreleased embracing the photographs of 50 speciesin collaboration of PPD and JICA. It was alsoheaded by me along with same Japanese seniorvolunteer and the staff of PPD.

(b) Cultivation of mushrooms

Nepalese farmers grow exotic cultivar andunknown strains of Agaricus bisporus, Agaricusbitorquis, Pleurotus ostreatus, Coprinuscomatus, Pleurotus eryngii, Pleurotus floridus,Lentinus sajor-caju, Lentinula edodes,Volvariella volvacea and Ganoderma lucidum.The daily consumption is known to be between25 – 35 tons in “in season”, while the dailyconsumption in “off season” lies between 5 – 10tons. But quality of production and sales are notgood.

I have heard that many growers use powerfulfungicides, insecticides or pesticides starting fromthe preparation for cultivation up to packing uptheir products for market. These chemicals thoughdo not show their immediate hazard in humanhealth, but are quite harmful, which are attached

16


in the human genetic material as covalent andcarried to generation to generation. So, there isneed of regular examination and visit of market,where both the wild and cultivated species aresold. It is visualized here necessary to formulatea law for both wild and cultivated edible speciesto standardize as quality product by FoodResearch Laboratory as food security legislation(Adhikari 2011).

(c) Other uses

Despite of fermentation, medicinal,lightening and dye yielding values, now a dayssome new aspects of utilization of fungi has beenfound. The masks are made out of several speciesof polypores. They are found selling in the marketand cost price ranges between 25/- to 4000/-Rs.This is a new emerging industry in Nepal. Onemust think the pros and cons about it.

Nepal is rich in all these indigenous speciesand despite of these there several species whichawait their exploration, collection, breeding,producing cultures and cultivation. So, now thetime has become necessary to use our own wealthof the country to enrich the kingdom.

Conclusion

Lastly, while looking backwards we seemany things yet to be done in future as notedbelow.

• Nepal needs vivid exploration, investigationand studies on Nepalese mycobiota. Till nowwestern and eastern regions are not wellexplored in comparison to central region.Many mycotaxa remains still to be discovered.

• Very few Nepalese are engaged in this field

• Not a single person or researcher has beenawarded, despite of their enormous andnoteworthy contributions in the field ofmycology. And so, what country would expectfrom them for more contribution in future,

• A good and well equipped institute forinvestigation and studies on Nepalesemycology serving as “Center for HimalayanMycological Studies”,

• Provide or create posts for and or mycologists

in the related institutes

• Provide free entrance for collection andinvestigation opportunities in any parts ofNepal to any Nepalese researchers.

• Provide well equipped labs for taxonomic,molecular, phylogenetic and pharmacologicalstudies. The lab should be able to providethe opportunities for myco-chemicalscreening tests, nutrient analysis, breedingbehavior studies and agrobased experiments.

• Provide joint collaborative works, exchangeof materials and researchers with mycologistsof other countries.

• There is a need of suitable legislation tofacilitate the collection and study of fungi inNepal

• Need of a sound and priority based teachingtechnology with special preference inmycological studies. Universities should givepreferences on providing mycological studies.

• Utilization through cultivation practices ofindigenous wild edible species and productionof new cultivars for commercial productionedible mushrooms.

• Facilities to be provided in trade and transitof mushrooms.

• Frequent cross check or examination of wildspecies sold in the market and standardizationor quality control of cultivated speciesincluding chemical residue analysis (CRA,PRA or FRA) so on.

• Nepal also now needs a perfect “MycologicalSociety” under a dyanamic leadership, whichwould render the services related tomycology, publish a standard Journal andconduct various activities related tomycological field.

Lastly, my request to all persons working inthe mycological filed to work very hard startingfrom the investigation of wild mushrooms up totheir possible commercialization so that we canmake steps and march ahead to uplift, developand overcome the difficulties. In these areasspecially the NAST along with Department ofPlant Resources, MOFSC, DOA Mushroom Unit,

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PPD, NARC, TU, PU and KU should play a vitalrole.

References

Adhikari, K.S. and M.K. Adhikari. 1996 - 1997.Collection and consumption of wild ediblemushrooms sold in Kathmandu valley, Nepal.The Geographer’s Point. 1-2 : 1 - 9.

Adhikari, M.K. 1991. Research trends on Nepalesemycoflora. Jour. Inst. Agric. Sc 12: 17 - 27.

Adhikari, M.K.1988a. New records of fleshy fungifrom the Kathmandu valley. Cryptogams of theHimalayas.vol.1.The Kathmandu valley (Eds.M. Watanabe & S.B. Malla). National ScienceMuseum, Tsukuba, Japan. 133-139.

Adhikari, M.K. 1988b. The genus Russula from theKathmandu valley. Ibid. 141-146.

Adhikari, M. K.1990. The genus Russula from Nepal(ll). Cryptogams of the Himalayas. vol. 2 Centraland Eastern Nepal (Eds. M.Watanabe & S.B.Malla). National Science Museum, Tsukuba,Japan. 101-112.

Adhikari, M.K. 1999. Wild relatives of some arablemushrooms found in Nepal. In: Proceedings ofNational Conference on Wild relatives ofCultivated plants in Nepal. June 2-4, 1999.Organized by Green Energy Mission/Nepal,Kathmandu, Nepal. p149 - 156.

Adhikari, M.K. 2000a. Mushrooms of Nepal. Editedby G. Durrieu, P.U. Printers Battishputali,Kathmandu, Nepal. 236p.

Adhikari, M.K. 2000b. Morels and their productionin natural environment of Jumla district, Nepal.Banko Janakari. 10 (1): 11-14.

Adhikari, M.K. 2004. Mushroom poisoning and itsstate in Nepal. Plant Resources (An occasionalpublication) Bull. Dept. Pl. Res. 25:38 – 46.

Adhikari, M.K. 2008a. The medicinal fungi fromNepal. Medicinal Plants in Nepal An anthologyof contemporary research. ECOS, Kathmandu,Nepal. p107- 118.

Adhikari, M.K. 2008b. The diversity of Cordycepioidfungi (Ascomycotina : Clavicipitales ) reportedfrom Nepal . Bull. Dept. Pl. Res. 39. Departmentof Plant Resources, Thapathali, Kathmandu,Nepal. p1- 9.

Adhikari, M.K. 2008c. Nepalko parvatiya kshetrakabishalu chauharu:chhoto janakari. BanaspatiShrota Samacharpatra. 12(2):4 – 8 (=Poisonousmushrooms found in Nepalese Himalayan belts).

Adhikari, M.K. 2009. Researches on the Nepalese

mycoflora: revised account on the history ofmycological explorations. Published by K. S.Adhikari, Kathmandu, Nepal. 92 p.

Adhikari, M.K. 2067 (2011). Nepalma chyau tathadhusijanya banaspati rog vigyanko bikaska laginiti:bundagat jankari. Krishi suchana. 1(10):10-12 (= Legislation necessary for thedevelopment of mushrooms and mycologicalplant pathology: point wise discussion).

Adhikari, M.K. 2012. Researches on the Nepalesemycoflora-2: checklist of macrofungi(mushrooms). Published by K.S. Adhikari,Kathmandu, Nepal. 90 p.

Adhikari, M.K. et al. 2008. Nepalma paine bishaluchyauharu 1-3 (= Poisonous Mushrooms foundin Nepal), (26th, Dec.) Each set with 10 species(Total 30 species) Financed and Assisted byJICA in collaboration with GN (DPR & DOA).

Adhikari, M.K. et al. 2012. Poisonous Mushrooms ofNepal, 2069.9.11 (2012.12.26) – containing 50species. Financed and Assisted by JICA incollaboration with NARC, PPD.

Adhikari, M.K. and S. Devkota. 2007. The Clavarioidfungi of Nepal. Bull. Dept. Pl. Res. 29: 7 – 22.Department of Plant Resources, Thapathali,Kathmandu, Nepal.

Adhikari, M.K. and V. Manandhar. 1996. Fungi ofNepal, Part 1: Historical review &Myxomycotina. Bull. Dept. Med. Pl. 13,Kathmandu, Nepal. 69 p.

Adhikari, M.K. and V. Manandhar. 1997. Fungi ofNepal, Part 2: Mastigomycotina, Zygomycotinaand Ascomycotina. Bull. Dept. Pl. Res. 16,Kathmandu, Nepal. 60 p.

Adhikari, M.K. and V. Manandhar 2001. Fungi ofNepal, Part 3 : Deuteromycotina Bull. Dept. Pl.Res. 17, Thapathali, Kathmandu, Nepal. 38 p.

Balfour - Browne, F.L. 1955. Some Himalayan fungi.Bull. Brit. Mus. (Nat. Hist.) Ser. Bot. 1: 189-218.

Balfour - Browne, F. L. 1968. Fungi of recent Nepalexpedition. Bull. Brit. Mus. (Nat. Hist.) Ser. Bot. 4:99-141.

Berkeley, M.J. 1854. a- Decades XLI - XLIII. Indianfungi. Hooker’s Jour. Bot. Kew. Gard. Misc. jour.6 : 129-143. b - Decades XLIV - XLVI. Indianfungi. Ibid. 6: 161-174. c - Decades XLVII - XLVIII.Indian fungi. Ibid. 6: 204-212. d - Decades XLIX -L. Indian fungi. Ibid. 6: 225-235. (reprint 1969,Decades of fungi 1-62, Amsterdam, Asher Co. 280).

Imazeki, R., Y. Kobayashi and K. Aoshima. 1966.Fungi. The flora of eastern Himalaya (Ed. H.Hara). University of Tokyo, Japan. 611-626.

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Kreisel, H. 1969. Gasteromyzeten aus Nepal. KhumbuHimal. 6(1): 25-36.

Lloyd, C. G. 1808. Mycological notes. no. 1: 75Manandhar, V. and M.K. Adhikari. 2006. Fungi of

Nepal. IV, Basidomycotina: Ustilagiales. Bull.Dept. Pl. Res. 27: 73 – 79.

Manandhar, V.K. and M.K. Adhikari. 2009. The familySclerodermataceae: ectomycorhizal fungi fromNepal. Bull. Dept. Pl. Res. 31, Department ofPlant Resources, Thapathali, Kathmandu, Nepal.p 29 – 34.

Manandhar, V. and M.K. Adhikari. 2006. Fungi ofNepal. IV, Basidomycotina : Ustilagiales. Bull.Dept. Pl. Res. 27: 73 – 79.

Manandhar, V.K. and M.K. Adhikari. 2009. The familySclerodermataceae: ectomycorhizal fungi from

Nepal. Bull. Dept. Pl. Res. 31, Department ofPlant Resources, Thapathali, Kathmandu, Nepal.p 29 – 34.

Ono, Y., M.K. Adhikari and R. Kaneko. 1996. Anannotated list of the rust fungi (Uredinales) ofNepal. Cryptogams of the Himalayas vol. 3:Nepal and Pakistan (Eds. M. Watanabe & H.Hagiwara). National Science Museum, TsukubaJapan. 69 - 125.

Otani, Y. 1982. Cup fungi collected in Nepal.1. Reportson the Cryptogamic study in Nepal (Ed. Y. Otani).National Science Museum, Tokyo. p 75-91.Pawsey, R.G. 1989. A check reference list of plantpathogens in Nepal. FRIC Occasional paper. no.1/89, Kathmandu. 69 p.

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Mushroom Research in Nepal: Current Status and Prospects

Gopal Prasad ParajuliPlant Pathology Division, Nepal Agriculture Research CouncilKhumaltar, Lalitpur, NepalEmail: [email protected]

Abstract

Organized research and production of mushroom in Nepal was started after the establishment of MushroomResearch Unit in Plant Pathology Division, Khumaltar, in 1974. Since then this division has been mainly concernedon research and production of five different mushrooms, namely Button Mushroom (Agaricus bisporus), Oystermushroom (Pleurotus sp.), Shiitake mushroom (Lentinula edodes), Straw mushroom (Volvariella volvacea), Jellyear mushroom (Auricularia auriculata) and Red mushroom (Ganoderma lucidum). Plant Pathology Division hasbeen collecting and studying native mushrooms from different parts of the country under its new strategic plan. Inthis short period, a number of edible mushrooms were collected and many of them have been identified based ontheir morphology and made culture through tissue culture for domestication purpose. They include differentspecies of Pleurotus, Ganoderma, Shiitake, Pholiota, Grifola, and many others. Attempts are being made toproduce spawns of some of the collected species for their cultivation.

Key words: Agaricus bisporous, Ganoderma lucidum, Native mushroom, Nutritional, Pleurotus sp.Volvariella volvacea

History of mushroom research in Nepal

Mushroom research was initiated by Prof.S. C. Singh from Tribhuvan University in 1972.During that period, he started research work withcollection of native edible mushrooms from forest.At the beginning, he did tissue culture ofPleurotus sp. and worked on the domesticationmushroom on saw dust, Quercus semicarpefoliaand Euphorbia royliana

Organized research and production ofmushroom in Nepal started after the establishmentof Mushroom Research Unit in Plant PathologyDivision, Khumaltar, in 1974. At the beginning,many substrates of button mushroom were usedfor making the spawn to cultivate the buttonmushroom. At that time, many cereal grains wereused as a substrate out of which wheat grainsubstrate were selected suitable for the buttonmushroom. Side by side, suitable substrate forcultivation purpose was also selected.

Button mushrooms (Gobre chyau) cultivation inNepal

Cultivation technologies for the cultivation

of button mushrooms(Gobre chyau) wasrecommended to farmers in 1977. Initially,cultivation technology was transferred in differentlocations of the Kathmandu valley like Balambu,Chapagaun, Harisiddhi, Koteshwor, etc and thento various places outside the Kathmandu valleyincluding Chitwan, Illam, Sunsari, Jhapa, Dhankuta,Bara, Makawanpur, Nawalparasi, Pokhara, Kaski,Mustang, Dang, and Dhading districts.

The substrates developed by Plant PathologyDivision were as follows:

Compost A: Straw: 1000 kg, Urea:5 kg,Ammonium sulphate:20 kg, Triple superphosphate: 7 kg, and Agri lime: 30 kg

Compost B: Straw: 1000 kg, Complexsal(20:20:0): 23 kg, Urea: 4 kg, Gypsum (Plaster ofaris): 40 kg

Compost C: Straw: 1000 kg, Urea: 15 kg,Ammonium sulphate : 15 kg, Gypsum: 35 kg, Agrilime: 25 kg and Rice bran: 25 kg

Compost D: Straw: 1000 kg Or Straw- 500 kgand Wheat straw- 500 kg, Chicken manure-

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150 kg, DAP (Diammonium phosphate)- 3 kg,Urea- 10 kg and Gypsum- 20 kg

However, during unavailability of Triplesuper phosphate, Complexsal and Ammoniumsulphate in the market, research on alternativesingredients has been carried out. Based on recentresearch, modified Compost A containing Ricestraw (Taichung)(1000 kg) + Urea (5 kg),Ammonium sulphate (20 kg) + TSP (10 Kg) + Agrilime (30 kg); modified Compost B containing Ricestraw (Taichung) (1000 kg) + Urea (3 kg) +Ammonium sulphate (15.6 kg) + DAP(9.78 Kg) +Agri lime (30 kg) were developed ingredients. Theresearch findings showed that compost A wasthe best one, which was followed by Compost B.Based on the research outcomes, Compost A andCompost B have been recommended to farmersfor the better production of button mushroom.

Oyster mushroom (Kanye chyau) cultivation inNepal

Plant Pathology Division (PPD) introducedcultivation technology of Oyster mushrooms in1981. Then, PPD started research on differentsubstrates, sterilization process and climaticconditions, etc. In 1984, developed technologyfor cultivation of Oyster mushroom wasrecommended to the farmers in Kathmandu valley.At that time, Pleurotus sajor-caju was foundbetter strain of Oyster mushroom for cultivationpurpose. Later, the technology was extended toKavrepalanchowk, Chitwan, Nawalparasi,Bhairahawa, Pokhara, Nepalgunj, Dang, Dhankutaand Sunsari districts. Gradually, other strain ofOyster mushrooms (Pleurotus florid, Pleurotusostreatus) were also brought intocultivation.Among these, Pleurotus ostreatus isgetting popularity among the farmers. Differentsubstrates for the cultivation of Oystermushrooms are: Paddy Straw, Wheat straw, Paddystraw (75%) + Wheat straw (25%), Saw dust (90%)+ Rice bran (10%), and Wood log of Uttish (Alnusnepalensis). Among these paddy straw has beenpopular among the farmers of Kathmandu valleyespecially Taichung variety of paddy straw forwinter as well as the summer cultivation. Masinovariety of rice straw is good only for winterseason.

King’s Oyster mushroom (Pleurotus eryngii)cultivation in Nepal

From last two years, the author has beendoing research on King’s Oyster mushroom andon different substrates such as saw dust (90%) +rice bran (10%), paddy straw alone andcombination of paddy straw and othersupplements (compost). Results showed that bothsubstrates can give better yield. Moreover,research on various substrates is ongoing.Cultivation of this mushroom in Nepal is suitableat 15-18°C for mycelia growth and 20-22°C forfruiting.

Straw mushroom (Parale chyau) cultivation inNepal

In 1981, scientists of the Plant PathologyDivision introduced the cultivation technologyof straw mushroom and conducted research ondifferent substrates for its cultivation. Based ontheir research, paddy straw + gram powder wasfound the best substrate for the cultivation ofstraw mushroom. It is also found out thatcultivation of straw mushroom can be done onlyin summer season in Kathmandu valley and Teraialso. Because of favorable climatic conditions ofTerai region, demand of straw mushrooms isincreasing, but due to the improper marketingsystem, cultivation of straw mushrooms couldnot flourish satisfactorily.

Shiitake mushrooms (Mirge chyau) cultivationin Nepal

Shiitake mushroom cultivation wasintroduced in 1979/1980. Some cultivatedsubstrates were developed from the PlantPathology Division. They were wood logs of Uttis(Alnus nepalensis), Katus (Quercus tricofolia)etc. Because of the restriction on cutting of thetrees, cultivation of these mushrooms could notflourish properly. Dr. Keshari Laxmi Manandhardid some research work on different species ofthe trees ( Manandhar 2002).

Substrate for Shiitake mushrooms are Sawdust (90%) + Rice bran (10%), Wood logs are asfollows: Alnus nepalensis (Uttis), Castanopsishystris (Dhale Katus), C. indica (Musure Katus),

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Betula alnoides (Saur), Faxinus floribunda(Lakure), Engelhardtia spicata (Mauwa),Quercus tricofolia (Banja) . Alnus and Betula,suitable substrates for Shiitake cultivation areeasily available in many places.

As compared to previous decade, cultivationof these mushrooms has been increasing gradually.Cultivated areas for this mushroom are Illam,Taplejung, Dhankuta, Sankhuwasabha, Sindhuli,Ramechhap, Dolakha, Sindupalchowk,Kavrepalanchowk, Nuwakot, Kathmandu valley,Dhading, Nawalparasi, Kaski, Makawanpur,Myagdi, Baglung, Syangja, Palpa districts etc.

Cultivation of Red Mushroom (Rato chyau) inNepal

In Nepal cultivation Technology of thismushroom was introduced by PPD/NARC in 2004.Identified substrate for cultivation of thismushroom are; Saw dust (90%)+ Ricebran (10%),Saw dust (72%) + Corn flour (20%) + Ricebran(7.5%) + Calcium carbonate (0.2%), Saw dust(76%) + Millet flour (12%) + Rice bran (12%), Sawdust (90%) + Wheat bran (10%). Among thesesupplements, Saw dust(90%) + Rice bran (10%)and Saw dust (72%) + Corn flour (20%) +Ricebran(7.5%) + Calcium carbonate (0.2%) arefound better substrate for cultivation of RedMushrooms. More recently, wood disc (6 x 6 inch)of Uttish (Alnus nepalensis) is found the bestsubstrate for Ganoderma. Besides these, sawdustof Alnus nepalensis supplemented with gramflour also showed higher yield.

Cultivation of Jelly ear mushroom in Nepal

In 1998, Jelly Mushroom (Auriculariaauriculata) was recommended for commercialcultivation. However, only few farmers in someareas of Kathmandu valley have cultivated thesemushrooms.

Native edible mushroom species cultivation inNepal

Plant Pathology Division has recentlyinitiated the research on native mushrooms andhas been collecting the specimens from different

parts of the country. A number of ediblemushrooms have been collected and identifiedbased on the morphological structures. Forcommercialization, many species of ediblemushrooms have been cultivated through tissueculture technology. They include different speciesof Pleurotus, Ganoderma, Lentinula, Pholiota,Grifola, etc.

Spawn Production in Nepal

Plant pathology Division was the only solesector to distribute spawn to farmers’ all overNepal. Later, Plant Pathology Division providedtraining to the interested farmers regarding spawnproduction. In 1991, some privates companiesstarted the production of mushroom spawn, Now,more than 20 private spawn growers areproducing spawn throughout the country. Till2013, it is estimated that about 4,50,000 packetsof spawn were sold and produced about 2,000-2,500 metric tons of fresh mushroom, amongwhich about 1,200 metric tons is from theKathmandu valley.

Recommendations and Suggestions

In general, mushroom farming is done atsmall scale, but now farmers are beingencouraged to cultivate mushrooms atcommercial scale. In order to develop mushroomfarming in commercial way, good quality spawnand enough technical support should beprovided to the farmers. Distribution networkshould be made in such a way that it facilitatesmarketing of products and mushroomprocessing plants should be installed with theresource centre. There should be support fromgovernment organizations in order to regulatethe spawn quality and mushroom quality andcoordinate marketing with national internationallevel for various purposes. Crop insurancepolicy should be developed and implemented inorder to minimize the risks associated inmushroom farming. Insect and disease are alsocreating a lot of problem especially on Pleurotussp. and Dry Bubble disease on Buttonmushroom which needs a lot of research to findsolution.

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References

Dangol, R.H., S. Shrestha and H. Bastola. 1994. GobreChyau Ko (Agaricus bisporus) Kheti Garne SaralTarika in Nepali, leaf-let 20 p. Plant PathologyDivision, Khumaltar, Lalitpur.

Manandhar, K.L. 2003. Development of ShiitakeCultivation Technology for the hill farmers. HillAgriculture Research Project. p7-8.

Plant Pathology Division (PPD). 2007. CultivationMethodology of Red Mushroom. In: AnnulReport (2005-2006). Nepal Agricultural ResearchCouncil. p57-59.

Plant Pathology Division (PPD), 2010. Study oncultivation technology of Ganoderma spp. onPaddy Straw. In: Annual Report 2008-2009.Nepal Agricultural Research Council.66p.

Plant Pathology Division (PPD). 2010. Study oncultivation of Red mushroom (Ganodermalucidum) on bed log of Uttis / Alder (Alnusnepalensis). p69.

Parajuli, G.P. 2005. Rato Chayu (Red Mushroom KoBewasayik Kheti in Nepali) Folder 6 p PlantPathology Division, Khumaltar, Lalitpur.

Plant Pathology Division (PPD). 1999. Annual Report(1997-98). Nepal Agriculture Research Council,Khumaltar, Lalitpur, Nepal. p45-46.

Singh, S.C. 2007. Status of mushroom cultivation inNepal with reference to World production andconsumption trends. In: Mycological researchand Mushroom Production in Nepal (Eds. S.C.Singh, M.K. Adhikari & R.D Tiwari). Themycological and Phytopathological society,Nepal.

Plant Pathology Division (PPD). 2010. Study oncultivation technology of Ganoderma spp. OnPaddy staw. In: Annual Report 2008-2009, NepalAgriculture Research Council. 66p.

Plant Pathology Division (PPD). 2010. Study oncultivation of Red mushroom (Ganodermalucidum) on bedlog of Uttish (Alnusnepalensis).p 69.

Parajuli,G.P., M. Baidya, H. Bastola, G. Baidya andB. Mahato. 2013. Kanye Chyauko (OysterMushroom in Nepali) Saral Kheti Garne Prabidhileaf-let 8 p Plant Pathology Division, Khumaltar,Lalitpur.

Parajuli, G.P., K. Watanabe and B. Khadka. 2012.Mrige (Shiitake) (Chayu Ko Kheti Garne SaralPrabidhi in Nepali) leaf-let 8 p Plant PathologyDivision and Jica/ Nepal.

Parajuli, G.P., M. Baidya, H. Bastola and G. Baidya.2012. (Gobre Chyau (Button Mushroom) KoKheti Garne Prabidhi in Nepali) leaflet 10 p PlantPathology Division, Khumaltar, Lalitpur.

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Present Scenario and Prospects ofMushroom Cultivation in Nepal

Jagadish Bhakta ShresthaDirectorate of Industrial Entomology DevelopmentHarihar Bhawan, LalitpurEmail:[email protected]

Abstract

The existing natural resources and raw materials’ availability, unemployed and under-employed people’sworkforce, a wide range of diverse but suitable physiographic and environmental conditions in Nepal favour andmake by default an excellent milieu for the promotion and up-scaling of mushroom production in Nepal. Biodiversityof Nepal is also remarkable with wide variety of species of flora and fauna, which gives opportunity for productionof numerous high value products including mushroom. Due to this rich diversity, the potential for mushroomproduction for both food and medicinal purpose is enormous. For health, nutrition as well as economic condition ofNepalese people certainly needs to be improved and those can be addressed through the establishment of sustainableand stable mushroom industries at various levels. Although mushroom is increasingly taken as one of the importantcash generating agriculture businesses, it could not get smooth momentum. There is a lack of adequate technologiesand technicians, institutionalized marketing network, economy of scale of high quality mushroom production andadequate infrastructures including financial support. Thus, from the view point of improving the mushroomproduction, its quality and marketing systems, a good common thrust is required to subdue all of the constraints andissues related to mushroom. Diversified and wide variation range of climate across the country has gifted anenormous number of species and varieties of mushroom naturally. However, resources endowed by the diversifiednature have yet to be captured and utilized. This paper deals with the review of current status of mushroomfarming, its potentials and prospects.

Introduction

A mushroom is the fleshy, spore-bearingfruiting body of a fungus, typically producedabove ground on soil or on its food source andcharacterized by heterotrophic mode of nutrition.Mushrooms are utilized for their nutritive andmedicinal values. In Nepal, in some places owingto various superstitions, misbelieves and low levelof understanding, mushroom is considered asreligiously impure and is given a relatively lowpriority in traditional Nepalese food. However,interestingly now-a-days there is a growing trendof consumption of mushroom because of its healthrelated benefits such as having very lowcholesterol, low calorie and delicious taste.Mushrooms are nutritionally functional food anda source of physiologically beneficial andnontoxic medicines (Wasser & Weis 1999). ‘Soma’the divine drink is supposed to be obtained fromthe mushrooms. RigVeda says Apamiva bhavatu

rakshasa sah, 9:85, which means with the help of‘soma’ we may be free from diseases, anddemons. Mushrooms find their place in traditionalfolk medicine throughout the world since ancienttimes. Farmers in increasing number are beingattracted for its higher production as well, inproportionate with its increasing consumptionand demand. Due to rich diversity, the potentialfor mushroom production for both food andmedicinal purposes is immense. However,resources endowed by the diversity have yet tobe captured and utilized. Several thousands ofmushroom species known worldwide, onlyaround 2 thousands are considered edible, ofwhich about 20 are cultured commercially, withonly 4 to 5 under industrial production. At present,Oyster and Button mushrooms are easily availablein the market but in future shiitake mushroom willalso appear in Nepalese market. From the trendsof past years, the demand and consumption ofmushroom is expected to continue increasing.

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Oyster mushrooms are identified as being botheconomically viable and suited for localcultivation. Nepal Agriculture Research Council(NARC) and a few private organizations are themajor resource centers for supplying qualityspawn to the farmer/growers. These dayscommercial cultivation of mushroom in Nepal isincreasing rapidly. Mushroom is gainingpopularity in Kathmandu valley and other partsof the country. At present, it is estimated to beabout more than 9,000-10,000 mushroom farmersin Kathmandu valley alone, mostly small farmers,producing 300-500 kg per day. They have beenable to meet mushroom local demand to someextent so far. The average mushroom productionis about 8-10 MT per day. Pokhara and Chitwanare other major mushroom producing districts.Other districts also produce these two speciesbut in increasing amount, hardly enough to meetlocal demand (Poudel & Bajracharya 2011).

Mushroom has been being used by thepeople as food and medicine in Nepal since avery long period of time. Commercially cultivatedfive species of mushrooms are Agaricus bisporus(Lange) Imbach, Pleurotus spp., Lentinus edodes(Berk.) Pegler, Volvariella volvacea(Bull Fries) Singer and Ganoderma lucidum(Curtis) P. Karst. Mushroom farming has beenidentified as one of the profitable agro-businessthese days with an annual production of 1900MT (according to Directorate of IndustrialEntomology Development). By the end of thefiscal year 2072/73, the production of mushroomhas been targeted to be 3200 MT. The financialanalysis of fresh mushroom production indicatedmore than 50% of internal rate of return.Mushroom farming is popular in urban and peri-urban areas where it has high market demand andnow being established as profitable micro-enterprise. This enterprise is getting popularityamong farmers and agriculture scientists due tonutritional value, medicinal as well as otherproperties such as small scale investment lesslabour consuming, short crop duration andgrowing demand in the market. There is highdemand of regular supply of mushroom in bighotels, restaurants and departmental stores.Attempts has been made by various governmentaland non-government organizations through

research, training, spawn distribution, awarenessraising and other promotional programs till thesedays proved to chalk out mushroom farming asprofitable agri-business in the urban and peri-urban areas with focus on women and resourcepoor growers. The wild mushroom varieties withmedicinal properties are also becoming knownlocally as well as in abroad. There are some wildmushroom species of very high medicinalimportance and very high value, which areexported to abroad, however, in very small scale,without any institutional structure. Thecommercial cultivation of those wild mushroomspecies of medicinal importance has yet to beexplored (Wasser & Weis 1999).

Diversified and wide variation range ofclimate across the country has gifted a lot ofvarieties of mushrooms naturally (760 species) inNepal and some (170 species) of them have beenproven as edible mushrooms (Poudel &Bajracharya 2011).

History of mushroom cultivation in Nepal

The mushroom related research commencedin 1974 under Nepal Agriculture Research Council(NARC), and the cultivation of white buttonmushroom began in 1977 as well as Oystermushroom in 1984 by farmers. Small researchesfor Shiitake and Ganoderma have been beingdone since 2001 by NARC as well as some privateorganizations. Shiitake and straw mushroomshave also been being produced successfully.

Spawn production and distribution at thebeginning was done by NARC. However,presently spawn is being produced bygovernmental sectors and private organizations/companies as well.

Mushroom found in Nepal

A large number of species as well as varietiesof mushroom are found in Nepal because of thegreat range of geographic elevation and diversity.Wild mushrooms are still remaining unexploredand only few are domesticated. All the mushroomspecies cultivated here are not native of Nepal.In one project out of 114 species of wildmushrooms collected, 25 species were found

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poisonous (Manadhar 2005). In another, out of174 species found in the forest in wild condition110 were edible, 13 medicinal, 45 toxic, and6 others(Adhikari 2005).

Mushrooms in Nepal can be broadlyclassified as: a) Cultivated mushrooms, b) Wildmushrooms.

Cultivated mushrooms in Nepal

1. White button mushroom, Gobre chyau(Agaricus bisporus) in Hilly region,

2. Oyster Mushroom, Kanye chyau (Pleurotusostreatus) in Hilly regions, Terai region inwinter,

3. Shiitake, Mirge chyau (Lentinula edodes) inMidhills,

4. Straw mushroom, Parale chyau (Volvoriellevolvacea) in Terai region,

5. Ganoderma, Rato chyau in (Ganodermalucidum) in Hilly Region.

Wild mushrooms in Nepal

There are lots of (Provide number of species)species of wild mushrooms found in various areasof Nepal. Villagers consume wild mushroom, butthe harvest of wild mushroom is in very lessamount. Various species have been placed undermedicinal plant by the department of forest(Poudel & Bajracharya 2011).

Some important wild mushrooms of veryhigh commercial value are:

1. Boletus edulis (Cep, or Bolete)2. Cantharellus cibarius (Chantharelle)3. Ophiocordyceps sinensis (Yarsagumba in

Nepali)4. Craterellus connucopiodes (Horn of plenty)5. Ganoderma lucidum (Ganoderma, Rato

chyau)6. Morchella conica (Morel)7. Morchella esculenta (Morel)8. Tricholoma matsutake (Matsutake)

Among these wild mushrooms of very highcommercial value, Ophiocordyceps sinensis hasbecome significant source of income for a lot of

people in the hilly regions. Most of morels, whichare not yet cultivated artificially, are collected inthe forest of Nepal and are exported abroad.Recognizing the medicinal importance ofGanoderma lucidum, various organizations andprivate sectors have been in efforts to cultivateit. The cultivation of Ganoderma lucidum is yetto be done in commercial scale by the farmers(Poudel & Bajracharya 2011).

Places where mushroom farming isconcentrated

Mushroom cultivation is mostlyconcentrated in urban and peri-urban areasaround major city centers such as Kathmanduvalley, Pokhara and Narayanghat. Theconsumption is also found to be more in theseareas. According to farmers these areas havehighest demand. Kathmandu valley is the largestproducer as well as largest consumer. Up to 8-10MT of mushroom is consumed in Kathmanduvalley alone (Manandhar 2005).

The two species of mushroom, white buttonmushroom, i.e., Gobre chyau (Agaricus bisporus)and oyster mushroom, i.e., Kanye chyau(Pleurotus ostreatus) are produced in the valleyduring winter when temperature is low. Duringsummer, which is off-season for the mushroomcultivation, farmers shift their cultivation to higheraltitude in hills surrounding the valley.

Mushroom cultivation areas

The main areas, where mushroom cultivationis being done are:

District Areas

Kathmandu : Balambu, Kakani, Thankot,Gokarna, Sundarijal,Budhanilkantha, Sankhu

Lalitpur : Chapagaun, Lamatar, LakuriBhanjyang, Lele, Godawari

Bhaktapur : Sirutar, Balkot, JanagalKavre : Dhulikhel, Panauti, NalaChitwan : PadampurKaski : Pokhara

Farmers produce white button mushroom

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and oyster mushroom in tunnels made of bambooframework and cover by plastic and straw,producing about 300-400 kilograms in a seasonand 150-250 kilograms during an off-season. Thefarmers choose mushroom farming because ofthe good profit within a short period of time.According to farmers, they could make profit upto 4 times their investment in average. The reasonfor not trying shiitake is because of its longgestation period for harvesting. The farmers getalmost same price around the year. The retail priceis fixed by the dealer according to demand andavailability. Farmers have to carry mushroom intheir motorcycles or rent transport vehicle.

Potential areas

The most feasible areas for mushroomfarming would be in hills surrounding the valleyor any other areas near urban centers. Since themarket is concentrated in these areas, farmingwould be most appropriate in these areas.Important factor to be considered are:i. Since these areas are near to cities, market

access will not be problem. Most areas alsohave motorable roads, which makestransportation easier.

ii. These areas though near cities, are agriculturedominated. The farmers too, due to vicinityto cities are more open to new technology forfarming, which is essential for introduction ofany new crop.

iii. The poverty level of these areas also needsto be addressed. Though they are near tocities, they have been constantly overlookedby any form of development.

iv. Areas around Kathmandu valley also havegood climatic condition for mushroomfarming.

Mushroom cultivation is also one of popularactivities for women targeted developmentprograms. Lots of women are producingmushroom from the local resources, i.e.,agricultural by-products, straw at their own homein small amount, giving them opportunity togenerate income. Hence, mushroom cultivationis one of the most potential income generatingactivities. With the remarkable diversity, Nepalhas immense potential for cultivation of many

kinds of mushroom, which can contribute topoverty reduction.

Mushroom farming by small farmers

Mushroom farming is increasinglybecoming attractive to small farmers in urban andperi-urban areas including Kathmandu valley. Inremote areas, mushroom consumed are mostlywild mushroom brought from forest. Since thereis lack of scientific technique to test thepoisonous nature of wild mushroom, every yearmany people die due to its consumption.

The reasons behind popularity of mushroomfarming among small farmers are:

It requires relatively less time to grow andharvest mushroom. White button mushroomcan be harvested within 3 months and oystermushroom can be harvested within 1 to 2months with profits within short time. It canalso be grown in off-season providing incometo farmers round the year. Shiitake takes about8 months to grow, which diverts farmerstowards the cultivation of mushrooms withshort gestation period and quick profit.This farming can be done with lessinvestment. The farmers can decide tocultivate mushroom according to the amountthey can invest. Agriculture by-products orother local resources, which are easy forfarmers to obtain, are used in this farming.The farming is concentrated around urbancenters or peri-urban areas because oftransportation and market access. Storage andpreservation technology is not muchdeveloped.With lack of good transportation network,access to market becomes a challenge.Because of this, mushroom farming appearsto be concentrated in villages near to cities.

Spawn production

Around 450,000 bottles of mushroom seed(Spawn) are produced annually by differentgovernmental and non-governmentalorganizations in Nepal. Spawns are producedthrough propagating spores as well as throughtissue culture (Singh 2011).

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Marketing of mushroom

There is an enormous (3 times) demand ofmushroom in the domestic market of Nepal andthere is no marketing problem for mushroom forthe time being in Nepal. However, there is a needof a strong institutionalized marketing network.

Existing challenges

Although mushroom is increasingly takenas one of the important cash generatingagriculture businesses, it could not get smoothmomentum. There is a lack of adequatetechnologies and technicians, institutionalizedmarketing network, economy of scale of highquality mushroom production and adequateinfrastructures including financial support.

In Nepal, due to diverse but suitablephysiographic, environmental conditions, andbiological diversity, wide variety of mushroomcan be produced for income generation offarmers. However, currently there are variousobstacles on its development. The challenges areas follows:i. There has been a lesser amount of study

and research by government sectors or otherprivate organization. No policy is yet in placefor mushroom farming.

ii. Due to lack of good transportation network,market access is a big challenge. Productionof any kind of mushroom will first requiredevelopment of road network. Also themarket is mainly limited to urban centers onlyand is dominated by two kinds of mushroomonly.

iii. Currently, two varieties White buttonmushroom or Gobre chyau (Agaricusbisporus) and Oyster Mushroom or Kanyechyau (Pleurotus ostreatus), which areproduced by farmers, fail to compete atinternational market. The other species,which can be exported, are yet to beproduced at large scale.

iv. Many farmers have no confidence to startmushroom farming because they do nothave skill, knowledge about investment,profits and loss that may be required in thisfarming.

v. There is also lack of awareness amongconsumers regarding the nutritional andmedicinal value of mushroom. Due to this,there is a negligible demand of high valuemushrooms, and hence there is no supply.

vi. There is also good opportunity forcollaboration between community forest andmushroom farming. Shiitake for example,since it is produced in wood logs, can begood source of income for communityforestry user groups.

vii. Technology transfer is also a challengingissue considering the literacy level of farmerand long history of dependency ontraditional method. Moreover, very lessresearchers are involved in this, makingtechnology transfer a more difficult job.

viii. The mushroom export has not gained muchinterest from businessmen either.

Enhancing mushroom cultivation

It is important to incorporate JUNCAOtechnology

* JUNCAO technology refers to integratedtechniques that use JUNCAO to cultivateedible and medicinal fungi, as well as producemyco-protein forage and fertilizer. JUNCAOindustry is formed by the utilization ofJUNCAO technology and other interrelatedtechniques.

It is indispensable to- prepare skillful technicians and a cadre of

workforce for mushroom cultivation.- facilitate for the spawn production.- build up adequate infrastructures,

development units, marketing centres.- provide subsidies in transportation,

spawns and and laboratory facilities.- increase peoples’ awareness on nutritional

value of cultivated mushroom and reducethe poisoning risk of uncultivatedmushrooms in urban and peri-urban areas

- strengthen and leverage mushroom valuechain

- share experience and scale up mushroomenterprise among neighboring countries

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for mutual benefit and well-being of theregion

- conserve and elicit benefit from valuableedible wild mushrooms of Nepal andneighboring countries.

Conclusions

The existing natural resources and rawmaterials’ availability, unemployed and under-employed people’s workforce, variegated butsuitable physiographic and environmentalconditions in Nepal favour and make bydefault an excellent milieu for the promotionand up-scaling of mushroom production inNepal.For Health, nutrition as well as economiccondition of Nepalese people certainly needsto be improved and those can be addressedthrough the establishment of sustainable andstable mushroom industries at various levels.Thus, from the view point of improving themushroom production, its quality andmarketing systems, a good common thrust isrequired to subdue all of the constraints andissues related to mushroom.The overall objective of the mushroomproduction should be to commercialize it asindustries and increase income of theentrepreneurs thereby increasing theirstandard of living and reduce nationalpoverty.The specific objectives should be as follows:• Increase production and quality of

mushroom;• Establish well equipped quality testing

accredited laboratory;• Provide employment to rural farmers.

Mushroom farming can be goodopportunity for farmers to earn decent income.So far farmers have found it to be profitable,requiring less investment. With more research,there is possibility to produce numerous highvalue mushrooms, from which local people can

be benefited economically. The main challengelies in carrying out thorough research. The fewprivate agencies involved and government sectorare toether required to give much importance tothis area with concrete action plans. There ishowever growing optimism among farmers to tryand grow new varieties. They however needassurance that they will not have to bear loss.

There is also need to promote marketing ofmushroom along with production. The consumersshould be made aware about different kinds ofmushroom, their nutritional and medicinal valuesto create further demand of mushroom. Moreover,the farmers need to have easier access to loan atreasonable rate of interest. With subsidies, farmersmay be encouraged to take risks too. With Nepal’ssuccessful community forestry, Community ForestUser Groups can utilize the forest resources andtake forestry and mushroom farming together,which can be a way for the species of wildmushroom that cannot be cultivated.

References

Adhikari, M.K. 2005. Mushroom Diversity in Nepal:A Glimpse. In: Mycological Research andMushroom production in Nepal (Eds. S.C. Singh,M.K. Adhikari & R.D. Tiwari). The Mycologicaland Phytopathological Society, Nepal. p20-36.

Manadhar, K.L. 2005. Handbook of MushroomProduction Technology. Centre for AgricultureTechnology (CAT).

Poudel, S. and A. Bajracharya. 2011. Prospects andChallenges of Mushroom Cultivation in Nepal:A Case Study of Lakuri Bhanjyang, Lalitpur.

Singh, S.C. 2007. Status of mushroom cultivation inNepal with reference to World production andconsumption trends. In: Mycological Researchand Mushroom production in Nepal (Eds. S.C.Singh, M.K. Adhikari & R.D. Tiwari). Themycological and Phytopathological society,Nepal. p1-19.

Wasser, S.P. and A.L. Weis. 1999. Therapeutic effectsof substances occurring in higher Basidio-mycetes mushrooms: a modern perspective. Int.jour. of Med. Mus. 1: 31-62.

29


Grass Based Mushroom Production Technology

Padam Raj Devkota* and Hari Bahadur BhandariMinistry of Science, Technology and Environment, Singh Durbar, Kathmandu*Email: [email protected]

Abstract

Grass based mushroom production technology is a technology in which fresh as well as dry grass powder withwheat / rice /maize bran in the appropriate combination is used as a substrate to grow the mushroom. The healthymycelium that is grown in the grass substrate gives a fruiting body at the definite environmental condition. Experimenthas shown that the mushroom that is grown in this substrate is much more nutritious rather than grown inconventional substrate. Because of abundant and easily availability of different grasses in rainy season the technologywill be cost effective, sustainable and environmental friendly in Nepal. The conventional technology is rather strawbased labor consuming and competent with animal feed. Even though the traditional technology is adopting quite along time but it has not developed as big industry in Nepal. This will be the good pathway to industrializemushroom production in Nepal.

Key words: Fruiting, Sterilization, Inoculation, JUNCAO Technology

Introduction

Mushroom is a higher class fungus which ischlorophyll less and rich in nutrient that servesas almost balance diet for human being.Mushrooms with other fungi are somethingspecial in the living world, being neither plantsnor animals. They have been placed in a kingdomof their own called the kingdom of Myceteae. Likein the other countries, its production technologyis being popular day by day in Nepal as well.Mushroom production is nowadays beingemerging business across the country. It is a shortreturn agricultural business and can be ofimmediate benefit to the community. It will providethe people with an additional vegetable of highquality, and enrich the diet with high qualityproteins, minerals and vitamins which can be ofdirect benefit to the human health and fitness.The extractable bioactive compounds frommedicinal mushrooms would enhance human’simmune systems and improve their quality of life(Chang 2004). Mushroom cultivation has greatscope in Nepal because of the cheap and easilyavailable raw materials needed for this activity.

Substrates for mushroom

The species grown in Nepal are Agaricusbisporus, Pleurotus ostreatus, Volvariella

volvacea. In small amount Lentinula edodesGanoderma are also grown. Up to now Nepalis practicing Agaricus bisporus, Pleurotusspecies and Volvariella volvacea in rice strawand Lentinula edodes, and Ganoderma sp.either in wood log or saw dust.

The widely used substrate that is used inNepal is rice straw which is scarce in themushroom production site and also using asthe main constituent of animal feed. There isthinking that, the use of rice straw in Nepalesecommunity is animal feed but substrate formushroom is its alternative use. Mushroombusiness is an emerging business but it has tocompete with animal husbandry. To overcomesuch a problem use of grasses for mushroomproduction instead of straw and wood log willbe the best way forward for the future. Becauseof abundant availability of seasonal grass,easiness of technology, sustainability andenvironmental friendly, introduction of grassbased mushroom production technology is thebest way in future for mushroom farmers.

What is grass based mushroom productiontechnology?

This is the technology in which grindedgrass powder (fresh as well as dry) is used as a

30


substrate to grow edible/medicinal mushroominstead of using wood log and straw. In thistechnology, a series of comprehensivetechniques for cultivation are involved. InChina, this technology is called JUNCAOTechnology (Lin 2000).

Invention of technology:

• The concept of grass based technology wasinnovated in 1980 in China and disseminatedto all over the World.

• According to the experience of China thistechnology is considered as new way inresolving the word-wide problem of

unemployment, poverty, food security andenvironment protection.

• Nepal has great potentiality of thistechnology to incorporate in our cultivationsystem.

• China has already set up JUNCAO technologyin Japan, Papua New Guinea, South Africa,Rwanda, Malaysia and Fiji.

• In China this technology has been used as atool for the poverty alleviation in their Ningxiaand Tibet provinces.

• This technology is quite new in Nepal but itcan be adopted and disseminated

Some of the common edible and medicinal mushroom that can be grown in grass based substrate:

S. N. Mushroom Species Use1. Agrocybe cylindracea Edible

2. Auricularia auricula Edible and Medicinal

3. Auricularia polytricha Edible

4. Flammulina velutipes Edible

5. Lentinula edodes Edible and Medicinal

6. Poria cocos Medicinal

7 Agaricus bisporus Edible and Medicinal

8 Ganoderma sp. Medicinal

9 Volvariella volvacea Edible

10. Tremella fuciformis Edible and Medicinal

11. Pleurotus ostreatus Edible and Medicinal

13. Pleurotus ferulae Edible

14. Pleurotus nebrodensis Edible

15. Pleurotus eryngii Edible

16. Pholiota nameko Edible

17. Hericium erinaceus Edibled Medicinal

18. Pleurotus spp. Edible

19. Tremella aurantialba Edible and Medicinal

20. Hypsizigus marmoreus Edible

31


21. Pleurotus citrinopileatus Edible

22. Dictyophora spp. Edible

23. Armillaria mellea Medicinal and Edible

24. Grifola frondosa Edible and Medicinal

25. Agaricus blazei Edible and Medicinal

26. Coprinus comatus Edible and Medicinal

27. Cordyceps militaris Medicinal and Edible

28. Ophiocordyceps sinensis Medicinal

29. Gloeostereum incarnatum Edible and Medicinal

30. Trametes versicolor Medicinal

Brief cultivation process of mushrooms in grass substrate

Preparation of Substrate

• The fresh or dry grass is grinded in the formof powder with the machine. If the grass is

fresh there may be excess moisture but itshould be maintained within the range of60-70%.

32


• The grass powder is filled tightly in small polybags.

• Arrange these bags in the tray.

Sterilization of Bags

• Cover the bags with a thick polyethylene andinsert steam inside

• Kept it for about 24 hours with in appropriatetemperature

Inoculation of fungus:

• The sterilized bags are inoculated inside theLaminar Bench

• Keeps the bags in the incubation room formycelium growth

Fruiting

• The bags with well grown mycelium are stackedand kept for fruiting. The fruiting environmentmay be different according to the species

33


References

Chang, S.T. and P.G. Miles. 2004. Mushrooms:Cultivation, Nutritional Value, Medicinal Effect,

and Environmental Impact (Second Edition).CRC Press. Boca Raton, 451p.

Lin, Z. X. 2000. Jun-Cao Technology. ChineseAgricultural Technology Press, Beijing.

34


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35


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36


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k|fo aLp pTkfbsx?n] ef/taf6 sNr/ NofP/aLp pTkfbg ul//x]sf 5g\ . o;/L NofPsf]sNr/nfO{ klg /fd|f];“u nfdf] ;do;Dd e08f/ug]{ k|ljlw 5}g . To;}n] aLpsf] u'0f:t/ sfodug{ ;s]sf] 5}g .

sRrf kbfy{sRrf kbfy{sRrf kbfy{sRrf kbfy{sRrf kbfy{

cGo v]tLdf h:t} Rofp v]tLsf] nflu rflxg]cfjZos ;fdfu|Lx? klg w]/} dx“uf] x' “b }uO{/x]sf] 5 . k/fn w]/} 6f9faf6 Nofpg' kg]{ePsfn] sf7df8f}+ pkTosfdf k/fnsf] d"Noa9]sf] 5 . Rofp v]tLnfO{ cfjZos /f;folgsdn tyf s[lif r'g nufot ls6gfzs ljifflb,9';L gfzs ljifflbx? u'0f:t/Lo gx'g'sf] ;fy}dx“uf] x'“b} uO{/x]sf] 5 . To:t} Knfl:6s, :k|]d]l;gx? tyf aLp klg lbg k|ltlbg dx“uf] x'“b}uO{/x]sf]n] nufgLdf w]/} a[l4 ePsf] 5 .

v]tL ug]{ :ynv]tL ug]{ :ynv]tL ug]{ :ynv]tL ug]{ :ynv]tL ug]{ :yn

Rofp v]tL Knfl:6s, af“; / k/fnaf6 lgld{t6x/fleq ug]{ ePsf]n] e'O ;lxt 6x/f b'lift x'“b}hfg] / Ps} :yfgdf v]tL ul//x“bf Rofp lau|g];Defjgf w]/} a9L x 'G5 . To;}n] k|To]s jif{h:tf] 7fp“ kl/jt{g ul//xg' kg]{ afWotf 5 .To;/L 7fp“ kl/jt{g ub}{ hf“bf klg k'/} Pl/of;+qmd0f x'“b}hfg] ePsf]n] xfn anDa' Pl/ofdfpTkfbgd} sld cfPsf] dxz'; ug{ yflnPsf]5 . To:t} sf7df8f}+ nufot zx/L If]qdf j:tLa9\b} uO{/x]sf]n] Rofp v]tLsf] nflu cfjZosv'Nnf hUuf sd x'“b} uO/x]sf] 5 .

ahf/ahf/ahf/ahf/ahf/

df};d cg';f/ Rofp pTkfbgdf sdL tyfa9L x'g] ePsf]n] ahf/ d"Nodf l:y/tf cfpg;s]sf] 5}g . pTkfbg sld eof] eg] pkef]Qmfn]vl/b ug{ g;Sg] d"No nufO{ lbG5 Jofkf/Lx?n] .

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To:t} dfueGbf a9L pTkfbg eof] eg] ls;fgnfO{gf]S;fgL x'g] d"Nodf Rofp a]Rg' kg]{ afWotf5 . o;/L ls;fgx?n] d"No gkfp“bf Rofpdfa9L kfgL xfNg] sfd klg s]xL ls;fgx?n]u/]sf] kfOG5 h;n] ubf{ Rofpsf] u'0f:t/dfsld x'g ;Sg] ;Defjgf a9]sf] 5 . Rofp;DaGwLcfjZos hgr]tgf tyf k|rf/–k|;f/sf] sldn]ubf{ klg k|ofKt dfqfdf ahf/ lj:tf/ x'g ;s]sf}5}g . sf7df8f}+ afx]s cGo lhNnfdf Rofpsf]vkt lgs} sd /x]sf] kfOG5 .

/fHosf Rofp lj1, k|fljlws / ls;fgx?sf]/fHosf Rofp lj1, k|fljlws / ls;fgx?sf]/fHosf Rofp lj1, k|fljlws / ls;fgx?sf]/fHosf Rofp lj1, k|fljlws / ls;fgx?sf]/fHosf Rofp lj1, k|fljlws / ls;fgx?sf];DaGw;DaGw;DaGw;DaGw;DaGw

/fHosf] cGo If]qdf h:tf] Rofpdf ToltnufgL tyf sfo{qmdx? /x]sf] b]lv“b}g . Rofplj1, / k|fljlwssf] cefjn] s[ifsx?dfem gof“;/n tyf pGgt k|ljlw k'Ug ;s]sf] 5}g ./fHon] s[ifsx?sf]nflu cfjZos tflnd tyfplrt k|fljlws ;]jfsf] Joj:yf ug{ ;s]sf]5}g . s[lif sfof{nox?df klg 5'6} Rofp lj1 jfk|fljlwssf] Joj:yf ePsf] kfO“b}g .

lglh If]qsf] of]ubfglglh If]qsf] of]ubfglglh If]qsf] of]ubfglglh If]qsf] of]ubfglglh If]qsf] of]ubfg

g]kfndf Rofp v]tLsf] ljsf; / lj:tf/dflghLIf]qsf] e'ldsf cu|0fL /x]sf] 5 . ljleGg;d:ofx?sf] jfjh'b klg pTkfbsx?n] cfˆgf]lghL k|of; / nufgLdf b]z jf ljb]zaf6 ;d]ttflnd k|fKt u/L lg/Gt/ ?kdf Rofp v]tLnfO{cuf8L a9fO/x]sf 5g\ . ls;fgx?s} k|of;af6Rofpsf] k|rf/–k|;f/ tyf ahf/;d]t lj:tf/x'“b} clxn]sf] cj:yfdf k'u]sf] xf] . ls;fgtyf Rofp Joj;foLx? cem} :jcWoog tyfcg';Gwfgdf klg nflu/x]sf 5g\ . Rofpsf] aLppTkfbgdf lghL If]qn] 7"nf] e"ldsf v]n]sf] 5 .o;n] s'n pTkfbgsf] *% k|ltzt efu cf]u6]sf]5 .

o;/L ls;fg cfˆgf] cg'ej, :jcWoogtyf b]z ljb]zaf6 tflndx? k|fKt u/L lg/Gt/?kdf Rofp pTkfbg ug{ ;kmn eOx]sf 5g\ .h;n] ubf{ ahf/df s'g} klg lbg k|ofKt dfqfdfgePklg cfk"lt{ eg] ul//x]sf 5g\ . csf]{lt/o;n] lg/Gt/?kdf /f]huf/Lsf] klg a[l4eO/x]sf] 5 . Tolt dfq geO{ lg/Gt/ ?kdfg]kfn el/sf ls;fgx?nfO{ anDa' Rofp;xsf/L nufot cGo lghL ;+3÷;+:yfx?n]cfjZos k/fdz{ tyf tflndx? klg ;~rfngul/x]sf 5g\ . sf7df8f}+sf] anDa' uflj; g]kfnsf];a}eGbf a9L Rofpv]tL x'g] :yfg xf] . anDa'nfO{ÚRofp xaÚ sf ¿kdf klg lnOG5 -Raut 2013_.

Rofp ljsf;sf nflu anDa'n] u/]sf sfo{Rofp ljsf;sf nflu anDa'n] u/]sf sfo{Rofp ljsf;sf nflu anDa'n] u/]sf sfo{Rofp ljsf;sf nflu anDa'n] u/]sf sfo{Rofp ljsf;sf nflu anDa'n] u/]sf sfo{/ of]hgf/ of]hgf/ of]hgf/ of]hgf/ of]hgf

s= Rofp ;xsf/Lsf] :yfkgf

v= Rofp cWoog tyf tflnd s]Gb|sf] :yfkgf

u= Rofp ;DaGwL k':tsfnosf] :yfkgf

3= Rofp v]tL ;fdfu|fL;DaGwL ;'ky d'No k;n;+rfng

ª= Rofp v]tLdf nufgL

r= Rofp v]tL;DaGwL k/fdz{ tyf cjnf]sgsf]Joj:yf .

Rofp pBf]usf] ljsf;sf]nflu ug{Rofp pBf]usf] ljsf;sf]nflu ug{Rofp pBf]usf] ljsf;sf]nflu ug{Rofp pBf]usf] ljsf;sf]nflu ug{Rofp pBf]usf] ljsf;sf]nflu ug{'' '' ' kg]{ sfo{x? kg]{ sfo{x? kg]{ sfo{x? kg]{ sfo{x? kg]{ sfo{x?

Rofp v]tL k|0ffnLnfO{ Jofj;flos/0f ug{cToGt h?/L eO;s]sf] 5 . o;sf]nflu jt{dfgv]tL k|0ffnLnfO{ cfw'lgsLs/0f ug'{ kg]{ cfjZos5 . v]tL k|0ffnLsf] cfw'lgsLs/0f ;“u} u'0f:t/LosNr/ ljsf; ug]{, gof“ k|hftLsf] v]tL ljsf;ug'{ kg]{ h?/L 5 . To:t} ls;fgx?nfO{ ;+ul7tu/L, ;xsfo { / ;dGjosf ] ; +:s [ ltsf ]

38


ljsf;sf]nflu kxn ug{' kb{5 . s[ifsx?sf] ;do;dodf b]z tyf ljb]zdf ePsf cfw'lgs Rofpkmfd{x?sf] e|d0fsf] Joj:yf ldnfpg' kb{5 .cWoog, cg';Gwfg / ljsf;sf]nflu :t/Lok|of]uzfnf;lxtsf] /fli6«o :t/df 5'§} lgsfosf]:yfkgf x'g' kb{5 . o;n] cWoog / cg';Gwfgaf6ljsf; ul/Psf] k|ljlw ;do ;dodf uf]i7L,sfo{zfnf, k|lzIfs tflnd cflbsf] dfWodaf6d'n'sdf cfjZos bIf k|fljlws tof/ ub{5h;n] Rofp Joj;fonfO{ plrt t/Lsfn];~rfng / Joj:yfkg ug{ d2t ub{5 . o;/LbIf k|lzIfssf] dfWodaf6 pTkfbs jf s[ifs;Ddk|ljlw ;xL t/Lsfn] k'¥ofpg ;lsG5 . pTkfbgsf];xh ahf/Ls/0fsf] nflu /fd|f] ahf/ ;~hfnsf]Joj:yf ldnfpg' kb{5 ;fy} u'0f:t/ lgoGq0f /k|df0fLs/0fsf]nflu klg plrt Joj:yf x'g'

kb{5 . Rofpsf] ljljw kIfaf/] :yfgLo tyf/fli6«o ;~rf/ dfWodx?af6 hgtfdf r]tgfclea[l4 ug]{ sfo{qmdx? lgoldt ?kdf k|sfzgtyf k|;f/0f ug{' kg{] cfjZostf b]lvG5 .

;Gbe{ ;"rL;Gbe{ ;"rL;Gbe{ ;"rL;Gbe{ ;"rL;Gbe{ ;"rL

Chang, S.T. and P.G. Miles. 2004. Mushrooms:Cultivation, Nutritional Value, Medicinal Effect,and Environmental Impact (Second Edition). CRCPress.Boca Raton, 451p.

Raut, J.K. 2013. “Adhunik Chyau Kheti Prabidhi”(=Modern Mushroom Cultivation Technology)1st ed. Heritage Publisher and Distributor Pvt.Ltd. Kathmandu, Nepal.

Singh, S.C. 2007. Status of mushroom cultivation inNepal with reference to world production andconsumption trends. In: Mycological Researchand Mushroom production in Nepal (Eds. SinghS.C., M.K. Adhikari & R.D. Tiwari). TheMycological and Phytopathological Society,Nepal (MAPSON).

39


Annex-IRecommendations

Substantial discourses among the mushroom experts, entrepreneurs, growers, collectors, consumers

& other active participants during the seminar following recommendations are made here for the mitigation

of mushroom poisoning incidences as well as gross development of mushroom industry in the country.• To overcome the fear of poisoning and to standardize the product for national and international

marketing, a separate unit for quality control and certification should be established.

• Regional toxicology/poison centers should be established which would also impart public education

on dangers of wild mushroom consumption

• Physicians and other health workers should be trained for the effective management of different

types of mushroom poisoning. An appropriate protocol for each type should be launched to hospitals

or poison centers.

• Local experts of mushrooms are identified, examined and provided a license. Later, they can issuecertificates of valid identification of wild mushrooms for sale.

• Nationwide extensive various types of public awareness programs about both hazards & benefits ofmushroom should be conducted. Miking, postering, street theatre, mushroom exhibition, etc., abouthazards of mushroom poisoning at the beginning of the rainy season might be more effective.

• Mushrooms from each part of country should be extensively explored and documented

• Adequate mushroom courses should be included in school & university curriculum

• For the innovative research & development of mushroom based on local needs, a separate unit at

national level with well equipped laboratory and human resources should be established that produce

technical manpower to operate and manage the mushroom farming venture by periodically organizing

seminars, workshops and trainers training on mushroom. In this way technology can be properly and

perfectly extended to villagers or growers.

• All kinds of technical advices/services on mushroom and fresh spawn should be timely available to

all needy peoples

• Well organized market channels should be established that facilitates the marketing of products.

• To promote the domestic mushroom production crop insurance policy should be easily available to

each grower for potential risk management in mushroom farming.

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Annex-II

Program of the Seminar

Seminar onMushroom Consumption and Poisoning Risk

Tuesday, 30th Poush, 2070 (14th Jan, 2014)

NAST Auditorium Hall, Khumaltar, Lalitpur

Program ScheduleRegistration : 9:30 am - 10:30 am

Inaugural Session : 10:30 am - 11:30 am

Master of Ceremony : Mr. Pawan Kumar Neupane

Inaugural Session

10:30 Welcome speech : Mr. Iswor Prasad Khanal, Chief, Faculty of Science, NAST

10:40 Remarks : Dr. Mahesh Kumar Adhikari, Senior Mycologist

10:50 Remarks : Dr. Keshari Laxmi Manandhar, Senior Mycologist

11:00 Remarks : Prof. Dr. Prakash Chandra Adhikari, Secretary, NAST

11:10 Remarks : Prof. Dr. Surendra Raj Kafle, Vice Chancellor, NAST

11:20 Vote of thanks : Dr. Jay Kant Raut, Senior Scientific Officer, NAST

Refreshment : 11:30 am - 12:00 pm

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Technical Session

(12:00 pm – 16:10 pm)

Chair Person : Dr. Budhi Ratna Khadge

Rapporteurs : Ms. Neel Kamal Koju, Mr. Om Basukala

Presentation & Discussion

Session I : 12:00 pm - 13:15 pm

12:00 – 12:25 Problems and prospects of mushroom cultivationMr. Jagdish Bhakta Shrestha, Directorate of Industrial Entomology Development

12:25 - 12:50 An overview of mushroom poisoning in NepalDr. Jay Kant Raut, Senior Scientific Officer, NAST

12:50 – 13:15 Poisonous mushrooms of NepalDr. Mahesh Kumar Adhikari, Former Director General, DPR

Lunch Break: 13:15 pm - 14:15 pm

Presentation & Discussion

Session II : 14:15 pm -16:10 pm

14:15 – 14:40 Mushroom research in NepalMr. Gopal Prasad Parajuli, Plant Pathology Division, NARC

14:40 - 15:05 Cultivation of Oyster mushroom: A sustainable approach of rural development in NepalDr. Chandra Prasad Pokharel, CDB, T.U

15:05 – 15:30 Appropriate substrate for mushroom productionMr. Padam Devkota, MoSTE

15:30 – 15:55 Current trends of mushroom production & consumption in NepalMr. Dharmendra Maharjan, Balambu Mushroom Cooperative Pvt. Ltd.

Concluding Remarks: 15:55 pm – 16:10 pm

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Annex-III

Committees for the Seminar

Organizing Committee

Prof. Dr. Prakash Chandra Adhikari, Chairperson

Mr. Iswor Prasad Khanal, Member

Dr. Anjana Giri, Member, Member

Mr. Hari Bahadur Bhandari, Member

Dr. Jay Kant Raut, Member -Secretary

Technical Committee

Dr. Jay Kant Raut- Coordinator

Dr. Mahesh Kumar Adhikari -Member

Dr. Lok Ranjan Bhatt- Member

Ms. Prabina Rana- Member

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Annex-IV

Glimpses of the Seminar

“mushroom consumption and poisoning risk” · 2018. 3. 15. · incidence of mushroom poisoning...

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