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End of Life Journal, 2013, Vol 3, No 3 of 6

Julie Kinley, Research Nurse, Louisa Stone, Practice Development Nurse for Care Homes, and Dr Jo Hockley, Nurse Consultant, Care Home Project Team, St Christopher’s Hospice, London. Email: [email protected]

St Christopher’s Hospice Clinical Guidelines

Anticipatory end-of-life care medication for the symptoms of terminal restlessness, pain and excessive secretions in frail older people in care homes

IntroductionThe term ‘frail older people’ has been defined as people over 75 years of age with geriatric syndrome, i.e. the presence of numerous chronic diseases and signs and symptoms such as incontinence, falls, cognitive impairment and reduced mobility (Saavreda Muñoz and Barreto Martín, 2008). However, some older people are ‘frail’ before the age of 75 years. Therefore, frailty in older people should generally be associated with older people who have advanced, progressive, incurable illness and/or considerable health and social needs (Department of Health, 2001).

The process of dying in frail older people requiring 24-hour care appears to differ from, for example, the process of dying in mid-life from cancer (Hockley and Clark, 2002). People dying with a cancer diagnosis generally maintain high functional capacity up until the final 3 months of life, when there is a marked decline (Lunney et al, 2003; Costantini et al, 2008). However, frail older people tend to follow a dwindling trajectory towards

death in that they gradually become more disabled (Lynn and Adamson, 2003). Their functional deterioration particularly worsens in their final year of life, when they can become much more dependent in terms of activities of living (Lunney et al, 2003; Costantini et al, 2008). Death in frail older people can also be relatively unexpected, e.g. frail older people can die ‘suddenly’ from silent pneumonia or quietly in their sleep (Lynn and Adamson, 2003).

Frail older people often have multiple morbidities, which may be complicated by varying degrees of dementia/cognitive impairment (Rashidi et al, 2011). For example, Lievesley et al (2011) undertook a survey of all residents living in Bupa’s UK care homes in 2009. The most commonly occurring disorders were dementia (43.6%), stroke (20.2%), heart disease (20.6%) and arthritis (18.3%). Although these data are only from one care home provider, they provide an indication that the end-of-life needs of people dying in care homes may differ from individuals dying of cancer. Therefore, when considering the management of frail older people in care homes, it is important that health professionals with a background in caring for people with advanced cancer do not impose their previous knowledge of symptom control on the frail elderly population without appropriate translation.

Symptom control for people dying from advanced cancer can be complex and requires the use of several medications, including morphine, which are often delivered by a syringe driver in the last days of life (Twycross and Wilcock, 2011). Many frail older people also have symptoms that require assessment and management if they are to be cared for in a dignified and compassionate manner, especially as they come to the end of their lives. However, whilst symptom presence and severity in this population are often caused by multiple factors, which interact, rather than a single aspect, frail older people often require significantly less parenteral medication than younger people (Rashidi et al, 2011). (Parenteral medication is the term that describes the introduction of a medication into the body via a route other than the mouth, e.g. via an infusion or injection.)

Kinley and Hockley (2010) undertook a baseline review of 48 nursing home residents’ medication in their last month of life and found that, out of the 11 residents who had a syringe driver in the last days of life, eight of the syringe drivers were in place for less than 1.5 days. That indicates that in the last days of life, symptom control needs of older people may be more appropriately managed through the use of bolus subcutaneous medication or rectal suppositories (Kinley and Hockley,

Julie Kinley, Louisa Stone, Jo Hockley

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2010). Also, a concern reported in this baseline review was that as syringe drivers are rarely used in nursing homes, nurses working in these settings lack competence in setting up a syringe driver.

The process of dying in the frail older population is not thought to be painful (Worcester, 1940). In the authors’ experience, many frail older people in care homes have died without needing an opiate and indeed often required no medication at all. If a person has had codeine/paracetamol for symptom control such as ar thritic pain, then often an equivalent transdermal patch is all that is necessary. However, it is still good practice for all care homes to ensure that parenteral medication is available in anticipation of residents developing symptoms in the last days of life. Anticipatory medications are generally administered when the resident can no longer swallow (Amass and Allen, 2005). Such medication should be ordered into the care home to ensure that there is no delay in responding immediately to any symptom should it occur.

Anticipatory prescribing for the symptoms of terminal restlessness, pain and excessive secretions in frail older peopleThe guideline presented in this ar ticle relates to the use of anticipatory medication at the end of life in frail older people. It is the updated version of a previous St Christopher’s Hospice guideline for anticipatory medication for frail older people dying in care homes that has been in use since 2010. The guideline was updated for the following reasons:8 The medication guidance in the

Liverpool Care Pathway for the Dying Patient (LCP) (The Marie Curie Palliative Care Institute Liverpool, 2009), whilst generic, was felt to be more orientated to specialist palliative care as opposed to the frail older populations living in care homes

8 To take account of Kinley and Hockley’s (2010) baseline review of 48 nursing home residents’

medication in their last month of life (see above)

8 To ensure that the anticipatory medication advice for frail older people is supported by the best available evidence.

The guideline does not address every symptom that may be experienced by frail older people who are dying in care homes and does not intend to replace national and local palliative care guidelines that are currently in use. Specifically, the aim of the guideline is to highlight best practice with regard to the pharmaceutical management of three common symptoms that may affect frail older people in their last days of life — terminal restlessness, pain and excessive secretions (Hockley et al, 2004). It is anticipated that it will be of relevance to GPs, care home managers and nurses, district nurses and community specialist palliative care teams with a remit for care homes.

It is recommended that the guideline be used in practice alongside an end-of-life guidance tool, such as the integrated care plan for the last days of life for residents in care homes (an adapted version of the LCP) (Hockley et al, 2004), the Gold Standards Framework in Care Homes minimum care protocol (Badger et al, 2007; Gold Standards Framework, 2009) or the LCP (The Marie Curie Palliative Care Institute Liverpool, 2009). It must also be noted that if symptom control is problematic, fur ther advice should always be sought.

Literature search strategy The following electronic databases were searched on 20 December, 2012, for ar ticles reporting on the use of anticipatory medication in the last days of life for older/frail people: Medline, Cumulative Index to Nursing and Allied Health Literature (CINAHL), Embase and the Cochrane Library. The search was limited by language (English language) but not by date. The search strategy used free-text words

and relevant subject headings to expose the chosen topic: ‘older people’, ‘elderly’, ‘aging’, ‘last days of life’, ‘end of life’, ‘dying’, ‘terminal care’, ‘terminally ill’, ‘palliative care’, ‘palliative therapy’, ‘drugs’, ‘medications’, ‘pharmacological’, ‘anticipatory medication’, ‘crisis medication’, ‘pharmacokinetics’, ‘pharmacological’, ‘pharmaceutical’, ‘nursing homes’, ‘long term care’, ‘long term facilities’, ‘homes for the aged’, ‘health services for the aged’, ‘residential care’, ‘elderly care’. Selected articles were examined and relevant citations obtained. The inclusion criteria were: empirical papers, including systematic reviews; expert opinions and clinical guidelines; palliative care drug formularies; papers relating specifically to the pharmaceutical management of terminal restlessness, pain and excessive secretions at the end of life in frail older patient populations (aged 65+ years). Studies not specifically reporting on anticipatory end-of-life medication for the symptom control of terminal restlessness, pain or excessive secretions in frail older people were excluded. In addition, reference books (i.e. Oxford Textbook of Palliative Nursing, Dementia: From Advanced Disease to Bereavement and the Palliative Care Formulary) were examined for information on the specific medications highlighted within the literature searched. Whilst this was not a systematic literature review and the data were not ranked, the search did reveal that there is little evidence on this topic. That which was found was predominantly expert opinion.

EvidenceThe guideline addresses the management of terminal restlessness, pain and excessive secretions in the last days of life, specific to frail older people. Where there was no evidence for this population, the evidence was taken from the cancer literature with caution. The recommendation for frail older people is to ‘star t low and go slow’ (Travis et al, 2001).

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i) Terminal restlessnessPresentationTerminal restlessness can occur in the last hours/days of life and may present as fidgeting, tossing and turning, thrashing or agitation, involuntary muscle jerks, yelling or moaning (Travis et al, 2001).

Treatment1. Rule out and treat any

reversible causes such as a full bladder, constipation, dyspnoea, discomfort, pain or existential causes (Travis et al, 2001).

2. The treatment for terminal restlessness is then sedative (Travis et al, 2001). There are three possible options and choice should be based on clinical condition (Table 1).

ii) Pain

PresentationA frail older person in the last days of life may be unable to express pain. Many will be unconscious or semi-conscious. It is important to consider potential causes of pain and observe the resident’s behaviour and body language (e.g. frowning, grimacing, drawn face, tense, agitated, noisy/fast breathing). Assessment charts such as the Pain Assessment in Advanced Dementia (PAINAD) scale (Warden et al, 2003) or the DOLOPLUS-2 scale (Lefebvre-Chapiro, 2001) can be useful tools. It is important to remember that people, especially frail older people, can have more than one type of pain (Prommer and Ficek, 2012).

TreatmentThe analgesic and its dose will depend upon the resident’s previous analgesic use and clinical problems, e.g. many residents will have renal impairment. Physiological changes in the older person may mean that drugs can have a longer duration of action than would normally be expected (Chau et al, 2008). In opioid-naïve residents the lowest opioid dose is recommended (Table 2). It must also be remembered that

Table 1

Anticipatory medication for terminal restlessness and supporting evidence

Table 2

Anticipatory medication for pain and supporting evidence

Anticipatory medication

Supporting evidence

Haloperidol

=Haloperidol is an antipsychotic recommended for hyperactive terminal restlessness (Travis et al, 2001)

=Avoid completely in residents with Lewy body dementia and/or Parkinson’s disease (Pace et al, 2011)

=Dose: subcutaneous (s/c) haloperidol 0.5 mg (Pace et al, 2011)

Midazolam

=Midazolam is a sedative, anxiolytic and anticonvulsant (Travis et al, 2001)

=Dose: s/c midazolam 2.5–5 mg is suitable for short-term sedation (Travis et al, 2001; Pace et al, 2011)

Diazepam

=Diazepam is a sedative, anxiolytic and anticonvulsant (Travis et al, 2001)

=In an agitated, moribund patient, rectal solution diazepam (5–10 mg) may be useful (Twycross and Wilcock, 2011). However, this recommendation is related mainly to cancer patients and not frail older people. Therefore, in this population, a lower dose may be adequate


Supporting evidence

Paracetamol suppositories

=For mild pain, use a non-opioid. Paracetamol is a centrally acting analgesic and has antipyretic properties (Watson et al, 2011)

=Dose: paracetamol suppositories 0.5–1 g (maximum 4 g/24 hours)

=Paracetamol can be used even if the patient is taking an opioid

Morphine sulphate

=Morphine is the opioid of choice for both cancer and non-malignant pain (Prommer and Ficek, 2012)

=Dose: s/c morphine 1–10 mg PRN (as required) (or 1/6th of the 24-hour dose). This is the starting rule of thumb to help titrate PRN analgesia to response (Pace et al, 2011)

=+/- paracetamol as an adjuvant (Watson et al, 2011)

Transdermal patches (e.g. buprenorphine/fentanyl)

=Continue with patches, although additional PRN medication may be required

Note that patches have slow onset of action and can take 12–24 hours after initial application before a steady state is reached (Pace et al, 2011; Watson et al, 2011; Prommer and Fieck, 2012)

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pain may not be solely physical, but can have emotional, spiritual and social aspects, which should always be addressed where possible (Kumar and Allcock, 2008).

With regard to dose-equivalents for strong opioids (British National Formulary, 2013), readers should refer to the European Association for Palliative Care (EAPC) evidence-based recommendations (Caraceni et al, 2012), and palliative care medicine information (Twycross and Wilcock, 2011; British National Formulary, 2013). It should be noted that differences of opinion regarding doses remain within the literature. However, dose ratios should be regarded as estimates and be used as guides. In prescribing for frail older people, where there is a range, the lowest dose should be used. The individual patient’s medical condition must be taken into consideration every time there is a drug or dose change. The dose equivalents for morphine that St Christopher’s Hospice uses in clinical practice are detailed at the end of the guideline.

iii) Secretions

PresentationWhere secretions have gathered in the upper airways and oropharynx, noisy, moist, ‘bubbly’ breathing is heard (Pace et al, 2011; Watson et al, 2011). This condition is not thought to be distressing for the patient but can be unsettling for relatives (Watson et al, 2011). Excessive secretions usually occur when dying patients are unconscious or too weak to expectorate and are considered a clinical indicator that death may soon occur, i.e. hours or days (Wee and Hillier, 2009).

TreatmentTreatment needs to commence early, i.e. as soon as there is any sign that secretions are occurring. It is easier to stop secretions from forming than to remove those that have developed. There are two possible options and choice should be based on clinical condition (Table 3).

Table 3

Anticipatory medication for secretions and supporting evidence


Supporting evidence

GlycopyrroniumDose: s/c glycopyrronium 200 mcg. Does not cross blood–brain barrier and therefore is less sedative (Pace et al, 2011; Watson et al, 2011)

Hyoscine butylbromide (Buscopan)

Dose: s/c hyoscine butylbromide 10–20 mg. Less sedative than hyoscine hydrobromide as does not cross blood–brain barrier (Pace et al, 2011; Watson et al, 2011)

Suction is not usually effective and can be distressing for the person (Pace et al, 2011). Whilst a dry mouth is common at the end of life, the use of anticholinergic medications can potentiate dry mouth and therefore regular mouth care must always be carried out (Pace et al, 2011). Some residents may still continue to have ‘bubbly’ breathing, despite optimal use of anticholinergic medication. Repositioning can be effective in some cases, e.g. positioning the patient in a semi-prone position to encourage drainage or, if the secretions are the result of pulmonary oedema or gastric reflux, positioning in an upright or semi-recumbent position (Wee and Hillier, 2009; Twycross and Wilcock, 2011).

Residents’ relatives/loved ones need to be reassured that the secretions are not thought to distress the dying person (Wee et al, 2006a,b; Pace et al, 2011).

Other symptomsAlthough not the remit of this set of guidelines, other less common symptoms for frail older people at the end of life include nausea and vomiting and breathlessness. St Christopher’s Hospice best-practice advice with regard to anticipatory prescribing for these symptoms is as follows:8 Nausea and vomiting:

subcutaneous (s/c) haloperidol 0.5 mg (avoid completely in residents with Lewy body

dementia and/or Parkinson’s disease; or intramuscular (i/m) cyclizine 25–50 mg (can be painful); or domperidone suppositories 10 mg

8 Breathlessness: star ting dose for opioid-naïve residents is s/c morphine 1.25 mg PRN (as required) (4–6 hourly).

Conclusion Medications for terminal restlessness, pain and excessive secretions need to be anticipated and appropriately prescribed to ensure distress in the last days of life is prevented and a dignified death achieved. Specialist palliative care has developed guidance for the control of symptoms at the end of life for people dying from cancer. However, palliative care principles relating to people dying from cancer need to be modified for people dying from non-malignant disease and, in particular, frail older people dying from multiple morbidities.

A detailed copy of our medication guidance can be found at: http://www.stchristophers.org.uk/sites/default/files/education/steps_stepthree_guidance_drug_sheet.pdf

The guideline was developed in association with nurse managers from participating care homes, a local Macmillan GP advisor, and the pharmacist and medical team at St Christopher’s Hospice, London. It was updated in January 2013 and review is planned for January 2015.

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Conflicts of interest: None declared

Funding: No funding was sought to support the development of these guidelines

Acknowledgements: We would like to thank Dr Victor Pace, Dr Nigel Sykes, Dr Emma Hall and Dr Louise Gibbs (medical consultants) and Margaret Gibbs (pharmacist) at St Christopher’s Hospice, London, for their consultation in the process of putting together the updated guideline and the guidance document

References

Amass C, Allen M (2005) How a ‘just in case’ approach can improve out-of-hours palliative care. The Pharmaceutical Journal 275(7356): 22–3

Badger F, Thomas K, Clifford C (2007) Raising standards for elderly people dying in care homes. European Journal of Palliative Care 14(6): 238–41

British National Formulary (2013) BMJ Publishing Group, Royal Pharmaceutical Society of Great Britain, London. http://www.bnf.org/bnf/index.htm (last accessed 19 June 2013)

Caraceni A, Hanks G, Kassa S et al (2012) Use of opioid analgesics in the treatment of cancer pain: evidence-based recommendations from the EAPC. Lancet Oncology 13(2): e58–68

Chau DL, Walker V, Pai L, Cho LM (2008) Opiates and elderly: use and side effects. Clinical Interventions in Aging 3(2): 273–8

Costantini M, Beccaro M, Higginson IJ (2008) Cancer trajectories at the end of life: is there an effect of age and gender? BMC Cancer 8: 127. doi:10.1186/1471-2407-8-127

Department of Health (2001) National Service Framework for Older People. The Stationery Office, London

Gold Standards Framework (2009) GSF Care Homes Briefing Paper. A Framework to Enable a Gold Standard

of Care for all People Nearing the End of Life. The National GSF Centre, Shrewsbury

Hockley J, Clark D, eds (2002) Palliative Care for Older People in Care Homes. Open University Press, Milton Keynes

Hockley J, Watson J, Dewar B (2004) Bridges Initiative Project Phase 2: Developing Quality End of life Care in Eight Independent Nursing Homes Through the Implementation of the Adapted Liverpool Care Pathway for the Last Days of Life. St Columba’s Hospice, Edinburgh

Kinley J, Hockley J (2010) A baseline review of medication provided to older people in nursing care homes in the last month of life. International Journal of Palliative Nursing 16(5): 216–23

Kumar A, Allcock N (2008) Pain in Older People: Reflections and Experiences From an Older Person’s Perspective. Help the Aged, London

Lefebvre-Chapiro S (2001) The DOLOPLUS®-2 scale: evaluating pain in the elderly. European Journal of Palliative Care 8(5): 191–4

Lievesley N, Crosby G, Bowman C (2011) The Changing Role of Care Homes. Bupa and Centre for Policy on Ageing, London

Lunney JR, Lynn J, Foley DJ, Lipson S, Guralnik JM (2003) Patterns of functional decline at the end of life. Journal of the American Medical Association 289(18): 2387–92

Lynn J, Adamson DM (2003) Living Well at the End of Life: Adapting Health Care to Serious Chronic Illness in Old Age. RAND Corporation, Santa Monica, CA

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Prommer E, Ficek B (2012) Management of pain in the elderly at the end of life. Drugs & Aging 29(4): 285–305

Rashidi NM, Zordan RD, Flynn E, Philip JA (2011) The care of the very old in the last three days of life. Journal of Palliative Medicine 14(12): 1339–44

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Travis SS, Conway J, Daly M, Larsen P (2001) Terminal restlessness in the nursing facility: assessment, palliation, and symptom management. Geriatric Nursing 22(6): 308–12

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GUIDE TO DOSE EQUIVALENTS FOR MORPHINE

Equivalent doses for strong opioids remain an area of controversy. The table below shows the equivalents used by St Christopher’s Hospice in clinical practice with no known adverse outcomes. It must be stressed that all ratios are estimates and are to be used only as a guide. Also, in frail older people, where there is a range, the lowest dose should be used to start and the individual patient’s medical condition taken into consideration every time a drug change is made

Oral medicines Dose/strengthApproximate equivalent oral morphine (po = by mouth)

Approximate equivalent morphine injection (s/c = subcutaneous)

Co-dydramol 2 tablets QDS 2.5 mg 4-hourly po 1.25 mg 4-hourly s/c

N.B. These doses are less than the contents of one ampoule (10 mg in 1 ml)

Codeine 60 mg 4-hourly 7.5 mg 4-hourly po 2.5–5 mg 4-hourly s/c

Co-codamol 30/500 2 tablets QDS 5–10 mg 4-hourly po 2.5 mg 4-hourly s/c

Dihydrocodeine 60 mg QDS 10 mg 4-hourly po 5 mg 4-hourly s/c

Tramadol 50 mg QDS 5–10 mg 4-hourly po 2.5–5 mg 4-hourly s/c

Oxycodone (OxyNorm) 5 mg 4–6 hourly 10 mg 4-hourly po 5 mg 4-hourly s/c

Oxycodone SR (OxyContin) 15 mg BD 10 mg 4-hourly po 5 mg 4-hourly s/c

Patches (check British National Formulary (BNF) for frequency of patch changes, as it varies between the three families of patch)

Buprenorphine (BuTrans) 5 mcg/hour Codeine 8 mg 4-hourly po N.B. Dose too low to be compared with morphine

N.B. In end-of-life care it is generally best to continue an existing analgesic patch and if in pain additionally give the appropriate PRN dose of codeine or morphine (the same as a 4-hourly dose)

Change patch every 7 days: dose increase not less than every 3 days

10 mcg/hour Codeine 15 mg 4-hourly po

20 mcg/hour Codeine 30 mg 4-hourly po

Buprenorphine (Transtec) 35 mcg/hour 5–10 mg morphine 4-hourly po 2.5–5 mg 4-hourly s/c

Change patch twice a week 52.5 mcg/hour 10–15 mg morphine 4-hourly po 5–7.5 mg 4-hourly s/c

70 mcg/hour 15–20 mg morphine 4-hourly po 7.5–10 mg 4-hourly s/c

Fentanyl (e.g. Durogesic) 12 mcg/hour 2.5–5 mg morphine 4-hourly po 2.5 mg 4-hourly s/c

Change patch every 72 hours 25 mcg/hour 5–10 mg morphine 4-hourly po 2.5–5 mg 4-hourly s/c

37 mcg/hour 15–20 mg morphine 4-hourly po 7.5–10 mg 4-hourly s/c

50 mcg/hour 20–30 mg morphine 4-hourly po 10–15 mg 4-hourly s/c

Higher dosages of fentanyl exist — but if these are required specialist palliative care referral is indicated

QDS = four times a day; BD = twice a day; PRN = as required

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