anthropological perspectives on diet - messer

8/10/2019 Anthropological Perspectives on Diet - Messer

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Rev p 1984. 13:205-9Copyright 8 by A Riws A righ rrd

ANTHROPOLOGICAL

PERSPEIVS ON DIE

Ellen Messer

Center for Advance Stuy in the Behavoral Scences, Stanfo Caifornia 90;Department of Nutrition an Foo Science assachusetts Insttute o echnoogyCambrge assachusetts 09

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Whether iewed fQ cheQQgichistQic sQciQct Qr biQedicaperspectivesfQQd is a baic CQnce f a huan scieties Reecting thatbasi ne anthpgists have ng been interested in huan dietsand

specifia in the ecgia and arket avaabiities f fds; (b) thesitura assifiatins f fds as "edibe r "inedibe rankings as"prefered r "ess preferred fdsand res fr distbtin and thenttina and eda nseqenes i ta nsmtn at-tes incding pattes f fd sharing The d prverbs e e wht et nd I te YU wh U are (f the French)nd "U re what U et(f the Grn) PQint s t Qre gene nthrPQgic isses sch sthe reatinships f hn PPtiQns sci gps t thei ninent

the sbic cnstructin f ctes and the sci etins nd siastrctres f scieties Whether expicted fr cutr teriist (147 281)idegicastrctu (28) Qr Qe cQbintin Qf bigic ndscicutura perspectives (104) the deterinants and resuts f dietar cn-structins have cntinued t engage nthrpgists f a subdisipines

Ater suaizing past thrgh crent eviews and bibigrphic scesthis ess w seectie eiew nthQQgic stdies Qn the sQciQctrand bigica deterinants and cnsequences Qf han dietfirst histQricaand hen b tpi The review wi be rgnized t shw h the varius

diensins f fd sstes (atera siutra nutritinaedia) areinterreated and hw cerain prbes the raise are shared These incdetheretia and ethdgia isses f inrappuatin (intracutra) varia

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i ad bigica ad ca ac i e "evi die ive eaiy ieae , i a wi eave e eviewe ceai mapic c a "die ad ma evi (2), a pdae e cmpaaivei ad devepme agice d hdig ( 1 1 5 , 1 4 ac (2 1 5a ,

3 1 a) ad he aid bace (3 ime acai i eai ie iake 23 1 a), deemia bea eedig v be eedig 25 1 ) ad caibaim (0a, 202a)

VRVW

Apgica eview e "d aec ce ave i e paicded "die a pa e dy e hea ad evimea ce-ece ecgica adapai (2 23 m e bica pepec-ive ii ad adapai, which examied he "cia ceqece die ( 1 44). A epaae eview caed he devepme ad paccaimpac e "d abi eeac e 1 301 40 i e Uied Saewi e ecgica appace d pbem e 1 0 ad 1 0 (23) .Me ece eview 53 1 2; 1 3, epeciay Chap. 12; 23 1 23, 252a,333 hae eamied he ieea backd ad mehdie iia apgya ew bied a cmbied e iee bigica ,ecgica, ad cica (icdig d ki apgi ada dew ymaicay he ccep ad med iii ad ebeavia ciei.

Aaye e cica deemia d iake (, 23 1 , 232) , eed c i dieay ad ii eeac (230), e hiic adeviay eaihip bewee die ad ce he wd (25 , 1 04 1 1 ,24, 20, 3 1 2) ad peciic ce ( 1 5 , 2, 34, 55, 3 1 22, 1 4, 244),ad ce, ii, ad heah (220, 25 have a bee deake. heypvide b a iica ad pacica amewk aayzig w yem peae ad hw hey chage paicay de he impac ew

d pdci ad d pceig ecgie, ad i may iace, agwig decaii d ppy ad cmpi pae ( 1 , 1 4,254) Sdie d yem ad ei evi ae a cmpied i aaed bibigapie ( 1 2, 33 1 , 332) ad ceced eay d abi 10 ,3 , 42, 1 0), iia ahpgy ( 1 1 3 , 1 3, ad e eaiip be-wee maii cia gaiai hma beavi ad pyica devepme ( 1 3 , 3) . Wie may ee a ave ced e dabi ii a gp ay a ca mmiyme aveephaied e eed dy iaa vaiai i ma d pae ad

iia cme a a way me peciey aayig d peeece,wy ad w d habi chage, ad wy ee appea be dieece iiia webeig "cce ve maied idivida) wi

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PEPEIVE DIE 07

ppulatin with tnibly th am nutitinal and iultual ninme (22 230 252 253

O riia ei cmmicai bewee apgi rii ad e beavira ciei a bee rered by e pbicai

a mber diiplinay ja Ecology of Food and NutritiQ,Food and Nutrition Bulletin (ad e pbicai e Uied Nainivity) ood Policy Nutrition Rsarch World Reviw of Nutrition andDietetic Medical Anthropology Socal Scince and Medicine MedicalAnthropology Neletter Medical Anthopology uartely, The CommuNi-cAtor (Nwltt f th Cunil n Nutitnal Arpgy) Culture andAgriculture The iget (bicai e Uiveiy eyvaia Fdup f th Dpatmnt f Fl and Fllif ood and Foodway

Appetite Human cology, thnobiology ad a garmic ec i SocialScienc Iomation (ee 11 10

Cllabativ fft btwn anthplgit pyhlgit and bilgitind in h bilial nd uual iin and un f di 1 0al m t b inan. uh nt fft hav nidd h blbhavial nqun f pifi nutint nta 3 "fd a an nvirmea at in th gni f human vaability (31ad nptualiirie e deermia ad cdig d preerece ad averiwii ma ad ma primae cieie (l1 pic icdeca ramii irmai abut bitt and pntial y xic ubtan phamagial a wl a th nutiiv fat dng tvpatt f atng g. plant plant pat numptn f what at fitglan appa t b iitatng unpalatabl fd 103 11 Thype d cmed epeciay weer die ae vegearia r mivr preereia eedig paer by ex ad ra abiiy mbiiy rage e eiece d age ad caibaim a additinal ubtund diuin by pimatlgit and th invtigating th vlutnaylatinhip btwn dit utu and ial ganatin f ay t mdn

human (61301152156 25730313 ummay uh tudpint t th nd f fuh diiplnay nidatin f th bilgialigin and ultual tanmiin f fd habit and th intlatinhip bilgial and ultual influn in human numptin pattn.

APPROACHES TO DIET IN TE HISTORY OFANTHROPOLOGY

Social Anthopological Studies

aly ith ial anthlgia tdi f th nmi and ia ganiatin f nnindutialid ti ubiting mainly n lal untd hw th ah f ppaatin and numptn f fd pvidd th

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20 MEE

primary cu raher han an inerval n he day acviie and hw in uchcnexs smbic an emina vales s were ten se rial mar scia sas inervas in ime an rally imprtan envrnmenalreure (22 1 0 ee 23 1 23) ubequen ehngraphi emphaed he

cenraly he cial cperain n he fd que and fd haring hesrucre and chane human sca raniain and ulure.

n wha are prbably il ur m cmplee uie he inerrelainhipbeween d supplies scial raniain and nuriin Briish scial anhr-pliss wrin in preWrl War clnia fria fnd hat the sdy fd and hunger were basic heir underandings al relainshiplical lie and changing culure diruped b Brih rule. ichad 2clas c udy he Bemba Nrhern hdesa cncluded ha he reannaive dd n wr harder a primar cnern fr Brish mning and herecnmc inere wa n a quen f h bu undernuriin. ince menhad been drawn away labr n he mine wmen fund i dfficul perfrmhe heav clearin as radinall asumed b men n adin heir wnculvan and gahering rle. Dung he peid f he year when wmenm needed enery sain cleari an panin ies was inhe upl. Thu he were enmehed n an nging le unerrduin and undernurin.

par f her ud Rihard careful examined all cial rean as heyrelaed d exchane. he cnsidered he eminal qualiies assgned dieren fdheir deirabili n erm f ae and digeibli heiimpance n the natve ceremona life, as for nstance the motance ofrains se in beer brewin and he exciemen ha acmpanied ppruniie ea meaas wel as pepes perepins he nurina qalies andphslgial ees deren sape grain and reishes eaen wh hemThe Bemba eemed to recognze he reatonshs between w eerg iaean la f enery errm wr and cnciusy cnerve enery urinhe ea cl ean. They had a cncep f he ideal prpr f gan

relih in h rdinary die and me wmen when he were id ahringrediens r relsh mh n prepare he rain eiher snce i was har ehe gran dwn wihu he lubrian f he relih. he al decribed hecial dimenin f d prducn preparan disrbun ad cnsump-i nng hw a ihip relai were mared by preribe rues frharing and hw hee bigain wuld brea dwn n me f deah whenpeple ended har meage supplie Her reprs leed by elevebervan nerview an infrman diarie ver a rla vel h perid ime incle eneral escripins gadenin crp sucessins and ime

allaed differen d prducin cllecng and fd prcesing a.Her model for the "food aspec of cuture was aso nterdcpnary as hele her Briih cal anhrpgi f h ped 1 2 empled ban


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RSCIVS N D 209

ists nutritionists and biocheists to aid the in identifyin and assessin thenutritional vaues of foods Her work inuenced later studies of he chanininterrelationships between social oraniation of production and distibution offood diet and nutition 207 208 297 298 323 even thouh such food

focused studies did not fit the "ainstea of Brtish socal anthroooy29.n retrospect this food ethnoraphy reains a odel for nuritional anthro

poloists and othes studyin the social and nutitiona iact of econoicdeveloent A nuritionist desined that secialized diension of the studyManwhile Richrds' ethnoraphic coonent suests that in ieu of orecoplex and statistically riorous ethodoloies systeatic selectiveobsevations of foodrelated activities ay yield valuable inforation on avaiety of toics of cuent conce: the ane of ties it taes to cay out

cetain tasks at what points seasonal or daily "bottlenecks in woen's workoccur and the functional consequences of alnutrition which prevent popeo eain out o thei cyce o ioveshent an uneouction

Psychological Anthropological Studies

Durin the correspondin period 930s1940s Aerican social sycholoical anthooloists by contast focused on how attitudes towad fooddeveloed in rticuar cultures and aected later social relationshs betweenkin and between the sexes) behavior and sychosocial deveoent as part oflae cultue and ersonality studies 0 DuBois's 88 89) classic studyof the Aloese suested that the chils eay exeiences of fstation andnelect when his o he need fo food was not et estabished the basicinsecurity and susicious distrust that characteried the adult personalitycultural orientations and social relations Huner was seen as a basic otiva-tion fo foain thievin leain adult skills such as adenin and as acental thee in Alorese ytholoy DuBois also aued that socia anxietyabout food scarcity was really a social fiction erpetuated because people fet

eorts to increase their food supply woud be subject to natural or cultualdeivations fo ats o theow food anieties whether based on real o fictional shoraes coud

doinate cultural social and psycholoical functionin rovided the focus forother studies as well These included the Shacks investiations of absteiouseatin behavios ut also itual oin and esonality aon the Guae ofEthioia 95 9 Holbes otivational analysis of Siriono behavior154) and analyses of ardenin beliefs and aica effors to control apetiteand thereby conserve and extend food sulies an index of eal and sybolic

soca oe aon cean acific Island ous 124 20 340Also havin their beinnins in the 930s and 1940s were nited States

studies on food habits These wee initially eant to seve both scholaly and

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210 SS

p nds In npon of wm food shogs nd onng nho-poogss onibud o gomnsponsod suds of hn food hbsh nuion onsquns nd how f nssy hy mgh b hngd591,6. On h ls quson ws gud h ns o food nd

hung fomd dung y fdng pins dmnd whh nghbs n f w sly mnbl o hng (222) nd whh food ws hf pnon fo lnss (28) hn dy suds undn dunghs piod h podd onpu nd "bsln d on ng ps fosubsqun suds of hn dy uuon (1, , 4, 250)

o psyhologl nhopolog) nlyss of h onshps bwnfood suppy ly fdng pns moons suoundng food nd psonly onnu o onibu o suds of bsmous o ndugn ngbhos ng dsods soouully dsb body wghs nd body

mgs nd h "f bwn bomd nd soouu onps nduons of dld hh nd nss (24) Fo mp oonsump-on nd obsy mong Puo Rns lng n mnlnd nonmn ofg pny h bn blmd n p on sdul f of hung nd onwm moon bonds donlly ssod wh fdng (216) uh u-s n s fnss s sgn f l wl n wlln

on s wl od nd wl d fond h ppons of "dlsus owgh my dff msubly fom Ws mdl modls 5,0,26,268,0) Ally ls my pu lu on "hn s wh

bsmousnss s wd s u d slndss snd suh h nsol gois suh s womn nd y young hdn undoushd(264) I woud b onsu o h mo nfomon on how nd howpdy) suh food dologs nd ps hng nddul nd uullls s food sous mpo

n hs qusons n nhopologss h suggsd h boh pon-ngy mlnuon 51 54 nd obsy 25 b nyzd s "uluboundsyndoms of h bomd "ulu (6) Ahough mod physnspss n dnfyng hm s nuonl dsss, wh phologl olo-gy fdng nd ng bhos) ldng o hmful wgh nd hh ouom-s hos n "oh ulus my ognz s phoog syndom nhh foodd bhos h ouom o o undwgh) no n h sof ponngy mlnuon h poss of uson Fo obs ulus would lubl o now n ddon h yng houshod dynms swl s uu dologs suoundng ng bhos whh onbu oowgh n som bu no ll ndduls who ululy pdsposdo bundn food obsy nd h hlh mpons (2 Ay

s on nhopoogs (205) h suggsd usng h "doublbndommunons nlyss nd bhol fmwos of Bson (20) s fs s n nyzng h houshold dynms nd so ulul nd

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SCIVS N DI 211

pychological facor leading o eaing diorder uch a anorexia nervoa andbulimia. Boh of hee la wo ilnee a hey aec mainly women wouldao be likely arge for greaer femini anhropological reearch

Taken ogeher udie o he pychodynamic" o cuua uriion pa

e coninue o be ignifican in inveigaion of he biological bae andpoible evoluionary ignificance of indlgen or abemiou eaing behaviorpariculary in environmen where food upply ha radiionally been uncerainbu i now changing ( 38a) Why and in wha ype of environmen foodremain a major ocial and pychological mode of graificaion are queionraied along wih conideraion of poible biological bae for he eaingbehavior and he negaive healh conequence of overindulgence Thoeudying infan and child-feeding pracie alo coninue o inveigae ocialand pychoogical dimenion Bu uch racice are curenly beng analyzed

no o much fo hei impac on peonaliy a for hei impac on nuriionalwel-being which now broadly inerpreed encompae phyia menalemoional, and ocial" developmen (3, 56). Thu he inuence of die(feeding habi) and nuriion on culure" and peronaliy" are cuenyconrued whin a more pecialized lieraure on eaing diorde or a moregeneral framework on he yemic ineelaionhip beween nien inaeand ocial-pychoogical funcioning.

Ecologca and Materalst Studes

Afer World War II, he movemen in Amercan anhopology away fromcuure and peronaliy" oward udie of economic developmen and ecoogyhied he emphai in dieary udie o he ecology of food producionpoliica economic deerminan of food habi, and he nuriional conequence of developmen (27) Dieary conen ucure and change wereudied wihin he maerali" framework of cuural maeraim (1478282), culural ecology (239 306) human ecology (269 30) andocioecoogy (335) which alo encompaed rigorou udie of dieary

raegie" (335) and hiorcdemographic implicaion of dieary/nurionachange (5a 24 2a). Thee inerpeed cuure" (food habi dieayraegie) a erving economic, ecoogical, and nurional end alhoughhee end" migh be in conlic pricularly in culure undergoing ocioeconomic change.

ompleening maeiali faewor were udie of cognive" or cognized environmen" and ehnoecology (2 127) Cognized environmen"refeed o naive caicaion and evauaion of he pa and ae of heir(food) environmen Human ecologi incuded hi a a componen of heir

analye in order o compare naive and cienific underanding of biologicacommuniie and phyical envionmen and o evaluae on cienific groundhe impliaion of naive reource managemen for poduciviy and ongoing

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1 M

tability o "volution of thi oyt "thnooogy ained atveclaifiation of plant and anial ee aong the food pie fo alinguitic anthopologial pepetie (7. n both th tutung of food

_ pcie couniti ol and tu cdti ad tage i cp ucce-

i (e.g caiicati i widde agcutue eceived attet a teafftd huan behavio in food pouton n obinaton thy podudtudie of noncultivated pant anagent and ologial uceon foboth "nativ and "intifi pptiv and o gnaly dountdhow popl in taditiona oit u and anage th "who oyte at itvaiou tag (6 , 4 1 , 8, 1 16, 1 1 81 0, 1 68, 01 6 8, 58 88 .weve eite appac ctibuted a igiicat bod wlede of"nativ food o nuttion atgoie a thy ight opond to Wetnnutitional onpt of enegy potin fat vitain and inea.

No ha th bn ay aptan of o "ti appace whihcbie cultual ad ateialit pepective to udetadig ative dacuiiti patte. Te bave u w tie t cde te eit teative ad te ateialit evaluat "uge elative t availabe douce ay till ceive citici uggetg tat wat te ative ay eaple te tated "uge eat i eve a tvati beavbut alo fo uggeting anthing le but hung o potin ight otivattain foaging bhavio (167. oe itial ant of nativ tat-nt about aity hung avalabl ou and thei nuttional ontnta nedd in paalll with cntif deteati 4, 4 , 1 0 iod to idntify poib phyiologia and ultua fato in hung andappetite lativ to loal nutient upplie. Th a hold tu fo "intifitatnt about gnal o pifi hung a a otivation fo huan foodpactice [e e.g. (158, 47 47a fo atealit ctque of th potencacit hypothei (145a a a eplaati tec caibali].

Te caeu eac fo "utual aong with atia fato that govn foodchoic (g "tat "petige igh pvide iigt te quti a

well. a ae in point optial foaging thoy and elatd ina poga-ming tehnique a ueful in ettig up tetable ptee w peple aaiie etu (eaued i cal, pte, e cbiati eeet) t et (eaued i eeg, tie, e cbiati etexpnditu in hoong what wh and how to aque tei dt. Howv-e the ultual data ugget peope allcate tei t and enegy to tctain tat pfen i that fo fat o fo vaity wth food that angaih an othwie oe onotonou dit ( 145 , 1 50, 1 65 1 68. uh fatoay help "xplain dpatue fo optial o optiu foaging patt

pedicted by lina pogaing del ( 165 , 1 66, 68 , 0 and lad toadditional contuction of ative eoogica and nutitona categoi fofuthe intific and coultual opaion dditionaly anthopolog


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PESPECIVES N DIE 2

i li cnmi mu p in mind ha ppl ch fd n ngy h nuin in hi diay lcin Th mann in which h diaypfnc nunc and in m ca nhanc calic u nuiinalcmplmnaiy bh a maial dimnin ha nd uh xpla

in . M caful cd f diay pan and nuin ina v daily andlng pid f im in paicula culu a ncay uch udi huldhlp c laify h bilgical and culual paam and fdbac mchanimbwn nuiinal adquacy bnfi and culual pfnc in human fdlcin and h vluin f di ( ay in 6.

ERGY h pi ha hav aud npual and mhdlgicalin wi hn clgical anhplgy a h which a ngylad (ahw ngy pa hugh h fd chain hw ngy i allcad xpndd in vaiu a h inpuupu ficincy f human culivainym paing a difn lvl f chnlgy and h amun fhuman anmal plan and fil ful ngy i a f fd ach habl f md cnum (40 6 3 260262 202 305 35In cmmn al l analy hav id calcula and cmpa h ngy cf difn fd ym paiculaly dung h ngy cii f h la 96and aly 97 . f inla lcal ginal nainal and inainal lvl f ngy flw hugh wld cnmic and fd ym mdl

main pliminay. Thi may b in pa bcau f h difficuly f acaining acua ah and calic ngy c f acivii lad fd pduc-in pcing and diibuin (anpain. acical and hical dilm-ma f calculaing human animal and fil ful ncgy xpndiu in ham quain and f valuaing h human c f pducing fd mficinly by human bial pw al ai lhugh val udi260 w dignd dmna h lcal clgical ngy and nuiin-al impac f agiculual chang calculain a lacing f ngy and hnuin cycl f maj culign uch a mai und diffn agiculual

chnlgiincluding which pa a an by human v animal whichpa cycld a gn animal manu and which fuh cnumd a ful .ima a al miing f h cah ngy and nuin c f cnumingh am di whn lcally pducd puchad fm incaingly nnlaluc Cpndingly h hav bn fw amp dcumn in ngy h nuinal m h impac f h l f (fd lfuicincy whnlcal ppulain bcm hd n cnum gd (including puchadfd a hwi ingad in h lag cah cnmy (8 78 4 4 4 8 8 Inpuupu analy f ngy flw hav bn ppd

analy ngy baanc f individual and huhld wihin h amculu und vaan cndiin f ubnc pducin cah mplymn97 bu h md mplyd a pimiv and d n pcify ucinly

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214 ESSE

oucon consumon o e socal oganaon of aces In oe caseswc emloy enegy eu as a measue of foagng saeges (1 ee emans e oblem a umas ae omnoous consumes wo eue n of nuns n ddon o n nds of whch mus

consdd n un how fos oc h m n food pususMods n ch of hs css w h o b modfd o k no ccoun earcula anges of foo an ouseol esouces acula culues aeaalable ow ey ae ogane a e nuonal aeuacy an balance ofn ds.

GHERERHER Mo n cooc sch on fos nbo e cusomary bus an oel see enronmens s enlargngcallengng an esng anhoologcal eseces on e aaaons an

eoluon (14 Wee foagng easly an aeuaely suos umannuonnds hs n quson fo oh h smn undn opcfos nd fo h mn Kh ds on. nhopooss now qusonwhh f Pms fo mp o n oh hhun oup coudsubss n e ocal anfoes a esen enses n e absence of symbocfood chn onshps w hocuuss (1 1 o whh as ageneal case caboyae esouces ae oo sasely sbue o suoound fos h so quso whh h !Kun Sn w dqu nouishd snc sson p of wh oss nd f dspp npmnn smns wh d on of mm (9 0 n hcase excange elaons wn an beween gous seem o lay an moana n ensurng a scace esouces ae moe wely srbue, an may bemanane een une conons of subsanal enionmena an culualchn (2 uu chooc nsons of smn pcmnsson nd pmnn b of ious nm nd pn food soucsspc cohdch ubes (14n combnaon wmoe eale sues of e bogeec caaceiscs an enses of esefoagng oulaonssoul oe ence o ealuae we ese anoe foagng oulaons coul be aequaely nouise on local esouces ow pcull dpd o h

Cospondn skmos n usn bons sm o h bnphsooc dpd o sson nd sc food sccs whch puem a sk fo nuond h soes n new enonmens wimoe abunan an caboyaeic oos ( 9, 9 Whle esefnngs ceanly o no ncae a e foages ae bee off n e ealan secuy une e conons of sele lfe ey o ncae e nee o

consd h phsooc nd so sococuu dpons (d nd chn (25 h m h bn md o pmnn sson o uncable foo soages n aonal fgng economes Moe aa ae neee

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TIV ON DI 1

on rtorc dt; ) tr raton to att of oulaton z,dnty dtruton growt and molty and (c dtary rnd n raton tocutural voluton and att of nutrtonratd da. uc ata could acrtan matral contrant or ncntv and cultural rfrnc or

avron ntrnc to ntrrlatd cang n dt, ology, and oca organzaton , 338)

UU SUDS On t at toc ocultural" tud av ord t ologcal conqunc of artcular dtary ractc, tococutural conqunc of acular dtary nucnc, and tr ntracton. Grn (7 mloyng a ocultural modl, owd ow odnfcncy n gland Ecuador rou not only vr uman dalty nth form of ndmc crtnm ut alo a rang of mldr mntalycal

marmnt, wc n local ococultural trm wr acct a normal." Int odn-cnt communty tud, cultural ctaton for umanfoman a n ajut ownward to acommodat moatly mar ndvual Tu, t wol ommunty orat wt lowr tandardof tak and acvmnt tan unat ommunt. Ealr, ad (224ad argud tat wl ultural att rt undr condton of nutrtonalfcncy uc a ack of odn, ty ar rnrd l coml, or arlowd down" Numrou analy of t functonal conqunc of mld tomodrat rotn-nrgy malnutrton at nvdual, ouol, and communty lvl av o n drawn 7 8)

Addtonally, lt nutrnt fn av alo n yotzd aronl or atcula cultual avoral att or oca nttuton hntrrlaton wn yoglycma an aggron 30 31), )calcum dfcncy and arctc ytra" 6 3) ndgo yco anlctv nutnt dfcn 78 an mmr n womn' oon cult an womn rtrtd a to dty alum an rotn (4274 av al n oo a futr aml of t ntraton twn

malnutton avor and oal oganaton.n all a, owv, lak t ata on ndvual o la ofnvdual o ow tat ty ur t low nutrnt ntak an clnaldfn f. urmo ro fal to nat ow natv ontualz t or ratv to otr alt yologal) ordru n t a of womn oon ult, t unla tat womncontntly follow -lnk food an rtrton and ar trforrdod to malnutrton. Nor o ty ndcat tat, from t natv ont ofvw, t ot ar ndatng to nutrtonally drvd womn t ultur

ay ao wy ty an laf a o, rmovto oo ult tatu, an alow to ron" to ymtom wt angn t tat woul olv" tr nuttonal rolm ) Along t am

Annu.R

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1

lnes the edence on rctc hyster hs not proded clncl or detry dt ondcate that the ndduals labeled piloktoq were clncally defcent nclcum or more poorly nourshed thn ther fellows who shred the "samedet or hs t been demonstrted that hose reported to he suffered Wndo

psychoss or those who fed them correcte ftrch foods were respondn toclncl symptoms he entre "cnbl manac psychoss my he been hpothetcl rather thn nurtonl pscholocl condton (

he hpolycema hypothess sufers n ddton from the eneral problemof mon drectl from the nddual and household leel of nteracton to thesocl leel of eplnaton and the reated problems of prceedn from onebolocl factor to enerl eplnton of socal behor. Subsequentobserers n the sme reon he suested furthermore tht the people werenether homcdall aresse nor hypolcemc and oered the alteatehypothess that both aresson nd ow blood sur were cused by hhalcohol consumpton n the contet of hrsh enronment nd poor food ( 8 .

roblems of clncl trls nd eoutonary theor arse s well wherereserchers hae suested possble physolocl adntes of cern foodpractces on the bss of bochemc and phrmceutc dat Some erstimulatn hotheses hae ee sested Kat and hs coleaues 7 7 that alkalprocessn maze oers nutrtonl dnte (b) thatfa ben consumpton n the presence of the ene for lucose6phosphate andthe dsese mlr offers selecte dnte for heterozyous crrers nd tht consumpton of btter mnoc n the presence of the ee for scklecel lnem and the dsease mlr offers selecte dnte for heterozouscarrers. herefore they arue each consumpton prctce would hae beenselected for n the cu ltural detar patte. he unmet challene n each cases to estblsh tht the foods n queston do prode nutrtonl or selectedante oer other lble der ltetes to show tht those whoconsume such foods he mproed reproducte ftness nd selecte adantae oer those subsstn on altea dets and lso to sor out the olocal

nd culturl ("feedbck) mechansms b whch nutrtonl dntae etsnslted nto culturl food prefeences and practces. scholosts () herued that forble nutrtional combnton ould be phsolocallyepeenced as sueror to other food comtons d once "dscoeredwould e trnsmtted nd preseed the cusne of peope so tht eacheneaton would not ae to redscoer t. n cses where the nutrtonaladantae s ceranas where alkalprocessn enhances prten qualty andmneral content of mzethe snfcant culturl nd eolutonry questonswould seem to be on wht cul tura chractestcs e taste nd teture as prt

of the enerl preference for tortlls) dd people select nd presere danteous nutrtonl trts n ther cusne nd how thtly s ths preserednformaton lnked to the nutrtonal aantae so tat t can be passed on nchann detary enronments. lso one needs more detled stud of what


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13/45

PPT ON DT 27

cominations of foods or food processing techniques ofer compaale "selective advantage. While it is rue tha akali-processed maize is nuiionallysupeo to maze whch s not for those sussng on otherwise similar maze

des, one so needs to consde he esons th would e developed,

selected, fvoed, nd hen rened ove compeng des s vble esouceschnged o chnge

Fo his oher hpotheses, the oogcal documentaton s also missing Katzlacks n vvo phamacoogical sudies to show hat stong oxidant compoundsn fava ens nd cyne fom (cooked) te manioc e enefc the than

harmful (toxc) Fo the atter case, one would suspect tha the apd spead ofmanoc n Afrca had moe to do wh s agonomc advanages ove cereal

gns ( gws on wek sos wh lo lor npu nd s so hn

wh ts posse contruon o loweed mo tes fom scke cel ne

cises. oe detailed studies on manioc oxict fom cyante e lso n odergiven the mny sweet and tter varieties aditonally gown and eaten (e.g.18. Hs hpotheses h spces nd he wee mpont s ntoxdns ndpharmacologica agents (I7ideas whch have een suggested y othes 0I 0lso emain to e demonstrted wth moe compete data.

ma, n nohe case of suggesed oculul evouton, eg the cuu and ologcl dptons o cse dfcenc he vaous wys n whchculues have overcome he polem of mlk ndgestltywhethe y pedgesng ithough ogut o cheese culue o tnsformon hetneed oe moe caefuly nlyed to sustntae exisng ocultual arguments aou

the sgncnce of mk inoence n ologcl evoluton (909 47a, a

n summa, the genea pons ha food pocessng echnques and food

comnon deveoped n he ps led to cusnes whch wee nutrtonalydvngeou nd h whout food pocessng foods fom on re e oftennede or e nutous n he ne e we ken 3 33 Howeve he compee nd ccuate specfcatons of the oogcl ndcutual parametes o furthe agumens of ocuua evouton o co

evoluton ae lackng n most cses Al sugges addtona esech s necessay nto aste nd ohe sensoy preeences y whch foods ae selected andconed ologcl nd hvol consequences of varous nutent ntakesnd he culu conceptons of ech n ode o undsnd he feedckmechnsms y whch foods of supeo oogc vue ecome esteemedparts of culua cuisnes

PNCPES OF FOO SEECON, CSSFCO,

N Y CONSUCON

enso cogntve nd moc sudes of food h conceved n pschoogc, srucu o semoc tems hve ted o dge oogc d

Annu.R

ev.Anthropol.1984.13:205-249




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2 8 M

cutur prmtrs d pr scti d fdbck mchisms i thdtmits f fd itk

Senso rbues of Foo

t sic biic fd sct is d b umbr f sschrctristics such s tstsm ttur cr (d thr isu chrctristics sud (s i cruchiss d phsiic prcid chctristics i fiiss r "bu hich rsut i scti r rcti d prfd ris d cmbitis m di itms ii frst tst m b it d dirct th tps r pts f fds hums pit( Bd this biic cd idiidus t ccpt r rct ik rdisik prfr r r ccrdi t tsts tht r trsmittd t thm s prt cutur cuisi hich s rsut tri d rrr i th pst is prsumd th rrd t dtus utrti mi r it ud t h rtid (2 prics withi prtiu cuturs ct hw tst uitisr ccid d bd hw prfrcs fr drs f st bittr dthr rs r rmd d hw bth ths ifrm itk Sm Aicpputis fr mp sm t b risd fm r with prfrc sur tsts ik tmid which mric chidr miht fid puckr

r prics ith st m fct tr trc d prfrcs frswtss cctrtis ( 6. Pputis s sm t diffr i thir prfrcs d trcs fr bittr d st sts fr biti d bd rs . It isucr h ths prrcs r shpd b tics cutur pric rbth 7. st pschists sust pp t ccpt d kirritti tsts such s chii pppr bus th udr cti shitd pric th sst s pst d sscitd ith th psiti scict f ti (286 28 ddit th m t sscit iitiuptb prducts with thir utriti r thr phsiic cts d spsiti u th sscitd fr. I th mp f chii pppr ust citdpp sm t d (d j th disti stimuti tht chii pppr

suppis isti stimuts si w stric scrtis d utmtiit f hich hp pp csm mr thir stp hih udit. Chii s suppis itmis d C which m hp pp f bttrbcus f imprd utriti Pp s j its bu d sk th"thri ti it (26 27

h ss tst hs s fr rcd itt thrpic ttti Whithr h b ttmpts t cct crsscutur r spciizd ic fiuistic trms fr tst (9 9 hr hs b imitd thscitificutriti r crsscutur rsrch th chmic sss s dtrmits f

utriti itk I m cutur stms tst d sm (t idtifid bth sm rd idti d smtims rk rius csss dib rsusfu r disusti itms ds ims pts d mdicis c b


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15/45

V ON DIT 9

classifed as astng/smelling sweet, bitter,alt, sour, pungent, foul, or inspid,and in some cultures, acid, not-sweet, unripe, tasteless, or not-bitter The lattergoup are ofen taste terms that identf desirable versus undesrable tasteualtes of specmens within classes of items generall udged to e edible.

The chemical senses (odorsften oxious) are also used to dentif ndivdual humas ad superhumas i ma cultures (, 2, ). Superhumas ma e futhermore distiguished their preferences for certain tpes(tastes/smells) of foods ordinail forbidden to humans, and i certan instances, these superhuman food preferences ma iminge on nomal humaneatng beavor One example is the case where Camores Island Moslems,when possessed b spts, demand and receive alcoholc substances normallpohiited (7). From human to human as well, circulation of foods, such assweet foods on ritual occasions, ma dispel hostilit, distust, or aggresson

and promote friendship and mutual aid (eg 9. The association of sweet wthust and pleasure is also developed to varing degrees in differet cultures torewd or reiforce desirale ehaviors while iter repels ad pusesddtionall, strong tastes (and smells) have come to be associated withuncivilied palates in man parts of the world undergoing change to blander,Westeied, more technologicall standardied diets ()

few ethnomedical (5) ritual (15) and knship-social organation (293)studes also suggest that at least cetain languages, tastesmell tems aeextended beond the pimar chemical sense referents to lael smolic categoies of foods, especiall aimals, inappoprate for members of cetain social(age sex, ritual) status as well as other onfood-related smbolic categoriesHowever, there has been altogether too little eort to link ethnoscentfcstudies of taste/olfacton with ethnomedical studies of nuten ntake andnutiton-related dseases, eg. between itake of sweets and dabetes, evenwhere a possile native perception of the elatioship between cosumptio ofsweets and illness smptoms is suggested 2 in a populaton where incdenceof adult-onset diaetes is quite high

Texture ad visual propeies are two other sesory characteistics b whichfoods are udged edible, preferred, and appropriate for a particular ethniccuisine or life stle Texture along wth avor in large part shapes what makesfoods familar and ma inuence accetace of new foods. xsting knowledgeof the vocabular b which textures are descbed and compared cossculurall s even more impoverished than that for taste In fica, where thebasc staple s pordge ranging from thck (lbrary paste cosstenc) tothin, watey gruel," different groups distinguish themselves b the texturethe prefer i their staple food. For puposes of calculating nutitional (caloic)

values d desities of similr diets i dfferet cultures, or calculating dietswthn the same culture over different seasons it would be useful to haveehnogaphc reports on he ratio of water to pounded or ground meal and on the

Annu.R

ev.Anthropol.1984.13:205-249




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0 MSS

io of poid o ompmn o ish. u popis suh swhh s odini ppd in h fom of ns s o buhuh hn n h fom of ous o ms ofn ff pb of nwfoods s do h unous popts h h sub of pau

ns fo poduin fmi foods ik bd os nd dshss ispnss unhnss nd fshnssso n pa u poptis somims impon n h sion of food ims bsss nd b ndidus wihin ss s in Ws uu wh ahshs susd h s smbo opposon bwn sp bsk shafoods nd sot soohn sw oods (17)

Vsu hass suh s oo shp o o ppn so ffpbi nd food pfns nd on fom sps of food smboism h m b h bsis of mos fok ssifiions of ins ums

sus nd dishs nd m b fuh dopd smboi (7) ooods sf s w s ppopi foods (2 8 nd poids n mp ofSpb' s (3) d h foods o sps of foods ou of p dnfsp so ons n oson on S Pk's n h b ndh bs a dd n osm oo smboism n food nd mdn(41 316 hs bn nsi nzd fo in Afin nd Asin us wh n ubn ouh Am pop h bn known o dspao n fo of impotd indins houh s oss in hi pioioos (246

h shps in whih foods psnd whh nu o nsfod onizb o no nd hi uu dopd smboism onsiu ddiion isu hisi h in som ss so hni o ssmks s s in poin h mlfm smboism of ms s i shpsn uu pis hs bn nzd nd pshonzd in di (1317) s h mfm hiss of foods mo n (22 99)

pon of phsoo ff pods fin o of snsous nd nuds fnnss food (o nutn spf

ns nd ssifons of sf sus dnous foods Vaious Afnuus m h in ins mo fiin hn ohs h h poidfns of phsiooi si "uid fin in h somho nds whih suppss hun pins fo sho o on invs (73;onduns f h ois of miz mo fiin nd miz shs onhid fh hn sohum (74 Suh nkins pop s oun in p fohi un o swih o ins suh s sohum whih h od mo podui

Mn uus pu u on m nd lim h wihou i h

hun no m how muh b food h h insd (14, 93. Iis no fom mos pos how whh hi ppi is fo poin


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17/45

PERSPECTIVES ON DIET

or o the st or n mny ses the estvities tht go ong wth metonsumtion 1 65 2) Peole lso eem to ve the el s nd syondiments without whih they sy they ve mted etite o their hghsth diets ). terntvey ertn ood or ood ombntons re be

leved to be neessry beuse they tke (nd ontrbute) derently inl e-givng oe 15 ) beuse they re ooked or me ersus snkoods uy s oosed to dry o sim y nutitious nd vtmnrh(64). Dmensions o oods ood gous nd the ules o ombntonstoyed omt ve body o dt on onts o ethnonutrtonhve so not been omled thoug most nutrtonl studes usuly do lst utulood stles sueroods or key oods 5 50) nd severl nthoologsts hve tred to denty helth (nutrtonl) tors n diety seeton(76 76) . These lter however hve been onstuted by the nlysts out o

the dt on nutent intkewhi oods luste togetethe tn exlo lolly desribed ethnonuttonl onets

egtive shotem hysoogl eets su eg etons myoesondigly orm the bss o ood voidnes \ Othe dversehyso logi etons utully enoded s ood dskes my be t l est nt genetilly bsed s o emle whee tose ntolene hs beennteeted to be t the ot o m l vodnes n etn utues (2 1 2 1 0 I ). everheess the hysioloi gument sti does not exinwhy erin ltoseintolent oUtons le te Chnese do not ie utued mlk roduts whih they should e bl e to dgest.

inly thee re othe oods tht by vtue o sensoy o ohe utulsymboli oetes e onsideed to be dngeous to odu hm ndthereore voded tnoghes hve noted how new oods e ssiied sgood or bd or duts hidren women o some ombinton o sitegories on the bsis o their eeived ysologil eetwhether theyre esi ly dgested or m k e eoe s k (6). More generly oods n m nyultures re nomnly onsdered to be stengthening o dngerous s resut

o ther ogins hndlng roessng nd ultimtely ontexts o ingestion( 1 ) Withn these ogntve tegores eselly whee diets re eulyregulted nd restrted ndvdus o seies m y be situtony ssieds en (hrml ess) or tbooed (unh ethy) on the bsis o irumstntlevidene Suh sets o rules seem to be rtulrly develoed n ndigenouslow lnd South m ein soi et ies (1 0 1 5 7 l ) nd so in SouthestAs (16 0) Wht s stil little undestood however is how eetlynnouous oods ome to be lbeed s dneous nd so dsustng tht they

elt n use nd vomitin i idently ngested . Sensory nd semioti

h es to ood ues nd tboos h ve l ev ely nyzed why ertin n turnim nd lnt tgoies shoud be n teeted s nomous nd m de the

Annu.R

ev.Anthropol.1984.13:205-249




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18/45

MESS

trgt of spcial cultural ttntion, but ths dos not xpin such violntphysiologicl rctions (1 6). Nor do hy xplin how popl com toccpt nd vn to svr dngru foods

Cutua, Symbo, ad Cogtv DsosMoving from snsory judgmnts and prfrncs to symboic aspcts of dits ,nthropologists hv also considrdprobby t grtr lngth and in mordtail"culturl fctors tht r constructd from snor dta nd othrinformation. "Hot-cod "wt-dry "malfmal, "hvy-light, "yinyang "clnpoison , "ripunrip, s wll s "fvor, "sharpnss, " itchinss nd "color r mpls of binry or humorl ctgoris which ar bui ltfrom vrious lmnts and us d singly or i n combination to css ify food nddirct food inta in many prts of th world 2 1 1 2 203 20 2 0

9, 7 l 9). uch clssiications intrt numb o difrntdomains, such as flora faun, mdicin, hlth, ritul nd social rltionsdpnding on th cutur. Humoral clssifictions probby rach th ir gratstlboraton in Aian particulary ndian nd hins cuturs, whr thyform a pt of complx systm of mdicin nd philosophy, but thy arul y prvsiv in som outh Amrican owlnd culturs whr thy sort outnd bring togthr domins of sx, coor, symboic tmprtur, gogrphy,nd i ntrgoup tions (7 a)

Mor gnrll y, th symboic maning nd nutritionl s ign ificanc of thsdimnsions hav bn show to vry ccording to cuturl contxt s wl sindividual incintion to "follow th rls (186 17, 9) ot-cod clssifications, as a cas in poin t, dispy grat vribi lity in how thy ar concivdnd how thy oprt i n locl d ity nd hlth practics in diffrnt parts ofh world and within th sam cultur ara. Dgrs of shard nowldg or

agrmnt on hotcold, th prvasivnss of th id iom, or its cul turl importanc cn vary vn with in th sam cultural communitis n th absnc of writtn trdition o utorittiv sourcs, thr r otn no bsolut o uthorittiv clssifications for popular culturs tht us hot-cold s a stndrd toclss ify foods , dignos i ll nss, nd mintain or rcovr hlth Popl sm tocombin inhritd nowldg with caus nd ffct rasoning fro th basichot-cod principl of bancing opposits in prticular curing contxts hyvaluat th physiologica l ffcts of food and mdic ins in paticular contxts,and so crtify thir cssifications (nd h classificatory procdurs) for futurrfrnc Th natur historis of itms thir procssing and th conditionsundr which thy ar srvd, cn also affct th hotcold or othr "hthclassifictions (I7, 1 86, 9, 3)

Nvrhlss, hotcold cssifictions my hv littl prcticl vlu odtrmining th mjority of foods that pop ordinrily at Wh l ll mmbrs


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19/45

V ON DI 223

of populon my know of h ponl xsnc of such csndduls my f o such cos fo h pupos of food lcon onlund condons of hysolocl sss pnncy llnss old ) hhn fo oun slcon of dy ms 229). Mo snfcn fcos n

odny food slcon usully flo nd cos Nowhsndn popl dono sly bndon hocold clssfcons whch hm n sy symbolchndl o nl h dbl nd hlh nonmn ) s ncssyfo modn Ws hlh pcons o undsnd such clssfcons nod o pscb ds l 48 229) nd hlh bhos such s ol hydon n h cs of dh ) so h wll no o ns o b hwdby hocold blfs nd pccs Fo hos noducn nw foods o nfnsnd chldn h pcd hocold lus pmly whh dun hnl ls h nw foods md nfns sck) my fc h ccpnc of nw

foods 2) lhouh n som cons nw foods nd mdcns my bpcd s "nuous nd ousd of h hocold luon sysmloh 4 22

Semotc Studes

lmns of d h bn nld ll s spcs of "food cod whch foods o componns of foodsspclly h mnns of ppono nsfomon o snxpss oh spcs of socl lons cul uldny nd h sxul dson of lbo onl foods clssfd s "ndbl fo yon fo cn socl cos o fo ll bu cn ulconxs h bn wd s spn o consn humn fom nonhumnons own culu fom oh culus pu fom mpu copl fomncompl o oh fundmnl dsncons 828 9 1 3 1 ) Fuhsococulul slcons of foods s pfd o lss pfd ud ul oodny ccumsncs s ood o o cfy fndshp o o whhold osnfy nmy o socl dsnc h n smlly npd s cululconsucons h k no ccoun cn nnsc quls of h ms 8

h undo mo by culul lboons nd my n fuhsocl xchnFollown LSuss s 192 9 19) nlyss of food yps nd ns

fomons n Souh mcn myholos lnusc nhopoloss hxplod h food cod psnd n myh nd old n odny nd ulfood ppons s wy n whch popl m socl dsnons complmns nd nsfomons lhouh h culny lcon s9) such nlyss xplc why food ms nd pns ood o hnkh hn smply ood o Eclcc ppochs o food smbolsm dd

h such blfs nd pccs my so b coloclly mdclly ndsoclly soud 8 . lon hs lns Suss pod ou h

Annu.R

ev.Anthropol.1984.13:205-249




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224 M

yths y so psrv knowdg of potnti y dib though ss prfrrdbioogi spis in th nvironnt; opus of nowdg tht n brfrrd to in ti of darth for nutritiona sustnan (19).

uturs vary in th tnt to whih thy fous on food as sybo and th

syboi propris with whih thy ibu it. Whi thr hs bn itoss-utu opison on th dgr to whih u turs bot and phsiz th food od (s 5 for so disussion) Hindu food ssifitionsand rs of food hang whih aorat prinips of soia organiation ast hirarhy rtiv st status nd utura idntity, hav probabyttratd or attntion than th orations in othr uturs (1 7 8 1 9) . hos ssoition of ptiu dit is with foods nd food ttributs (7 1 0) nd th rigid rguations surrounding aspts of onsuption on th huanv sp ia y thos surrounding food xhngs btwn brs of diff

nt asts and diffrnt ss, hv proptd oogia h istoria and soisyboi panations s hv th bkground to th bnning of bf tingnd th vtion of vgtarinis to privigd sttus. Histoi oigins,uss funtions, nd onsuns of th srd o w i n di sput as thos of hi stoi bns on pig-ting in oth uturs (79) though in ahs a obintion of ti n syboi intsts s to b invovd. Whi othr uturs us food to ar or buid rativ pstig andsoia status th ways in whih asts anipat food transations to iprovthir rtiv sttus ( 1 ) and th otions with whih po uting (downwad

y obi oods r hrgd, st H indus apt. sting or spiritu rit nd s poiti tti y aso hv bn usd or drtiy n In thnswhr s Gndhi was ab to dw on th tot ng of hightndotions surounding food povrty anguish dath and traditiona vus onabstiousnss nd rfusa to apt food fro spirita infriors a a rout tospiritua powr.

Lik othrs Hindus hav bn shown to vry in th fstidiousnss withwhih thy obsv food gutons. thn ounts vtons y

signify a varint in trptations of th rus

unavoidab onfits whdiffnt us dand diffnt pttrs of dfrn in givin g nd rivingfood, or a disin inat ion to fo ow th rus . Food an thus srv as a vhio gstopoi tis whih nbs on to protst on s posit ion o ounitons disstisfation with th sttus uo s i n th s of woan who protssh ptiu r status by pss in hositai ty o dfn (6 Th subt tis ofusing food to ouniat individu ssags bot soia rJationships andsoa status givn th shard soiotura ru ar prt of th od aththan intrutu vition.

Atrnativy pops inintion to foow th rus ay hng spop ov awy fo oa ounitis tht giv support nd ning toarfu obsrvns ( 1 7 1 ) stiva pattrns r otn rtaind vn as day-to-


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21/45

PP ON D 5

da ood bhavios chang whn popl mov Th a on wa in whichhnc dn wh han b "accuuaiv ood ocs ma bmainand Communiis and individuas aso illusa subsanial lwa innping guaions o sui psona gup hiscal cicumsancs 45)

picul s n mvs w m h cuul "cn culupiph Th uls ma b lss sc o combind wih oh dicivsn xm xampl is povdd b mos cass o "halh ood addsm whichus concps o naual oos and snc ndan and oh Easn cosmoogical blis wih sn consum dia bhavio and povid a godcons o cul inhi ulbun bhvis Th us b whichsuch "sncisic vgns ln nuiionll bnc n hmun gmn in philph an pcic mng hm mn mhan h ancoal o ndvidual cas su anon h hav so a civd( 169 . Th iologica social and nuiiona impac oDietfor a Small Planetand Fd Frs ( 1 88 , 1 89) among dn ag nd social ss in mcnculu coul om cmplmn su cumn h nl sclsmbic n mi inss in nm ng in h ni s

hs s bn n s mil n smb whch ms hpvaiing sxual division o abo socia class o hnic dn O'Laughl in s 45 smboicconomc anass o "h h Mbum Kpau womn don' a chicn show how h sxual divson o labo mal domnanc ov

poducion (conol o and an gnis an poucion (mn owomn s ws w ii in h sicions n wmn womn uln chicn go h p w u pog . n hs nohwsChad soci womn w subodna mn in al hings ncuing di anho pohibd om ang chicns whch h womn who aishm w p o oo poducion n poducion.

Mo gnall Good 5 xpl wh som culus hv "hgh n"w usins n som lv h od imnsion o culu livlunin i n unvopd suggsd gna lonship

bwn h xisnc o uch dinil cun n h socil gniiono poucionncung dinial accss o o pcssin chnogoods add ov long disncs nd h psnc o v lab oods and socia lsuss h woul a low o cmplx diniaion n h o mdbu hgnaliaion ns mo caul an hoough dvopmn an sing

Bhs 7 b cns wh o smbism n is lionships oscl cssicions in mon s scis cnsi h viusculua manins aibud o subsncs li sua and co b dinnanal gops such as h Fnch vsus h mcn. s o

n cin "ss wi h pcul socil clsss .g low c ss pncs gnl o xm sw o ng .

Foo is alo a ma o hnic ini vi hnic cui sin which is chc


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226 MESSER

eed by ems of p aor ad ype, repes a ombe foodeemets pru ways,meal foas a aggregae e dses predtabl mas, ad ma yls a altate ma fomas o oda adfestal meas as wl as partular types of feste atng eents. Atoug su

utul food patteng nd goup srg res an aso be oneed as neppeomenon of e matera bass and preang soa organato ofpodto dety suure or foodways ae aso bee estgated as aseprae probem.

Ehnc Ien, Encuuron n De rucure

Dety sure ote ad age ae bee aayed for eer lta ooa eds, somemes bo, ad oues/dsoues oepal

ed seea ways. oode (133) as reewed e segs ad wakessesof arous oeps and meods used o sdy ulra pae foodsystems, used sngy or ombnaon bserao, erew, ad ex-permental "gme meods (114. Sudes of "en des, for exampe,usually eport food e fequees and ealuaons ems of oe seond-a o and he (atat dsbed as "suoods/"foa foods/saps as opposd o ms less fquly o feqy osmed, adare based on data of ata food peparaton,obseatons,o eports of atngattes pus addtoa teews ( 4 50 Dffeenes o anges the feuenes of seted tems usuay onsttute measues of "eutatonor "deuturaton ad re te eated to nges n te food suppy (su aste unaaaby of the forme stape o fres egetabes as peope moe fromrra o uban reas, presge assoaons of ertan foods, or te me orteooga onstants of te ood pode/prepre ( 182

Oter estgators (55 rater than anayg snge tems, ae usedfato anayss to dentfy ustrs of mode or "tadtona foods Dawgo bo e reords of dey ke ad addoa storal fomao,ey

ae fod, o sprsgly, a peope may orporate ds ses ofmode elemes aogsde adoal ems,repes,o meal formas,ad asu pattes of norpoaton ossut detry dffeees due to ouseold"stuura arables su as nome, eduaona leels, ad ddualstfood pefeees. Te nuroa mpa of su "mode addos a bedesrbed ad measured by dean wee mode foods sbste for trad-oa ems (ore foods, seodry ore,perpey, ad e aulag ereate prent of aoes ad food xpedtues (or oal quats of pruar utres lke olesteo) aouned for by te mode tems whn these

or oay deed food aegores, ke "saps and "esh easung thepnt of aoes supped n houseods by,say sogum oe mae,woudbe an easy ek on te mpat of a sorghum promoton projet, ad also

Annu.


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PRSPIVS D 7

indiae in eonom erm he "auurao ee o ood ae o aroe

Aernaivey oninuiie may e raed hrough cera ye o paerrue uch a a egregaio or earaon a he diacg o mk ad

mea i Jewh aw o kahruh ie comaio a he ong oae wh reih in Aian oiee or aa wih gravy aa Ameramea orma ad orderg o avor or em a he cuom oegng or edig he mea wih wee rura Mexian ad Americanuure repevey 4 4a

A group o proe udyng he ood ha o he aan communy oPhadeha 4 4a 4 have uggeed ha he eve o haredococuura rue ad her oequece or uoa ehao ehown a he more icuive eve o mea orma roporion o diereood ha are reed ad unreed ad "mea yce Examg a oureve i he d yem hey cocuded ha whie oemporary aiaAmera de were que varae a he dvdua em ad receevewhere hey had ee raomed y exeme change he oodavaiae ood proceig ad expoure o mea oude he home he ue oma communiaion epeiay adveiing o reae ma demand and heaure o wok ad e ure aiviy ye, eeay women' work ide adoude he homeonue mea orma and cye ered aogde

hage n em ad meu By udyng ierva ime oger a he meaor day ad oca u ager ha he houehod hey oud i wa poe odover haed ae e.g. he "rue or markg Frday weeked adhoday wh parua orma, exy rue e.g he way whchue orma aowed ndvdua o cororae oh Amerca ad aaconen ino radoa mea ad geera red ood caao e g .eguar aeaion o"gravy veru "paer mea aue dered ermo oor ae exue greaine picine and herma haraeri adpreerece eg a younger generao o aanAmerian ociaed he

6 ad 7 who ee ood aomed om hei naua ae gmea wihou head or ee u i recogizaeThe udy omed pa o a ager ue Sag proec o gaoomic

caegorie (85, 4a 7 7 whch examed dc egioa and ehccuiie in he Ued Sae orhea ua ehc aa Souhe rua aduran ack and whie and aive Ameca Sioux empoyig ramewokha emhaed oia onex ype o oaon me ad oaion haaeced ood ake. hey were ao ae o reor he eave igace oexrahouehod eag eve i he ood ve o dividuawhch roved o

e a reque ood orce One proec norporaed an inveigao o heeaiohip eween die oeiy and hyerenion 7 Ahough reorfrom he oje o fa dcae moe he oia and cuura ha nurona

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228 MESSE

impications they have pointed ou some of the imitations of "househodsuvey data if unsuppemented by repors of ood taken outside the houseOrganizers aso hope that through sc careu evauations o stctured oodreations mathematicans wi be ab to deveop computer programs to de-

scribe the distinct rues goeing difeent diets particuary food sharing anduse computers to chart the nutritiona impications o particuar dietay changes(86 139) he usefuness of such modes however remains to be demons-trated

n more "popuar fashion (28 285 foodways have aso been deat with intems o the ormation and persistene o cutura "cuisinea term used todescribe the "cuturay eaborated and transmited body of foodreated prac-tices o any given cuture which incudes:

1. he seection of a set of basic (stape or secondary) foods2. he frequent use of a characteritic set of avorings3. he chaacteristic processing (g. chopping cooking) of such oods. Te adoption o a vaiety of ues deaing with acceptabe oods and

combinations festiva foods the socia context of eating and the symboic useso oods

How ethnic groups "mark the foods in a new environment by paricuarspicing and preparation pattes but aso how estiva or ordinary foods of a

majority cuture become "maked by surrounding them with typica foodswithin the typica strcture o the mea aso indicate orms of ethnic continuities An exampe o continuity in mea structure is the case of Itaianmeicans who eat turkey with dressing on Thanksgiving whie retaining thetraditiona escaroe soup pasta (main course o turey) expresso stucture ofthe taian mea (13 13a). Ateativey ethnic oods may move rom aminoty cuture to the majorty as in the acceptance of kosherstye coedbee and gefite sh (traditiona "Jewish foods) as "merican which somehave intepreted as signs that the ethnic group has "arived (21).

thnic cuisine may aso be anayed in terms of the supraoca macro-cuisine and within it sytematic commnity and subcommunity varations bywhich individuas and groups estabish their distinctive identities (e.g. "sweetsauces among savory sauces in aaysia "thin vs "thick soups amongaste uopean ws) th types o favongs or pocessing that endeoods "cutua and thereore amiiar and acceptabe (eg. prepaation ofersatz "Vietnamese hot condiment rom Ameican condiments by refugees inennsyvania (286) or the mixing of new grain meas or fours to a typicacutura consistency by certain frican groups) and the structure contents

and varabiity o eating "events paricuay the ormats o estivas (3a) .

ating events may aso be examined within an ecoogica ramework that


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PRSPCTIVS ON DIET 229

evtes te tim ing nd ttenng o oo exge te estvl ye seolog egtosw onto qtities o l ivestok s s igs eltve to ote oo esoes s s sweet ottoes 69 o omotettonl siey wtin olton by stbting g qlity oten

d ote ntients to tose wt y t times o te ye w tooe semets o te otio my e oo sot ve otemoy esnt soiet es te sel n nd tivi ties tt tke le te nnlond o Sints dys estvi ties my ense te ooe membes o te oUltion g qlity ood on s mny s 0% o te ys o te ye 80 36 ndt obigtons betwee tons ients my gm ent ntnt ntke ote oo dng d tmes 8 8 Covesely estiv ood etios osmtio v b viwe s wstel tt tves sei on beemk we tey mt to t o osmto te te

le seson o eend esoes o symbol tes esos tt mgt gotowd sbsi tene nd seo nt ton oes o ondemn s nysess tito mteism 8 oweve oes ot ve esti oow s ties evoved d wy tey e mitied om eite mteilo sooltl esetves s tqes oly sest wy om semotesetive s stoms e tti g rte sol n ltl identty

oom Fato

Sesoy symboi d stt i mesios notwtstdi te oveinosetons i diety osttons seem to be eoomi. Eve weneole ve ttonl knowledge on wt wod be good to et onsidetons o vo n ost tke eeee oo oes eonomi toslmt te wete eole n stsy te tste oes 4 6 6Altog it s been ed tt eoe oten mke neooi oontitiol oies in te nteests o osm eltvely exesve testios oos ts oes not weke te eelzton tt eonomionstits set lmts on ood seleto n oseqent ntitio stts

rtiy o tose sbsstng iiy on mketed oods Peole mye neonomi n te ese to bek te monotony o dets s weeRs eoded Bemb ntves oten id exobitt sms to mets oe slte is tey oe weeks wtot ee om tei ky eelet 2 Additionly some ve seted look t te eomeno o nk oods, tt s tems my meet n eeds o sweets, ts , ote vos,n dense loies i g bk diets Howeve to tke s ositventit ionl ost ion oe mst st sert (a) tt tee e sient mteiresores to by (ove) enog o te stle n seony oods o l

vls et om ommo oo bsket s tt tes o otettos oos o ot se, b tt tose etn oos e notsti temselves wit oes om nk oods tt estoy te etites o

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230 MSSR

oe titios aoies ethe ase f the oetated aoes fophased snaks ae addtons athe than sbstttons fo bas nttonates, then the ght be vewed wth aton as povn ao denst andaoe ntake, pata aong the ve ong, who have dfft takng n

eogh aoies on hghbk dets, f thee s sffet othe food, oahiee, ad odeation in qatit oweve, it is sti qestioabe whethesh needs ht not be et at owe ost b hoepoded snaks

Choe of stapes vaies b eono position epoa, det has beensed as a ndiato of eono and nttona webei, id oveasie of eneg and potei intakes ithi popatios statfied b agead sex The eative peet of aoies sppied b the ppa stape ad thetheshhod at hih peope hae fo oe expesive ad pefeed dietarstapes fo assava to re Baz, o fo ess to oe pefeed ie

vaetes n Lankahave been sggested as eases o theshhods ofpovert o hnge (94, 263) bstanta eneg ntakes fo sose, oftenexpesve ad oveent sbsdzed, a be a frthe dato of poveshed det as wokes dge in the seet taste that povides a qik sh ofene to otvate the fo wok at ow ost (22a) The hstoa snfae of sg as a heap eeg soe to fe the goth of idst ad theoseqees of the sa deand fo the gowth of pantaton eonoes havebee sgested b intz (234), aog othes The shae of sga i the foodstrte of ontepo odeizng eooies begs siia attenton.

easoa o oe peranent sait a afet not o food hoes, btaso the soa eatons srond food Food atoiedto fo twoto one ea pe daa ben soon afte the havest and a peod of feastng(12, 27), and affets the pang of gan onspton, food shang eatons,and ttoa stats ove an aa e The exibit wth whh hosptait obgatos shnk as food sppes dide ha been epoed in a be ofstdes (09, 27) A ode that aphs ho soa oopeatio eases asesoes go fo despeate o adeqae ad hen dops o as ee s pen

(190) sgests a wa to qantf sh etonshps bt the ode has ot beene istated wth qanted esoe and soa data o an pata

teAso aon eono ies, anthropooists og othes (318) have ben

to oside the tie bdget of the food provde o pepaesa the foafeae (head food desonake of a hosehod)as an addtona eonofato afetng food prodton and ood seetos Food povdes have beenshown to aate the aont of tie as we as ash that st be aoated tohe poeet ad pepatio of diffeent foods (ding te ad ash

osts of fe de dffee onditons of hosehod ogazatio and ashok (65, 14 1a) opki ad oeages (65, 66), ivestigatig thefatos assoated wth vtan A defen n the Phppnes, sgested tat

Annu.Rev.Anthropol.1984.13:205-249


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PERSPECTIVES ON DET 231

chidren o women trder hd ower intke hn chidren o nonworkingmother becue comerci women did not ke he time to gher ngrediennd prepre vtmnA rch vegetbe uce hi hypothei however remin uneted eiher wh ethnogrphc or diery dt. he h t rom home or

m indvdu) ce to ndutriized proceed ood h o been ug-geted to nterere with women ncoe nd the deiciou vriey o nckwomen produced t home wih rdtion ood echnooge 1 300) bunutrition impiction hve not been creuy trced.

More genery the retivey xed number tmn rucure nd contento me nd heir retonhp o oc tructure nd cuur vue my obe ected by ocioeconomc chne Roenber 8) nyed how chnnwork chedue in po Word Wr iennee ociety cued h rove to three e dy nd o he conumpon o more convenence prepred) ood. woud be vube o hve comprbe udie rom oherre in order o e how uch hi n empoyment ptern on withncren nure procen o ood eoce conupon pernincree conumpon o convenence ood nd hereby ect nureninke

Finy whether mnurition n outcoe o poverty or "bd cutureedn hbit continue to be debted. Mteriit tend to ee the probem one o ocioeconoic dicrmntion whe other (51) bme cutu nutrition-

n econoic nornce nd rue h nurion educton not u moreeconomic wherewh neeed o ech houeho how beer o ee heryoung on crce reource hough one cn mke ce or eiher poionone mih more reonby how how the combintion o ccooc ndeconomic contrint m he rnge o choice nd cee oth condionectn heh nd nuriion whe wthn uch contrnt cuur te ndvue we ide o dequte nurtion nd heh bee nd prccedctte ctu ood nd behvior choce.

Aong the e ne mteri tude hough they oen drw on ore

hrd dt hn ymboic tude ut pecy under wh cuurcondtion nd n wh oci conex econoc nd ecooic conrntwi dominte conumption deciion. Exitin mtert rct ee com-erc conce or ecooc contrnno oher cuur cor nd teonn oo choice nd more enery conumpon n nooy epn ood preerence uch he mercn preerence or bee oerpork even when he ter cheper nd he cutur reon why mnyAmercn nd oher) n deren ge nd under derent ocoeonoc ndcuur condton chooe no o et por. he nurtion pcton o how

cuurymboc n meri cor re wehed n chngin ococuurnd ecoogiceconomc envronmen coepondny o ren o beexpored

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EE

NTRTONA AND HEATH CONSEQENCES

Wh h p pn mdn Wn y n pvalua h ndvdu d and mnan whh n n m hn agngy a n vamn and mnal Mqun man hw l d h nduv nnnun and d halh parlaly n hnn nn nvnmnand h dy pp h .

Nuronal Wdo

Anhl udyn h nun wdm dna d ulaly n n apdy ndn nm and a han k

n hw ulu n h p m hav dnda

d h h nunaly n 1 and d h p m u nnaand h hah pm 1 0 1 0 175 Bhm ny dnad h a a 1 4 nd wld n 77 mp hav hwn hwh ndn n and d mnan a n m mnnly hn h mdn nd ly dd makd u .Baaed adoa de have a e aayd a ea h r h moder a

nd ah m. Any hd l nn d nd nran nan wa and nk hv d h hy nd

ady nk vay d nd nun nd ly an wh n h ym "hn v d hydnd hm all ay halh .

Cnaw h a y dn n n avy p nd n d h v p m nd vnn p nun dn d pnn . Th dn ha a nhalhy nd n nay dv n mm a pulan. Th nd d n n nn nd nwmn n n u (10 nd hd dn u h d n

ny malnn 5 1 vmn A dn n m hp plm y m vn vndln n vn ula a Th vun nd ppun "mdv py v dn hav n dd n "mm (17 5 l vd d nn and h d dmnn n a pulan y mn dmnn nmpld n nun dmnan an p nd-vidual. ndnd h nd v ha avd h n nd pn h and hv hwv

nva nd m nmn n h hy hnd p andpa and h mvmn and mn h pn huua un wh hv hm n u nan hh m


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PERSPECTIVES O DIE 233

ae son a maaapie foo pacices a a ey sao isoy anee heefoe easiy amenabe to change Inesigaos expained ich cstoms ee ecen and sighy modified the esoce base so hat a bespeciay omen had access o moe niens 0).

Cetain popaions may aso be bioogicay moe a isk fo specificniioneaed disodes sc as gcose intoeance and ypeensionathogh the eatie contibtions of genetics diet and actiity pattesenegy baance and ife styes incding stess) to these and othe ntitioneaed diseases emain o be oked o fo contempoy popations ndegoing cange in a ee imensions 23 26 28 87, 1, 200 327). Moesies of oca pecepions of e inkges beeen specific iey components ife syes an heah pobems sch as te eationsips beteen sgainake and diabees sa intake and hypeension and boysize/obesiy and

eae ea pobems aong ih epos of e feeding csoms ogic chiden ea o ike sga sa and foo in ha may be highe anheathy qantities a) od hep identiy cta actos indcing onot poecing agains dieteated disease

Reatiey sdden sifts in aaiabe foods and cstomay actiities ae oftenfated fo te faie of peope to eat isey o cte o identify andansmit ntitiona isom in apidy and asy modified dieay conexseaiey he sify aeing eaing csoms by ich popaions may beosing epocie finess e o niioneae isease hae been escibein ems of gasoanomie 1 1 2 ) e moe fooay ee eac iniiafends fo im o esef an gop ctes hae ess conto oe an iniida s diet moe podctie option is o examine sch anomie as a se ofighy stcted hogh ee canging beaios tha ay by cass andsbce ihin singe conies C Lomnze's 204) caey consieed e spaa empoa socia and ca dimensions of eaing in Mexicoin an anaysis by socia cass) tat inked semiotic and stcta apoaches tofood habits and socia eaions sonding food ith te changing socia

oganizaion of podction insie an oside the osehod and exaoseo socioca infences is combinaion of his isoica scaanaysis i a moe ynamic socioecoomic anaysis incopoaes symboicaspecs of e foo sysem ih an enic and cass anaysis of socia histoy bymeans of food and indicates mtipe oes to expoe in ntitiona changes

The Nuronal Ipac of ea Chane

banizaion commeciaizaion of agicte and expansion of neationatade in food hae oiny cased a ection in food sefsfficiency 18

2 Mos antopooica sdies hae shon a as oca ops moe aayfom sbsistence agicte toa cas cop poction an eiance onpchased foods mantition inceases I7 Cas to by food may be

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PERSPECVES ON DE 23

poor commuity if it ca first be sow tat icreasi complexity is aidicator of bot reater variety ad also superior utrtioal value Temeasure also acts as a fair predictor of iats' ad cildres utitioal statuspaticularly we ceai protei factors lie mil are weited 79 Paticu-

lar aspects o dietay complexity suc as te demad for a miimum level ofvariety or for a cerai umber of atty meal compoets at differetsocioecoomic levels could also be wored ito lear prorammi models ofdietay costuctio

As a related issue food diversity idices mit be of potetial utility foruderstadi wy i cetai cultural cotets cilde udeeat ad suffemalutitio i spite of appaetly adequate supplies of te staple rai or tuberte diet may be too bori as well as too buly oversely food diversityidices mit be developed as a tool to moitor ow availability or variety

iflueces food coices ad terefore levels of cosumptio of tose woovereat Paicularly as people tu from local to maret coices tey aeeosed to eeme amot ad vrete o oods. Tey eed ew way tocorol ita sice te satiety tat accompaies abitual exposure to a mooto-ous diet is abset () alysis of factors suc as ovelty satiety adcomplexity ca also cotribute to studies of food acceptace ad preferece aswell as uitioal adequacy

lteatively dietay selectios ave bee studied as utitioalstategies a cocet develoed by DeWalt (7 7a) i several field studies ite Valley o exico Not stoppi at a measure of dietary complexity ad aoblematic et of relatiosips betwee icome ad uitio se studied tedifferet roues by wic food etered ouseolds() ome productio bpurcase c atei ad isad te complex ways ireased icomefrom ifferet socioecoomic pursuits affected eac. Relyi o (poblematic)measures of material stadad of livi ad estimated icome to stratify ersample se used weely cycles of food use collected by weely food maretaset estimates ad food itae estimaes suplied tou 4our recall to

calculate te relatiosips betwee ecoomic stadi ad food use ad icomelevels ad dietay adequacy. e cocluded tat te simle liea coelatiostat se ad colleagues ad used previously to demostate te relatiosisbetwee food use ad ecoomic stadi were iadequate sice tey did ottae ito accout te various ocomercial routes by wic ood reacesouseolds wic furermore affected icome available to buy i qualityfoods uc liea metods failed to reveal tat middle icome families woappeaed to ave a ecoomic advatae ad were buyi more diverse dietswere o better off utritioally ta tose immediately below tem i icome

wi lower food complexity scoresimply put weter families ad idividuals are utritioally better offwe tey diversify tei diets tou cas purcases depeds o te extet to

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3 MSSER

w p rp o-pre e re eeuttoa ubtut cah coppg o oh pogam o com gato) mo pop o hat a a adqua d om ubc cop adactt oad mo xpn ood o ood g o h ood n

nrn may er (75) . n rrey e n nrn -prveen Her nr e e w ve pe rppngver e w ren eqe ene prn w n prv-mt 7) Thu t ado b cah ad adquat d ma pobmatc ad uggt tat oth cuta acto dtay co ad ooddtbuton a opatg c b udd. n mary , uc udpot to om o t pobm o tryg o mpo uto tough dct rnre en evepen ee w weer e rgnghocutua o grr ppn uuay ery e ta ubtnc

ba, ad o ut a a roa . oh ttng, cah cop co ao upt tadoa nutto

pat t o u by ocg pop o buy ood, ad t og u bytaomg xua do o abo, coo o ouc , o bot308) n peny, re n eg renp eween n wn (0 .

ddoa aa o coc coomc dopm a h dtayuttoa mpact o om' o, cug o om' mpoymtm ad com e e n re rrngeen n ererechd hat) oa ood aaab ty ad ntaouhod dtbuton oood 8a ) . mp coato eween te utoa tau o c dho moth o o do ot o a b ud to agu that ch d maye wre o n th moth re mpyed , atg rey n pre y re e w ry e pe rng wen ne en ne n e ne (5). y bthat ouod om o a t btt o ha thy oud bhout th oma com c om' com cota m auuay b ho to go dcty to ood ad oth ct o thchd 3a) atough t ococutua dyamc o dtay choc advere ee n re ve n een ry rere.

Deren pe epyen e nre rn re gener y . Gr Unerw 0) y energy wng wrker we e wge eer reeve prerene n eaocato o cao . Thy d t uc quatty to ua ho o a t xp o chd ad om, o cd adquatcao tota houhod ood uppy a uct o a . ha een

ggee r er re e ge reeve prry ver een n "r r nre ke n n Bn-e een qene n qe y re nenve reer ery


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PERSPECTVES ON DIET 23

itae ad utritia tatu at the huehd eve. Birth rder, umber fchidre ad the ecmic tatu f he huehd i additi t "fdidey eem t affet hether uh rue are fed 26 ad therefrethe utritia impat f uh fd beief

ERSETVES FOR THE FRE AND ONSONS

hi revie ha idiated that the peiaied athrpia tudie f fdbeu i the 93 (6 6 23 ctiue t prvide ccept aterie adi cetai cae methd f data eti fr tempray ivetigati fthe reatihip betee dit ad uture Athrpgit are t aed upt dicu advie ad i ertai cae ugget uti t utritia prbe but a the 23 their rept eem t have had imited impat fd piie Additia armic ad utritia tpi hih athrpit might ider expri i the area ffd piy are: the "iy fkwedge withi gup f ietit ad ueaurat geig agmiad utritia picy (e the ethbtaica fd ad utritia caifcati f pat eetiit ctriutig e pat vaietie r idutriaizedfd ad f ecmit ad utitiit deiig picie t fr eeted"miimum diet t meet remmeded utritia tadard) theiutura pitia ad ecmi mtive behid dieret ad hagig

cutry ad wrd utritia tadard 229a ad

the eect f differettype f fd ad ecmic picie dietary eecti iahuehdditributi freurce ad utriti I particuar mre thruh ivetiati f the ia raiati f huehd ta are eeded t h hhuehd ad idividua reat t emi devemet prram uhivetiati cud prvide a data bae time acai (23 a ad huehd udget ( 43) whih wud hep ut me f the "pbem ithe crreati betwee icme fd epediture heath ad utritiReut ud a be cmbied ith phyica athpica tude f eery

epediture t ireae ur udertadig f h the beyd the iecmi tage f fragig maage time ad eergy uder variabe reurce diti

urret reearch may f thee tpic a uet that athrpitcce ith itrahuehd reurce ue ad dierece i h idividuaad huehd ithi the ame cmmuity raize ptetia fd reure may a prvide imprtat uide t udertadig h fd "uture ad"ecmie chae Methd t tudy h idividua ad huehd ithithe ame cmmuity ith uppedy the "ame uture ad ecmy maae

reure are beig pped ad tied (a a a ) i iuuiti tudie. I additi tudie f dietar ad utitia patte (33)are epadi the dimei f time ad pace ithi hich dietary itake

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M

are rerded hey suest als hw mprtant t t assess nutrtnaladeuay f ntake as well as atvty pattes ver perds lner than 4hurs and may ptentally ntbute data t the larer sentf debateurrently preedn n nutrtnal tandards 9a) All frm part f a mre

eneral develpment f methds t sudy ndvdual blal and ulturalvarablty wthn ppulatns as an ntal step t nevn presses andmehansms f bultural evlutn.

Wthn anthrplal they the majr prblems f et that wll pbably ntnue t be debated are: the dmensns an feedbak mehansmsn the bultural evlutn r evlutn) f et and the enm/elal vs ultural/symbl detemnants f et and nutnal well-ben.Anthrplsts ntnue t stle wh the fmatn f evlutny padms that frm he blal erspetve wll nate that pul fustms under analyss pvde a seletve avantae t the ppulatns usnthem and wll entfy the physlal mehansm y whh ths mpve tness urs whle fm the ultural perspetve aseann fthe rups wth pssbly aapve f ustms rene suh seletveavantaes as mprvements t health r ereases n mrbty r byefault evele e ustms whh seem t have mrved rerutveftness ut f sme ther sensry pereptns see 14 and ther mments nRef 0) Mre aeful nl f blal hstal an ultural symbldata fr spe ases nees t be btned befre anthplsts even wthmprvn methdles and llabratns n ther many Ubdsplnes andsubfelds an be sad t have an eetve thery f detary hane rultural evlutn Smlarly t remans t ae the ultural and nutrtnalmplatns f spf sets f fd belefs and dets n hann sulturaland elal-enm envrnments befre ne an pursue seruslyultural fatrs n adaptatn. he key sultural and blal uestns hw ndvduals wthn ulres undern delalatn n dethse fds hw they pereve the health nseuenes f suh hes and

the health mplatns f dfferen ets frm the meal perspetveshuld lead t a mre areful evaluatn f feedbak mehansms betweenulture and ly n human and detary evlutn. Studes are needed nnatve unerstandns f the etles f the detay n etan nstanesmbned wth lfe stye dseases f vlatn suh s besty hyptensn and daetes n the latter nstanes the pssble lnkaes etween tastestypes f fds whh arry thse avrs and resultn symptmly are nlybennn t e eplred. hey suest a ptentally mptant llabratnbetween bmeal an sulturally rente anthplsts as well as

thse nterested n pratal as well as theretal uestns f et healh andhuman evlutn. In nlusn the need t eplre futher the ausalfuntna versus semt bases f ulural det an the relatve ft at ne


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PPCTIV ON DIT 239

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