Noname manuscript No.(will be inserted by the editor)

Antimatter Missing? Not Really

Half of everything is antimatter - even you

Douglas Leadenham

Received: date / Accepted: date

Abstract For years particle astrophysicists have wondered why we see matter but no

naturally occurring antimatter. The universe began as radiation-dominated, a primor-

dial �reball from which particles appeared as matter-antimatter pairs. In theory these

are perfectly symmetrical, and can annihilate each other perfectly, so that in theory

there should never have been any matter formed, only radiation left over to cool as

the universe expanded. Yet we are here, made of matter, asking these questions. In the

model presented here, the �rst stable particles from symmetry breaking in the radia-

tion dominated universe to a universe with both radiation and massive particles are

described as not quite symmetrical. Although Dirac monopoles have not been observed,

they are permitted in theory, so we make the assumption that anything mathematically

allowed is worth considering. This scenario proposes to answer the missing antimatter

question and may even explain the origin of super-massive black holes at the center of

every galaxy or massive star.

Keywords Antimatter · Quarks · Electrons

PACS 98.80.Bp

1 Introduction

The redshift article1 showed at what tension the �rst observed stable particles ap-

peared. They are electrons and up- and down-quarks. These are modeled as composite

particles that result when Dirac monopoles or dyons connect with their opposite mag-

netic charges. This happened by an equivalent temperature of about 250 million K,

but the cosmic microwave radiation began at about 3000 K. Figure 1 gives a hint, as

D. Leadenham675 Sharon Park Drive, No. 247, Menlo Park, CA 94025Tel.: 650-233-9859

E-mail: douglasleadenham@gmail.com

1 Can Gravitational Redshift and Cosmic Expansion Redshift Be Separated? Douglas Lead-enham, March 30, 2016

2 Douglas Leadenham

Fig. 1 Rough insight into the universe at 3000 K

if one could look in from outside, which is not possible since there is no �outside�. It

is from the Elder Scrolls, by Bethesda Software©2006. The primordial �reball made

the �rst stable particles at 323,000 years of age, when the universe was more like a

very hot metal, with all energy states �lled, degenerate in other words. By the time the

universe became transparent to radiation at 379,000 years, it was a hot gas of mostly

hydrogen and helium atoms radiating as a black body of about 3000 K.

2 Stable particles in diagram and matrix form

Stable particles of matter are made of electrons, of course, and atomic nuclei. Nuclei

are made of protons and neutrons, which in turn are made of up-quarks and down-

Antimatter 3

Table 1 Stable particles at electro-weak symmetry breaking

electron diagram down-quark diagram up-quark diagram

−e/6 S N −e/6N −e/6 −e/6 S

−e/6 S N −e/6

−e/6 S N −e/6

N +e/6 +e/6 S−e/6 S N −e/6

+e/6 S N +e/6

N +e/6 −e/6 S

+e/6 S N +e/6

electron in matrix notation down-quark in matrix notation up-quark in matrix notation(−NS−−NS−−NS−

) (−NS−−NS−+NS+

) (+NS+

+NS+

+NS−

)6 matter dyons, 0 anti-matter dyons 4 matter dyons, 2 anti-matter dyons 1 matter dyon, 5 anti-matter dyons

Table 2 Dyon composition of some atoms

hydrogen, H deuterium, D helium-3, He3 helium-4, He4 uranium-238, U238

e, duu e, duu, ddu 2e, 2duu, ddu 2e, 2duu, 2ddu 92e, 92duu, 146ddue matter units = 6 e matter units = 6 e matter units = 12 e matter units = 12 e matter units = 6*92d matter units = 4 d matter units = 12 d matter units = 16 d matter units = 24 d matter units = 4*384d anti-matter = 2 d anti-matter = 6 d anti-matter = 8 d anti-matter = 12 d anti-matter = 2*384u matter units = 2 u matter units = 3 u matter units = 5 u matter units = 6 u matter units = 1*330u anti-matter = 10 u anti-matter = 15 u anti-matter = 25 u anti-matter = 30 u anti-matter = 5*330total matter = 12 total matter = 21 total matter = 33 total matter = 42 total matter = 2418total anti-matter = 12 total anti-matter = 21 total anti-matter = 33 total anti-matter = 42 total anti-matter = 2418

quarks. Table 1 shows these in both diagram and matrix forms. What sets this model

apart from textbook models is that these particles are composite, and that has never

been shown by experiment. The components are pairs of Dirac monopoles attached at

opposite magnetic charges.

Chapters 3 and 5 of 21st Century Physics2 provides the diagrams shown in Tables

1-6.

Dirac monopoles or dyons have both electric and magnetic charges. The magnetic

charge dominates, as it is 54 million times stronger than the electric, so the dyons

pair up �north-to-south� irrespective of their electric charges. Of the three, only the

electron is pure matter. The quarks are mixtures of both matter, shown in magenta,

with anti-matter, shown in green. There is apparently an interaction between the two

forms that, short of annihilation, causes them to form close associations, respectively

as (udu), (dud) in the proton and neutron.

Note that quarks are partly antimatter, with the up-quark 56 anti-matter. This has

the profound result that all matter in the universe is partly anti-matter. Anti-matter

is present everywhere, but kept safe for life in the stable proton that has never been

observed to decay.

Table 2 shows the matter/anti-matter composition of the basic substances of the

early universe along with the most complex atom of the naturally occurring elements,

uranium. All naturally occurring electrically neutral atoms are composed of equal parts

matter and anti-matter. This is a new idea.

2 Douglas Leadenham, Topics in 21st Century Physics - The Universe as Presently Under-

stood, DJLeBooks, 2016

4 Douglas Leadenham

Table 3 Known particles that last only brie�y

positron diagram anti-down-quark diagram anti-up-quark diagram

+e/6 S N +e/6

N +e/6 +e/6 S

+e/6 S N +e/6

+e/6 S N +e/6N −e/6 −e/6 S

+e/6 S N +e/6

−e/6 S N −e/6

N −e/6 +e/6 S−e/6 S N −e/6

positron in matrix notation anti-down-quark in matrix notation anti-up-quark in matrix notation(+NS+

+NS+

+NS+

) (+NS+

+NS+−NS−

) (−NS−−NS−−NS+

)0 matter dyons, 6 anti-matter dyons 2 matter dyons, 4 anti-matter dyons 5 matter dyons, 1 anti-matter dyon

Table 4 Dyon composition of antihydrogen

antihydrogen

e+, duue+ anti-matter units = 6

d matter units = 2

d anti-matter = 4u matter units = 10u anti-matter = 2total matter = 12total anti-matter = 12

3 Other observed anti-particles

Tables 3 and 4 illustrate the lowest energy anti-particles. The positron, �rst proposed

by Paul Dirac in 1928, was the �rst to be discovered in 1929. A positron can form a

metastable orbital state with an electron that lasts only 1.244 × 10−10s in vacuum

for the singlet state, and 1.386 × 10−7s in vacuum for the triplet state. In labo-

ratory experiments their lifetimes are 125 picoseconds and 142 nanoseconds respec-

tively.[en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Positronium]

Antiprotons formed from anti-up- and anti-down-quarks for years were the pre-

eminent particles of study at the Tevatron. Antiprotons can form antihydrogen if

the antiprotons can be slowed enough to capture positrons, but this is technically

di�cult. In June 2011 the ALPHA collaboration trapped 309 antihydrogen atoms,

up to 3 simultaneously, for up to 1,000 seconds, with the objective of doing spec-

troscopy.[en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Antihydrogen] Spectroscopy, enabling precise measure-

ments, would reveal any asymmetry between the masses of the proton and antiproton.

As shown above, the proton is 23 anti-matter and 1

3 normal matter, while the antipro-

ton is 23 matter and 1

3 anti-matter. It is worth mentioning also that the ratio of matter

to anti-matter in electrically neutral antihydrogen is 1-to-1. Please see Table 4 for

the numbers. Anti-matter asymmetry is expected because perfectly symmetric pairs of

dyons condensing from the primordial radiation �eld would annihilate symmetrically,

leaving no normal matter left to make the matter we observe.

4 Hypothetical unobserved particles composed of mixed matter dyons

Tables 5 and 6 show particles that could form with the opposite electric charge to the

ones in normal matter. These have not been observed at all. Why they have not been

Antimatter 5

Table 5 Possible dyon pairings that have not been seen, mirror diagrams

mirror positron diagram mirror anti-down-quark diagram mirror anti-up-quark diagram

−e/6 S N −e/6

N −e/6 −e/6 S

−e/6 S N −e/6

−e/6 S N −e/6N +e/6 +e/6 S

−e/6 S N −e/6

+e/6 S N +e/6

N +e/6 −e/6 S+e/6 S N +e/6

mirror positron in matrix notation mirror anti-down-quark in matrix notation mirror anti-up-quark in matrix notation(−NS−−NS−−NS−

) (−NS−−NS−+NS+

) (+NS++NS+

+NS−

)6 mixed matter dyons 6 mixed matter dyons 6 mixed matter dyons

Table 6 Mirror diagrams of observed particles

mirror electron diagram mirror down-quark diagram mirror up-quark diagram

+e/6 S N +e/6N +e/6 +e/6 S

+e/6 S N +e/6

+e/6 S N +e/6

N −e/6 −e/6 S+e/6 S N +e/6

−e/6 S N −e/6

N −e/6 +e/6 S

−e/6 S N −e/6

mirror electron in matrix notation down-quark in matrix notation up-quark in matrix notation(+NS++NS++NS+

) (+NS++NS+

−NS−

) (−NS−−NS−−NS+

)6 mixed matter dyons 6 mixed matter dyons 6 mixed matter dyons

is either because they are not allowed at the fundamental level or that they are formed

at very high energy and became enclosed and sequestered in nascent black holes. If

they are the prime constituent of black holes, that would explain the black holes that

dominate the formation of galaxies. Chapter 3 of the cited book explains how this

makes sense in galaxy formation. Black holes and connected dark matter strings are

necessary to make galaxies form quickly after the �rst 400,000 years of the universe's

existence. The hot gas of hydrogen and helium would have been homogeneous then,

and the Jeans instability would not begin without massive sites allowing gravity to

collect the matter into primordial galaxies.

We see potential asymmetry in up- and down-quarks as compared to their anti-

matter opposites, if their energy states are at all di�erent. Hints of such mass-energy

di�erences have been detected in the case of very high energy top- anti-top-quark pairs

in Tevatron and LHC data, from Fermilab and CERN respectively. These results are

statistically signi�cant enough that it is certain that an asymmetry exists, but no an-

nouncement will be made until a 5σ result is con�rmed. At least we now know enough

that discussions can proceed with no accusations of crank speculation.

Tables 5 and 6 show these possible particles as �mirror� diagrams. We know that

parity is not conserved in electro-weak interactions, so the mirror label is suitable

for asymmetric counterpart particles. The idea behind this is that electric charge is

thought to be a twist along a hidden dimension. Re�ecting a twist in a mirror changes

its direction and thus the sign change. Re�ecting a magnetic dipole in the mirror does

not change its properties, so the analogy is consistent.

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