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The Social Effects of Hard Times Anthony Heath Universities of Manchester and Oxford

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Page 1: Anthony Heath Universities of Manchester and Oxfordsticerd.lse.ac.uk/seminarpapers/ses21112012.pdf · Chaeyoon Lim, Paul Hepburn, Maria Grasso • Book in preparation by Tom Clark

The Social Effects of Hard Times 

Anthony HeathUniversities of Manchester and 

Oxford

Page 2: Anthony Heath Universities of Manchester and Oxfordsticerd.lse.ac.uk/seminarpapers/ses21112012.pdf · Chaeyoon Lim, Paul Hepburn, Maria Grasso • Book in preparation by Tom Clark

The Hard Times project

• Collaborative project between Manchester (ISC) and Harvard (Bob Putnam)

• Aims – to explore the social effects of recessions in the US and GB

• Separate reports by Yaojun Li, Siobhan McAndrew, Lindsey Macmillan, James Laurence, Chaeyoon Lim, Paul Hepburn, Maria Grasso

• Book in preparation by Tom Clark (Guardian leader writer)

Page 3: Anthony Heath Universities of Manchester and Oxfordsticerd.lse.ac.uk/seminarpapers/ses21112012.pdf · Chaeyoon Lim, Paul Hepburn, Maria Grasso • Book in preparation by Tom Clark

What kinds of effects might hard times have?

The classic literature on the great depression suggests that hard times, associated with mass unemployment, had destructive effects on individuals and communities, leading to apathy, social isolation and lack of civic engagement, undermining social solidarity (NB contrast with effect of war on promoting solidarity)

Marienthal by Marie Jahoda, Paul Lazarsfeld and Hans Zeiselwas the classic study – study of an extreme case of a small Austrian town experiencing mass unemployment at a time when welfare benefits were minimal

But the focus on the damaging effects of unemployment on individuals and communities may remain relevant even if the scale of unemployment or financial loss due to unemployment is not as great now as it was then

Page 4: Anthony Heath Universities of Manchester and Oxfordsticerd.lse.ac.uk/seminarpapers/ses21112012.pdf · Chaeyoon Lim, Paul Hepburn, Maria Grasso • Book in preparation by Tom Clark

Continuities with Marienthal

• Focus remains unemployment and on groups vulnerable to unemployment – we do not expect major effects on people who retain their jobs (though effect of squeeze on living standards is needs to be investigated)

• Focus continues to be on social consequences of hard times – for civic life, ethnic relations, family life and divorce, apathy and (absence of) collective protest, suicide and subjective well‐being

• But a new focus is on  the long‐term scarring effects of hard times 

Page 5: Anthony Heath Universities of Manchester and Oxfordsticerd.lse.ac.uk/seminarpapers/ses21112012.pdf · Chaeyoon Lim, Paul Hepburn, Maria Grasso • Book in preparation by Tom Clark

What might the mechanisms be?

The classic studies emphasized the psychological mechanisms involved

“Loss of feeling of control has important consequences.  It causes the worker to feel a minimum of responsibility for his own fate, for responsibility goes with control” (E W Bakke1933)

“In those early months, a feeling of irrevocability and hopelessness had a much more paralyzing effect than economic deprivation itself” (Jahoda1933)

Page 6: Anthony Heath Universities of Manchester and Oxfordsticerd.lse.ac.uk/seminarpapers/ses21112012.pdf · Chaeyoon Lim, Paul Hepburn, Maria Grasso • Book in preparation by Tom Clark

“psychological deprivation is one of the chief components of poverty … And the terrible thing that is happening to these people is that they feel themselves to be rejects, outcasts … They tend to be hopeless and passive … lonely and isolated.  To be poor is not simply to be deprived of the material things of this world,  it is to enter a fatal, futile universe, an America within America with a twisted spirit”(Harrington, The Other America, 1963)

Page 7: Anthony Heath Universities of Manchester and Oxfordsticerd.lse.ac.uk/seminarpapers/ses21112012.pdf · Chaeyoon Lim, Paul Hepburn, Maria Grasso • Book in preparation by Tom Clark

Change in real GDP per capita on preceding year, US and UK, 1900‐2009(%)

Page 8: Anthony Heath Universities of Manchester and Oxfordsticerd.lse.ac.uk/seminarpapers/ses21112012.pdf · Chaeyoon Lim, Paul Hepburn, Maria Grasso • Book in preparation by Tom Clark

A brief digression

• Standard British way of defining a recession – two successive quarters of negative growth ‐ is arbitrary and pretty uninformative.  US peak‐to‐trough measure seems better

• No particular theoretical or empirical reason to expect changes in growth rates in themselves to have negative social effects (especially if all the benefits of what growth there was previously had gone to the top 1%)

• So focus throughout remains primarily on unemployment and displacement

Page 9: Anthony Heath Universities of Manchester and Oxfordsticerd.lse.ac.uk/seminarpapers/ses21112012.pdf · Chaeyoon Lim, Paul Hepburn, Maria Grasso • Book in preparation by Tom Clark

Effects of unemployment on happiness

 

Imagine  that  your  household  income  increased  by 50%,  and  how much  happier  that would make  you. Imagine that this is 100 units.  Compared with that: A  household  income  cutof 33%...

…  cuts  your well‐being  by 100

Being  unemployed  not employed…

… cut by 300

Having an  insecure rather than secure job…

… cut by 150

Being  divorced  rather than married… 

… cut by 250

Reporting  that  most people can be trusted… 

… rises by 100

Source: Drawn from Layard, ‘What Would Make a Happier Society?’. 

Page 10: Anthony Heath Universities of Manchester and Oxfordsticerd.lse.ac.uk/seminarpapers/ses21112012.pdf · Chaeyoon Lim, Paul Hepburn, Maria Grasso • Book in preparation by Tom Clark

Harmonised measures of the monthly unemployment rate, US and UK

Page 11: Anthony Heath Universities of Manchester and Oxfordsticerd.lse.ac.uk/seminarpapers/ses21112012.pdf · Chaeyoon Lim, Paul Hepburn, Maria Grasso • Book in preparation by Tom Clark

How might GB and US differ?

In many ways GB and US are similar – both are highly unequal societies, with liberal welfare systems and deregulated labour markets, high divorce rates and continuing ethnic divisions

But GB continues to have more generous welfare benefits (albeit eroding over time), which might in turn have crowded out voluntary and community charitable action

GB also has a stronger and more centralized state and the public feel that government should take greater responsibility for people’s problems

Page 12: Anthony Heath Universities of Manchester and Oxfordsticerd.lse.ac.uk/seminarpapers/ses21112012.pdf · Chaeyoon Lim, Paul Hepburn, Maria Grasso • Book in preparation by Tom Clark

US and UK net replacement rates by family type

 

 

Source: OECD, Tax‐Benefit Models. NRR after tax and including unemployment benefits, social assistance, family and housing benefits in the sixtieth month of benefit receipt. 

0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90

Single personOne‐earner married coupleTwo‐earner married couple

Lone parentOne‐earner married coupleTwo‐earner married couple

Single personOne‐earner married coupleTwo‐earner married couple

Lone parentOne‐earner married coupleTwo‐earner married couple

Single personOne‐earner married coupleTwo‐earner married couple

Lone parentOne‐earner married coupleTwo‐earner married couple

No 

children

2 children

No 

children

2 children

No 

children

2 children

67% of avg wage

100%

 of avg wage15

0% of avg wage 

Net replacement rate %

US

UK

Page 13: Anthony Heath Universities of Manchester and Oxfordsticerd.lse.ac.uk/seminarpapers/ses21112012.pdf · Chaeyoon Lim, Paul Hepburn, Maria Grasso • Book in preparation by Tom Clark

OECD Summary Replacement Rate Measure, 1961‐2007 (%)

 

 

 

0

5

10

15

20

25

30

1961 1965 1969 1973 1977 1981 1985 1989 1993 1997 2001 2005

UK

US

Page 14: Anthony Heath Universities of Manchester and Oxfordsticerd.lse.ac.uk/seminarpapers/ses21112012.pdf · Chaeyoon Lim, Paul Hepburn, Maria Grasso • Book in preparation by Tom Clark

Some expectations

Britain’s (slightly more) generous welfare state might cushion the impact of unemployment, reducing tensions but also encouraging welfare dependency and reducing self‐reliance or a sense of individual responsibility

The US might be expected to be a bit more resilient to the effects of hard times, with individual responsibility and community action playing a large role in responding to the social consequences of the recession

Page 15: Anthony Heath Universities of Manchester and Oxfordsticerd.lse.ac.uk/seminarpapers/ses21112012.pdf · Chaeyoon Lim, Paul Hepburn, Maria Grasso • Book in preparation by Tom Clark

What stories are emerging from the data?

• In all three of the recent major periods of hard times, vulnerable groups such as ethnic minorities, the young, and the poorly educated (those at the back of the job queue) have been hit hardest.  Ie we are not ‘all in it together’ – the most vulnerable take the hardest hit

• The size of the hit was pretty similar in both countries – greater in GB in the 1980s and possibly smaller in the 2008‐ period (though perhaps still to early to tell)

Page 16: Anthony Heath Universities of Manchester and Oxfordsticerd.lse.ac.uk/seminarpapers/ses21112012.pdf · Chaeyoon Lim, Paul Hepburn, Maria Grasso • Book in preparation by Tom Clark

Trends in gender inequalities in unemployment (Source: pooled GHS/LFS)

 

010

20Pe

rcen

t

1972 1976 1980 1984 1988 1992 1996 2000 2004 2008 2012Year

Men Women

 

Page 17: Anthony Heath Universities of Manchester and Oxfordsticerd.lse.ac.uk/seminarpapers/ses21112012.pdf · Chaeyoon Lim, Paul Hepburn, Maria Grasso • Book in preparation by Tom Clark

Trends in age inequalities: men

010

2030

Per

cent

1972 1976 1980 1984 1988 1992 1996 2000 2004 2008 2012Year

16-24 25-3536-50 50+

Page 18: Anthony Heath Universities of Manchester and Oxfordsticerd.lse.ac.uk/seminarpapers/ses21112012.pdf · Chaeyoon Lim, Paul Hepburn, Maria Grasso • Book in preparation by Tom Clark

Trends in regional inequalities: men

010

20P

erce

nt

1972 1976 1980 1984 1988 1992 1996 2000 2004 2008 2012Year

Centre Inner RingOuter Ring Periphery

Page 19: Anthony Heath Universities of Manchester and Oxfordsticerd.lse.ac.uk/seminarpapers/ses21112012.pdf · Chaeyoon Lim, Paul Hepburn, Maria Grasso • Book in preparation by Tom Clark

Trends in ethnic inequalities: men

010

2030

Per

cent

1972 1976 1980 1984 1988 1992 1996 2000 2004 2008 2012Year

White BlackP/B Other

Page 20: Anthony Heath Universities of Manchester and Oxfordsticerd.lse.ac.uk/seminarpapers/ses21112012.pdf · Chaeyoon Lim, Paul Hepburn, Maria Grasso • Book in preparation by Tom Clark

Some null findingsThe negative social effects of hard times are rarely visible if we 

look at average levels of social engagement etc for the population as a whole.  We find NO unambiguous negative effect of hard times in either country on 

• Incidence of divorce• Level of ethnic prejudice• Protest (which if anything increases in good times)• Attitudes to redistribution, inequality and government 

spendingThis is probably because the majority do not experience the 

full impact of hard times – this is borne largely  by the vulnerable – and because trends are driven by other secular changes

Page 21: Anthony Heath Universities of Manchester and Oxfordsticerd.lse.ac.uk/seminarpapers/ses21112012.pdf · Chaeyoon Lim, Paul Hepburn, Maria Grasso • Book in preparation by Tom Clark

UK public attitudes to taxation and spending by unemployment rate 1983‐2011 

(Source: BSA.  Correlation ‐0.17, NS)

0

10

20

30

40

50

60

70

1983

1985

1987

1989

1991

1993

1995

1997

1999

2001

2003

2005

2007

2009

2011

%

Increase taxes and spend more Unemployment rate

Page 22: Anthony Heath Universities of Manchester and Oxfordsticerd.lse.ac.uk/seminarpapers/ses21112012.pdf · Chaeyoon Lim, Paul Hepburn, Maria Grasso • Book in preparation by Tom Clark

UK ‘sympathy for the poor’, 1987‐2006(Source: BSA)

0

10

20

30

40

50

60

1987 1989 1994 2000 2006

%

Very unsympatheticslightly unsympatheticslightly sympatheticVery sympathetic

Page 23: Anthony Heath Universities of Manchester and Oxfordsticerd.lse.ac.uk/seminarpapers/ses21112012.pdf · Chaeyoon Lim, Paul Hepburn, Maria Grasso • Book in preparation by Tom Clark

UK public attitudes to unemployment benefit, 1983‐2011 (Source: BSA)

 

Source: BSA no 29, National Centre for Social Research 

0

10

20

30

40

50

60

70

1983

1985

1987

1990

1993

1995

1997

1999

2001

2003

2005

2007

2009

2011

%

% agree to low and causehardship

% agree too high anddiscourage work

Page 24: Anthony Heath Universities of Manchester and Oxfordsticerd.lse.ac.uk/seminarpapers/ses21112012.pdf · Chaeyoon Lim, Paul Hepburn, Maria Grasso • Book in preparation by Tom Clark

But hard times do have negative effects on the vulnerable

Individual experience of unemployment is still associated with some of the ‘bads’ identified by Jahoda, Bakke and later writers, eg it increases risk of divorce, reduces subjective well‐being

But in general it is displacement rather than the state of unemployment that does most damage to

• Subjective well‐being (and suicide)• Informal volunteering• Civic participation

Page 25: Anthony Heath Universities of Manchester and Oxfordsticerd.lse.ac.uk/seminarpapers/ses21112012.pdf · Chaeyoon Lim, Paul Hepburn, Maria Grasso • Book in preparation by Tom Clark

Life satisfaction sinks with the economy,but by more for jobless (Source: Eurobarometer)

 

60%

65%

70%

75%

80%

85%

90%

95%

100%

1‐No

v‐03

1‐Ap

r‐04

1‐Sep‐04

1‐Feb‐05

1‐Jul‐0

5

1‐De

c‐05

1‐May‐06

1‐Oct‐06

1‐Mar‐07

1‐Au

g‐07

1‐Jan‐08

1‐Jun‐08

1‐No

v‐08

1‐Ap

r‐09

1‐Sep‐09

1‐Feb‐10

1‐Jul‐1

0

1‐De

c‐10

% satisfie

d

All

Employed

Unemployed

Page 26: Anthony Heath Universities of Manchester and Oxfordsticerd.lse.ac.uk/seminarpapers/ses21112012.pdf · Chaeyoon Lim, Paul Hepburn, Maria Grasso • Book in preparation by Tom Clark

Life satisfaction by experience of unemployment in the UK (Source: BHPS)

Page 27: Anthony Heath Universities of Manchester and Oxfordsticerd.lse.ac.uk/seminarpapers/ses21112012.pdf · Chaeyoon Lim, Paul Hepburn, Maria Grasso • Book in preparation by Tom Clark

Trends in organized volunteering in the UK (Source: Citizenship Survey)

 

56

78

Nat

iona

l une

mpl

oym

ent r

ate

3540

4550

% v

olun

teer

ed

2000 2002 2004 2006 2008 2010Year of survey

% volunteered National unemployment rate

Page 28: Anthony Heath Universities of Manchester and Oxfordsticerd.lse.ac.uk/seminarpapers/ses21112012.pdf · Chaeyoon Lim, Paul Hepburn, Maria Grasso • Book in preparation by Tom Clark

Unorganized/Informal volunteering in the UK Source: Citizenship Survey)

 

56

78

Nat

iona

l une

mpl

oym

ent r

ate

5055

6065

70%

info

rmal

ly v

olun

teer

ed

2000 2002 2004 2006 2008 2010Year

% informally volunteered National unemployment rate

Page 29: Anthony Heath Universities of Manchester and Oxfordsticerd.lse.ac.uk/seminarpapers/ses21112012.pdf · Chaeyoon Lim, Paul Hepburn, Maria Grasso • Book in preparation by Tom Clark

“Participation Careers” of displaced and non‐displaced individuals between the ages of 33 and 42 in the UK 

(Source: NCDS)

Page 30: Anthony Heath Universities of Manchester and Oxfordsticerd.lse.ac.uk/seminarpapers/ses21112012.pdf · Chaeyoon Lim, Paul Hepburn, Maria Grasso • Book in preparation by Tom Clark

Yearly average proportion of time spent workless for sons by father’s employment status, UK

 

0

0.05

0.1

0.15

0.2

0.25

0.3

0.35

1974

1975

1976

1977

1978

1979

1980

1981

1982

1983

1984

1985

1986

1987

1988

1989

1990

1991

1992

1993

1994

1995

1996

1997

1998

Prop

rtion of time spen

t workless

Year

unemp/pop ratio UK NCDS ‐ employed dads NCDS ‐ workless dads

BCS ‐ employed dads BCS ‐ workless dads

Page 31: Anthony Heath Universities of Manchester and Oxfordsticerd.lse.ac.uk/seminarpapers/ses21112012.pdf · Chaeyoon Lim, Paul Hepburn, Maria Grasso • Book in preparation by Tom Clark

The impact of controlling for family background characteristics on the intergenerational correlation

 

0

0.02

0.04

0.06

0.08

0.1

0.12

0.14

0.16

0.18

0.2

NLSY 79 NCDS  BCS NLSY 79 NCDS  BCS NLSY 79 NCDS  BCS NLSY 79 NCDS  BCS

Fathers and sons HOH and sons Fathers and daughters HOH and daughters

Unconditional Conditional

Page 32: Anthony Heath Universities of Manchester and Oxfordsticerd.lse.ac.uk/seminarpapers/ses21112012.pdf · Chaeyoon Lim, Paul Hepburn, Maria Grasso • Book in preparation by Tom Clark

Short and long‐term effects

Effects of hard times on subjective well‐being appear to be fairly temporary but long‐term scarring effects can be found for

• Civic engagement• Intergenerational transmission of worklessness• Political protest potentialThis may well be because the disruption caused by hard times sets people onto different life‐trajectories/life styles

Page 33: Anthony Heath Universities of Manchester and Oxfordsticerd.lse.ac.uk/seminarpapers/ses21112012.pdf · Chaeyoon Lim, Paul Hepburn, Maria Grasso • Book in preparation by Tom Clark

GB/US differences

• Well there aren’t any at all that we can be sure about – at least in terms of effects of hard times (though general levels of divorce etc remain very different in the two countries throughout)

• This casts major doubt on theories that expected Britain’s more generous welfare state – money is not the answer (or the problem)

• Though volunteering does seem to have been harder hit in the UK than US

Page 34: Anthony Heath Universities of Manchester and Oxfordsticerd.lse.ac.uk/seminarpapers/ses21112012.pdf · Chaeyoon Lim, Paul Hepburn, Maria Grasso • Book in preparation by Tom Clark

Some final thoughts

No especial villain of the piece – can’t blame it all on the welfare state or big government

but some potential heroes and villains have failed to come up to scratch

• Not much evidence of US having greater resilience• Flexible labour markets haven’t done much for smoothing the pain or enabling the vulnerable to adapt quicker

• The ‘squeezed middle’ are not as badly affected as the displaced – but maybe their support for helping the vulnerable is being squeezed

Page 35: Anthony Heath Universities of Manchester and Oxfordsticerd.lse.ac.uk/seminarpapers/ses21112012.pdf · Chaeyoon Lim, Paul Hepburn, Maria Grasso • Book in preparation by Tom Clark

And a final question

What policy implications can we draw from this research?