antenna theory basics
TRANSCRIPT
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Basic Antenna Theory
Professor R. [email protected]
Note: These are preliminary notes, intended only for
distribution among the participants. Beware of misprints!
ICTP-ITU/BDT-URSI School on Radio-Based Computer Networking for Research and Training in Developing CountriesThe Abdus Salam International Centre for Theoretical Physics ICTP, Trieste (Italy), 7th February - 4th March 2005
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Purpose
to refresh basic concepts related to theantenna physics needed to understand better the operation
and design of microwave links and systems
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Outline
Introduction
Review of basic antenna types
Radiation pattern, gain, polarization Equivalent circuit & radiation efficiency
Smart antennas
Some theory Summary
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Quiz
We use a transmitting antenna to radiateradio wave and a receiving antenna tocapture the RF energy carried by the
wave.
Somebody told that the receiving antennaalso radiates radio waves during the
reception.
Is it a true fact or a slip of the tongue?
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Intended & unintended radiators
Antennas intended to produce specified EM field
Radiocommunication antennas; Measuring antennas; EM sensors,probes; EM applicators (Industrial, Medical, Scientific)
Radiators not intended to generate any EM field, but producing itas an unintended side-effect Any conductor/ installation with varying electrical current (e.g.
electrical installation of vehicles)
Any slot/ opening in the screen of a device/ cable carrying RFcurrent
Any discontinuity in transmission medium (e.g. conductingstructures/ installations) irradiated by EM waves Stationary (e.g. antenna masts or power line wires); Time-varying (e.g.
windmill or helicopter propellers); Transient (e.g. aeroplanes, missiles)
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Antenna purpose
Transformation of a guided EMwave in transmission line(waveguide) into a freely
propagating EM wave in space (orvice versa) with specifieddirectional characteristics
Transformation from time-function inone-dimensional space into time-
function in three dimensional space The specific form of the radiated wave
is defined by the antenna structureand the environment
Space wave
Guided wave
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Antenna functions
Transmission line
Power transport medium - must avoid power
reflections, otherwise use matching devices Radiator
Must radiate efficiently must be of a sizecomparable with the half-wavelength
Resonator Unavoidable - for broadband applications
resonances must be attenuated
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Monopole (dipole over plane)
Low-QBroadband
High-QNarrowband
If there is an inhomogeneity (obstacle) a reflected wave, standing wave, & higher field modesappear
With pure standing wave the energy is stored and oscillates from entirely electric to entirelymagnetic and back
Model: a resonator with high Q = (energy stored) / (energy lost) per cycle, as in LC circuits Kraus p.2
Smooth
transition
region
Uniform wave
traveling
along the line
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Outline
Introduction
Review of basic antenna types
Radiation pattern, gain, polarization Equivalent circuit & radiation efficiency
Smart antennas
Some theory Summary
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Antennas for laptop applications
Source: D. Liu et al.: Developing integrated antenna subsystems for laptop computers; IBM J. RES. & DEV. VOL. 47 NO. 2/3 MARCH/MAY 2003 p. 355-367
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Patch and slot antennasderived from printed-circuit and
micro-strip technologies Ceramic chip antennas are
typically helical or inverted-F(INF) antennas, or variations ofthese two types with high
dielectric loading to reduce theantenna size
Source: D. Liu et al.: Developing integrated antenna subsystems for laptopcomputers; IBM J. RES. & DEV. VOL. 47 NO. 2/3 MARCH/MAY 2003 p. 355-367
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Slot & INF antennas
Slot antenna: a slot is cut from a large (relativeto the slot length) metal plate. The center conductor of the feeding coaxial cable is
connected to one side of the slot, and the outside conductorof the cable - to the other side of the slot.
The slot length is some (/2) for the slot antennaand (/4) long for the INF antenna.
The slot and INF antennas behave similarly. The slot antenna can be considered as a loaded version of
the INF antenna. The load is a quarter-wavelength stub, i.e. anarrowband device.
When the feed point is moved to the short-circuited end ofthe slot (or INF) antenna, the impedance decreases. When itis moved to the slot center (or open end of the INF antenna),the impedance increases
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Exampledouble-layer printed Yagi antenna
Source: N Gregorieva
Note: no galvanic contact with thedirector
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Patch and slot antennas are
Cheap and easy to fabricate and to mount
Suited for integration
Light and mechanically robust
Have low cross-polarization
Low-profile - widely used in antenna arrays spacecrafts, satellites, missiles, cars and other mobile
applications
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Aperture-antenna
Note: The aperture concept is applicablealso to wired antennas. For instance,the max effective aperture of linear/2 wavelength dipole antenna is 2/8
EM wave
Power
absorbed: P [watt]
Power density:
PFD [w/m2]
Effective
aperture: A[m2]
A = A*PFD
Aperture antennasderived fromwaveguide technology(circular, rectangular)
Can transfer highpower (magnetrons,klystrons)
Above few GHz
Will be exploredinprace during theschool
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Leaky-wave antennas
Derived from millimeter-wave guides (dielectricguides, microstrip lines,coplanar and slot lines).
For frequencies > 30 GHz,including infrared
Subject of intensive study. Note: Periodical
discontinuities near the end
of the guide lead tosubstantial radiationleakage (radiation from thedielectric surface).
Source: adapted from N Gregorieva
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Reflector antennas
Reflectors are used to concentrate flux of EMenergy radiated/ received, or to change itsdirection
Usually, they are parabolic (paraboloidal). The first parabolic (cylinder) reflector antenna wasused by Heinrich Hertz in 1888.
Large reflectors have high gain and directivity
Are not easy to fabricate Are not mechanically robust
Typical applications: radio telescopes, satellitetelecommunications.
Source: adapted from N Gregorieva
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Planar reflectors
Uda-Yagi, Log-periodic antennas
d
2d
Intended reflector antennaallows maintaining radio link in
non-LOS conditions (avoidingpropagation obstacles)
Unintended antennas createinterference
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Paraboloidal reflectors
Front feed Cassegrain feed
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The largest radio telescopes
Max Plank Institt fr Radioastronomie
radio telescope, Effelsberg (Germany),100-m paraboloidal reflector
The Green Bank Telescope (the NationalRadio Astronomy Observatory)paraboloid of aperture 100 m
Source: adapted from N Gregorieva
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The Arecibo Observatory AntennaSystem
The worlds
largest singleradio telescope
304.8-m
sphericalreflector
NationalAstronomy andIonosphereCenter (USA),Arecibo,Puerto Rico
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The Arecibo Radio Telescope
[Sky & TelescopeFeb 1997 p. 29]
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Lens antennas
Source: Kraus p.382, N Gregorieva
Lenses play a similar role to that of reflectors in reflector antennas:they collimate divergent energyOften preferred to reflectors at frequencies > 100 GHz.
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Outline
Introduction
Review of basic antenna types
Radiation pattern, gain, polarization Equivalent circuit & radiation efficiency
Smart antennas
Some theory Summary
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Radiation pattern
The radiation pattern of antennais a representation(pictorial or mathematical) of the distribution of the powerout-flowing (radiated) from the antenna (in the case oftransmitting antenna), or inflowing (received) to the
antenna (in the case of receiving antenna) as a functionof direction angles from the antenna
Antenna radiation pattern (antenna pattern):
is defined for large distances from the antenna, where the spatial(angular) distribution of the radiated power does not depend on the
distance from the radiation source is independent on the power flow direction: it is the same when the
antenna is used to transmit and when it is used to receive radio waves
is usually different for different frequencies and different polarizations
of radio wave radiated/ received
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Power pattern vs. Field pattern
The power patternisthemeasured (calculated)and plotted receivedpower: |P(, )| at aconstant (large) distance
from the antenna The amplitude field
patternisthe measured(calculated) and plottedelectric (magnetic) field
intensity, |E(, )| or |H(,)| at a constant (large)distance from the antenna
Power or
field-strength meter
Antennaunder test
Turntable
Generator
Auxiliaryantenna
Large distance
The power pattern and the field
patterns are inter-related:P(, ) = (1/)*|E(, )|2 = *|H(, )|2
P = power
E = electrical field component vector
H = magnetic field component vector
= 377 ohm (free-space, plane wave
impedance)
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Normalized pattern
Usually, the pattern describes thenormalizedfield (power) values withrespect to the maximum value.
Note: The power pattern and the amplitudefield pattern are the same when computedand when plotted in dB.
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3-D pattern
Antenna radiationpattern is3-dimensional
The 3-D plot of antennapattern assumes bothangles and varying,
which is difficult toproduce and to interpret
3-D pattern
Source: NK Nikolova
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2-D pattern
Two 2-D patterns
Usually the antennapattern is presented as a2-D plot, with only one ofthe direction angles, or
varies It is an intersection of the
3-D one with a given plane usually it is a = const
plane or a = constplanethat contains the patternsmaximum
Source: NK Nikolova
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Example: a short dipole on z-axis
Source: NK Nikolova
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Principal patterns
Principal patterns are the 2-D patternsof linearly polarized antennas,measured in 2 planes
1. the E-plane:a plane parallel to the Evector and containing the direction ofmaximum radiation, and
2. the H-plane:a plane parallel to the Hvector, orthogonal to the E-plane, andcontaining the direction of maximumradiation
Source: NK Nikolova
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Example
Source: NK Nikolova
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Antenna Mask (Example 1)
Typical relativedirectivity- maskof receivingantenna (Yagiant., TV dcmwaves)
[CCIR doc. 11/645, 17-Oct 1989)
-20
-15
-10
-5
0
-180
-120
-60 0
60
120
180
Azimith angle, degre es
Relativeg
ain,
dB
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Antenna Mask (Example 2)
-50
-40
-30
-20
-10
0
0.1 1 10 100
Phi/Phi0
Relative
ga
in
(dB)
RR/1998 APS30 Fig.9
COPOLAR
CROSSPOLAR
Reference pattern for co-polar and cross-polar components forsatellite transmitting antennas in Regions 1 and 3 (Broadcasting~12 GHz)
0dB
-3dBPhi
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Isotropic antenna
Isotropic antenna orisotropic radiatoris ahypothetical (not physicallyrealizable) concept, used as a
useful reference to describereal antennas. Isotropic antenna radiates
equally in all directions. Its radiation pattern is
represented by a sphere whosecenter coincides with thelocation of the isotropic radiator.
Source: NK Nikolova
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Directional antenna
Directional antennais an antenna, whichradiates (or receives) much more power in(or from) some directions than in (or from)
others. Note: Usually, this term is applied to antennas
whose directivity is much higher than that of a
half-wavelength dipole.
Source: NK Nikolova
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Omnidirectional antenna
An antenna, whichhas a non-directional pattern
in a plane It is usually
directional in other
planes
Source: NK Nikolova
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Pattern lobes
Source: NK Nikolova
Pattern lobe is a
portion of the radiation
pattern with a local
maximumLobes are classified
as: major, minor,
side lobes, back
lobes.
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Pattern lobes and beam widths
Source: NK Nikolova
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Beamwidth
Half-power beamwidth(HPBW) is the anglebetween two vectors from the patterns origin to
the points of the major lobe where the radiation
intensity is half its maximum Often used to describe the antenna resolution properties Important in radar technology, radioastronomy, etc.
First-null beamwidth(FNBW) is the angle
between two vectors, originating at the patternsorigin and tangent to the main beam at its base.
Often FNBW 2*HPBW
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Example
Source: NK Nikolova
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Anisotropic sources: gain
Every real antenna radiates moreenergy in some directions than inothers (i.e. has directional properties)
Idealized example of directionalantenna: the radiated energy isconcentrated in the yellow region(cone).
Directive antenna gain: the power fluxdensity is increased by (roughly) theinverse ratio of the yellow area and thetotal surface of the isotropic sphere
Gain in the field intensity may also beconsidered - it is equal to the squareroot of the power gain.
Isotropic sphere
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Antenna gain measurement
Antenna Gain = (P/Po) S=S0
Actual
antenna
P = Power
delivered to
the actual
antenna
S = Power
received
(the same in
both steps)
Measuring
equipment
Step 2: substitution
Reference
antenna
Po = Power
delivered to
the reference
antenna
S0 = Power
received
(the same in
both steps)
Measuring
equipment
Step 1: reference
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Antenna Gains Gi, Gd
Unless otherwise specified, the gain refersto the direction of maximum radiation.
Gain is a dimension-less factor related topower and usually expressed in decibels
GiIsotropic Power Gain theoreticalconcept, the reference antenna is isotropic
Gd - the reference antenna is a half-wavedipole
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Typical Gain and Beamwidth
Type of antenna Gi[dB] BeamW.
Isotropic 0 3600x3600
Half-wave Dipole 2 3600x1200
Helix (10 turn) 14 350x350
Small dish 16 300x300
Large dish 45 10x10
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Antenna gain and effective area
Measure of the effective absorption areapresented by an antenna to an incident plane
wave. Depends on the antenna gain and wavelength2
2( , ) [m ]
4eA G
Aperture efficiency: a = Ae / A
A: physical area of antennas aperture, square meters
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Power Transfer in Free Space
: wavelength [m]
PR: power available at thereceiving antenna
PT: power delivered to thetransmitting antenna
GR: gain of the transmittingantenna in the direction ofthe receiving antenna
GT: gain of the receiving
antenna in the direction ofthe transmitting antenna
Matched polarizations
2
2
2
4
44
rGGP
G
r
PG
APFDP
RTT
RTT
eR
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e.i.r.p.
Equivalent Isotropically Radiated
Power (in a given direction):
The product of the power supplied to the
antenna and the antenna gain (relativeto an isotropic antenna) in a givendirection
. . . . ie i r p PG
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Linear Polarization
In a linearly polarizedplane wave the direction
of the E (or H) vector isconstant.
http://www.amanogawa.com/archive/wavesA.h
tml
http://www.amanogawa.com/archive/wavesA.htmlhttp://www.amanogawa.com/archive/wavesA.htmlhttp://www.amanogawa.com/archive/wavesA.htmlhttp://www.amanogawa.com/archive/wavesA.html -
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Elliptical Polarization
Ex = cos (wt)Ey = cos (wt)
Ex = cos (wt)
Ey = cos (wt+pi/4) Ex = cos (wt)Ey = -sin (wt)
Ex = cos (wt)
Ey = cos (wt+3pi/4)
Ex = cos (wt)
Ey = -cos (wt+pi/4)
Ex = cos (wt)
Ey = sin (wt)
LHC
RHC
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Polarization ellipse
The superposition oftwo plane-wavecomponents results inan elliptically
polarized wave The polarization
ellipse is defined byits axial ratio N/M
(ellipticity), tilt angle and sense of rotation
Ey
Ex
M
N
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Polarization states
450 LINEAR
UPPER HEMISPHERE:ELLIPTIC POLARIZATIONLEFT_HANDED SENSE
LOWER HEMISPHERE:ELLIPTIC POLARIZATION
RIGHT_HANDED SENSE
EQUATOR:LINEAR POLARIZATION
LATTITUDE:REPRESENTS
AXIAL RATIO
LONGITUDE:REPRESENTSTILT ANGLE
POLES REPRESENTCIRCULAR POLARIZATIONS
LHC
RHC
(Poincar sphere)
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Comments on Polarization
At any moment in a chosen reference point inspace, there is actually a single electric vector E(and associated magnetic vector H).
This is the result of superposition (addition) ofthe instantaneous fields E (and H) produced byall radiation sources active at the moment.
The separation of fields by their wavelength,
polarization, or direction is the result of filtration.
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Antenna Polarization
The polarization of an antenna in a specificdirection is defined to be the polarization of the
wave produced by the antenna at a greatdistance at this direction
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Polarization Efficiency
The power received by an antennafrom a particular direction is maximal if thepolarization of the incident wave and thepolarization of the antenna in the wave arrivaldirection have:
the same axial ratio
the same sense of polarization the same spatial orientation
.
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Polarization filters/ reflectors
At the surface of ideal conductor the tangentialelectrical field component = 0
|E1|>0 |E2| = 0
Vector E wiresVector E wires
|E1|>0 |E2| ~ |E2|
Wall of thin parallel wires (conductors)
Wire distance ~ 0.1
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Outline
Introduction
Review of basic antenna types
Radiation pattern, gain, polarization
Equivalent circuit & radiation efficiency
Smart antennas
Some theory Summary
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Transmitting antenna equivalent circuit
Transmitter Transm. lineAntenna
Generator
RG
jXG
VG
jXA
Rr
Rl
The transmitter with the transmission line isrepresented by an (Thevenin) equivalent generator
The antenna is represented by its input impedance(which is frequency-dependent and is influenced byobjects nearby) as seem from the generator
jXA represents energy stored in electric (Ee) andmagnetic (Em) near-field components; if |Ee| = |Em|then XA = 0 (antenna resonance)
Rr represents energy radiated into space (far-fieldcomponents)
Rlrepresents energy lost, i.e. transformed into heat inthe antenna structure
Radio wave
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Receiving antenna equivalent circuit
AntennaRr
jXA
VA
jXL
RL
Rl
Thevenin equivalent
The antenna with the transmission line isrepresented by an (Thevenin) equivalentgenerator
The receiver is represented by its inputimpedance as seen from the antenna terminals(i.e. transformed by the transmission line)
VAis the (induced by the incident wave) voltage
at the antenna terminals determined when theantenna is open circuited
Note: The antenna impedance is the same when the antenna isused to radiate and when it is used to receive energy
Radio wave ReceiverTransm.line
Antenna
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Power transfer
The maximumpower is deliveredto (or from) the
antenna when theantennaimpedance and theimpedance of the
equivalentgenerator (or load)are matched
0
0.5
1
0.1 1 10
RA / RG; (XA+XG = 0)
PA/PAm
ax
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When the impedances are matched
Half of the source power is delivered to the load andhalf is dissipated within the (equivalent) generator asheat
In the case of receiving antenna, a part (Pl) of thepower captured is lost as heat in the antennaelements, , the other part being reradiated (scattered)back into space
Even when the antenna losses tend to zero, still only half ofthe power captured is delivered to the load (in the case ofconjugate matching), the other half being scattered back intospace
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When the antenna impedance is not matched tothe transmitter output impedance (or to thereceiver input impedance) or to the transmissionline between them, impedance-matching
devices must be used for maximum powertransfer
Inexpensive impedance-matching devices areusually narrow-band
Transmission lines often have significant losses
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Radiation efficiency
The radiation efficiency eindicates howefficiently the antenna uses the RF power
It is the ratio of the power radiated by the
antenna and the total power delivered tothe antenna terminals (in transmittingmode). In terms of equivalent circuit
parameters:r
r l
Re
R R
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Outline
Introduction
Review of basic antenna types
Radiation pattern, gain, polarization
Equivalent circuit & radiation efficiency
Smart antennas
Some theory Summary
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Antenna arrays
Consist of multiple (usually identical) antennas(elements) collaborating to synthesize radiationcharacteristics not available with a single antenna. Theyare able to match the radiation pattern to the desired coverage area
to change the radiation pattern electronically (electronicscanning) through the control of the phase and the amplitude ofthe signal fed to each element
to adapt to changing signal conditions to increase transmission capacity by better use of the radio
resources and reducing interference
Complex & costly Intensive research related to military, space, etc. activities
Smart antennas, signal-processing antennas, tracking antennas,phased arrays, etc.
Source: adapted from N Gregorieva
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Satellite antennas (TV)
Not an array!
Owens Valley Radio
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Owens Valley RadioObservatory
The Earthsatmosphere istransparent inthe narrowvisible-lightwindow
(4000-7000angstroms) andthe radio bandbetween 1 mmand 10 m.
[Sky & Telescope
Feb 1997 p.26]
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The New Mexico Very Large
Array
27 antennas along 3 railroad tracks provide baselines up to 35 km.Radio images are formed by correlating the signals garnered byeach antenna.
[Sky & Telescope
Feb 1997 p. 30]
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2 GHz adaptive antenna
A set of 482GHzantennas
Source:Arraycomm
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Phased Arrays
Array of N antennas in a linear or two-dimensional configuration + beam-forming& control device
The amplitude and phase excitation of eachindividual antenna controlled electronically(software-defined) Diode phase shifters
Ferrite phase shifters
Inertia-less beam-forming and scanning (sec)with fixed physical structure
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Switched beam antennas Based on switching function betweenseparate directive antennas orpredefined beams of an array
Space Division Multiple Access
(SDMA) = allocating an angledirection sector to each user In a TDMA system, two users will be
allocated to the same time slot andthe same carrier frequency
They will be differentiated by differentdirection angles
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Dynamically phased array(PA):
A generalization of the
switched lobe concept The radiation pattern
continuously track thedesignated signal (user)
Include a direction of arrival(DoA) tracking algorithm
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Beam Steering
Beam-steeringusingphase
shifters ateachradiatingelement
Radiating
elements
Power
distribution
Phase
shifters
Equi-phase
wave front
= [(2/)d sin]
3 2 0
d
Beam direction
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4-Bit Phase-Shifter (Example)
Alternative solution: Transmission line with controlled delay
00or22.50 00or450 00or900 00or1800Input Output
Bit #4 Bit #3 Bit #2 Bit #1
Steering/ Beam-forming Circuitry
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Property of R Struzak 80
Switched-Line Phase Bit
Phase bit = delay difference
InputOutput
Diode switch
Delay line #1a
Delay line #1b
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Property of R Struzak 81
Simulation
2 omnidirectional antennas (equal amplitudes) Variables
distance increment
phase increment
N omnidirectional antennas Group factor (N omnidirectional antennas uniformly
distributed along a straight line, equal amplitudes,
equal phase increment) http://www.amanogawa.com/archive/TwoDipole/
Antenna2-2.html (more details)
http://array2ant.xls/http://array_nant.xls/http://www.amanogawa.com/archive/TwoDipole/Antenna2-2.htmlhttp://www.amanogawa.com/archive/TwoDipole/Antenna2-2.htmlhttp://www.amanogawa.com/archive/TwoDipole/Antenna2-2.htmlhttp://www.amanogawa.com/archive/TwoDipole/Antenna2-2.htmlhttp://www.amanogawa.com/archive/TwoDipole/Antenna2-2.htmlhttp://www.amanogawa.com/archive/TwoDipole/Antenna2-2.htmlhttp://array_nant.xls/http://array2ant.xls/ -
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Property of R Struzak 82
2 omnidirectional antennas
-1
-0.5
0
0.5
1
-1 -0.5 0 0.5 1
D = 0.5, = 900
-1
-0.5
0
0.5
1
-1 -0.5 0 0.5 1
-1
-0.5
0
0.5
1
-1 -0.5 0 0.5 1
D = 0.5, = 00 D = 0.5, = 1800
N idi i l
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Property of R Struzak 83
N omnidirectional antennas
Array gain (line, uniform, identical power)
0
0.5
1
1.5
2
2.5
-180 -90 0 90 180
Azimuth angle, degrees
Relativegain
N = 2, = 900 N = 9, = 450N = 5, = 1800
0
1
2
3
4
5
6
-180 -90 0 90 180
Azimuth angle, degrees
Relativegain
0
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
-180 -90 0 90 180
Azimuth angle, degrees
Relativegain
A A B fi
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Property of R Struzak 84
Antenna Arrays: Benefits
Possibilities to control electronically
Direction of maximum radiation
Directions (positions) of nulls
Beam-width
Directivity Levels of sidelobes
using standard antennas (or antenna collections)independently of their radiation patterns
Antenna elements can be distributed alongstraight lines, arcs, squares, circles, etc.
Ad ti (I t lli t)A t
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Property of R Struzak 85
Adaptive (Intelligent)Antennas Array of N antennas in a linear,
circular, or planar configuration Used for selection signals from
desired sources and suppressincident signals from undesiredsources
The antenna pattern track thesources
It is then adjusted to null out theinterferers and to maximize thesignal to interference ratio (SIR)
Able to receive and combineconstructively multipath signals
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Property of R Struzak 86
The amplitude/ phaseexcitation of each
antenna controlledelectronically(software-defined)
The weight-determiningalgorithm uses a-priori
and/ or measuredinformation to adaptantenna to changingenvironment
The weight and
summing circuits canoperate at the RF and/or at an intermediatefrequency
w1
wN
Weight-determiningalgorithm
1
N
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Property of R Struzak 87
Antenna sitting
Radio horizon
Effects of obstacles & structures nearby
Safety
operating procedures
Grounding
lightning strikes
static charges
Surge protection
lightning searches for a second path to ground
O tli
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Property of R Struzak 88
Outline
Introduction
Review of basic antenna types
Radiation pattern, gain, polarization
Equivalent circuit & radiation efficiency
Smart antennas
Some theory Summary
M ll E ti
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Property of R Struzak 89
Maxwells Equations
EM field interacting with the matter 2 coupled vectors E and H (6 numbers!), varying with time and
space and satisfying the boundary conditions(see http://www.amanogawa.com/archive/docs/EM1.pdf;http://www.amanogawa.com/archive/docs/EM7.pdf;
http://www.amanogawa.com/archive/docs/EM5.pdf) Reciprocity Theorem
Antenna characteristics do not depend on the direction of energyflow. The impedance & radiation pattern are the same when theantenna radiates signal and when it receives it.
Note: This theorem is valid only for linear passive antennas (i.e.antennas that do not contain nonlinear and unilateral elements,e.g. amplifiers)
http://www.amanogawa.com/archive/docs/EM1.pdfhttp://www.amanogawa.com/archive/docs/EM7.pdfhttp://www.amanogawa.com/archive/docs/EM5.pdfhttp://www.amanogawa.com/archive/docs/EM5.pdfhttp://www.amanogawa.com/archive/docs/EM7.pdfhttp://www.amanogawa.com/archive/docs/EM1.pdf -
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Property of R Struzak 90
EM Field of Current Element
HHHH
EEEE
r
r
I: current (monochromatic) [A]; dz: antenna element (short) [m]x
y
z
OP
r
ErE
E
I, dz222
222
HHHH
EEEE
r
r
Sh t di l t
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Property of R Struzak 91
Short dipole antenna: summary
E & Hare maximal in the equatorial plane, zero along the antennaaxis Er is maximal along the antenna axis dz, zero in the equatorial plane All show axial symmetry All are proportional to the current moment Idz Have 3 components that decrease with the distance-to-wavelength
ratio as (r/)-2 & (r/)-3: near-field, or induction field. The energy oscillates from
entirely electric to entirely magnetic and back, twice per cycle. Modeledas a resonant LC circuit or resonator;
(r/)-1: far-field or radiation field These 3 component are all equal at (r/) = 1/(2)
Fi ld t
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Property of R Struzak 92
Field components
0.001
0.01
0.1
1
10
100
1000
0.1 1 10
Relative distance, Br
Relativefields
trength
FF
FF
Q
Q
C
C
FF: Radiation field
C, Q: Induction fields
Fi ld i d
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Property of R Struzak 93
Field impedance
Fieldimpedance
Z = E/Hdepends
on theantennatype andondistance
0.01
0.1
1
10
100
0.01 0.1 1 10 100
Distance / (lambda/ 2Pi)
Z/377
Short dipole
Small loop
F Fi ld N Fi ld
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Property of R Struzak 94
Far-Field, Near-Field
Near-field region: Angular distribution of energy depends on
distance from the antenna;
Reactive field components dominate (L, C)
Far-field region: Angular distribution of energy is
independent on distance;
Radiating field component dominates (R)
The resultant EM field can locally be treatedas uniform (TEM)
Po nting ector
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Property of R Struzak 95
Poynting vector
The time-rate of EM energy flow per unit area infree space is the Poynting vector
(see http://www.amanogawa.com/archive/docs/EM8.pdf).
It is the cross-product (vector product, right-handscrew direction) of the electric field vector (E)and the magnetic field vector (H): P = E x H.
For the elementary dipole EH and only
ExH carry energy into space with the speed oflight.
Power Flow
http://www.amanogawa.com/archive/docs/EM8.pdfhttp://www.amanogawa.com/archive/docs/EM8.pdf -
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Property of R Struzak 96
Power Flow
In free space and at large distances, theradiated energy streams from the antenna inradial lines, i.e. the Poynting vector has only
the radial component in spherical coordinates. A source that radiates uniformly in all directions
is an isotropic source (radiator, antenna).For such a source the radial component of the
Poynting vector is independent of and .
Linear Antennas
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Property of R Struzak 97
Linear Antennas
Summation of all vectorcomponents E (or H)produced by each antennaelement
In the far-field region,the vector componentsare parallel to each other
Phase difference due to Excitation phase difference Path distance difference
Method of moments
...
...
321
321
HHHH
EEEE
O
Simulation: Linear dipole antenna
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Property of R Struzak 98
Simulation: Linear dipole antenna
http://www.amanogawa.com/archive/DipoleAnt/DipoleAnt-2.html
Linear dipole antenna
http://www.amanogawa.com/archive/Antenna1/Antenna1-2.html
Detailed analysis
Point Source
http://www.amanogawa.com/archive/DipoleAnt/DipoleAnt-2.htmlhttp://www.amanogawa.com/archive/DipoleAnt/DipoleAnt-2.htmlhttp://www.amanogawa.com/archive/Antenna1/Antenna1-2.htmlhttp://www.amanogawa.com/archive/Antenna1/Antenna1-2.htmlhttp://www.amanogawa.com/archive/Antenna1/Antenna1-2.htmlhttp://www.amanogawa.com/archive/Antenna1/Antenna1-2.htmlhttp://www.amanogawa.com/archive/Antenna1/Antenna1-2.htmlhttp://www.amanogawa.com/archive/Antenna1/Antenna1-2.htmlhttp://www.amanogawa.com/archive/DipoleAnt/DipoleAnt-2.htmlhttp://www.amanogawa.com/archive/DipoleAnt/DipoleAnt-2.htmlhttp://www.amanogawa.com/archive/DipoleAnt/DipoleAnt-2.htmlhttp://www.amanogawa.com/archive/DipoleAnt/DipoleAnt-2.html -
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Property of R Struzak 99
Point Source
For many purposes, it is sufficient to knowthe direction (angle) variation of the powerradiated by antenna at large distances.
For that purpose, any practical antenna,regardless of its size and complexity, canbe represented as a point-source.
The actual field near the antenna is thendisregarded.
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Property of R Struzak 100
The EM field at large distances from anantenna can be treated as originated ata point source - fictitious volume-less
emitter.
The EM field in a homogenous unlimitedmedium at large distances from an
antenna can be approximated by anuniform plane TEM wave
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Property of R Struzak 101
Image Theory
Antenna above perfectlyconducting plane surface
Tangential electrical fieldcomponent = 0
vertical components: thesame direction
horizontal components:opposite directions
The field (above the ground)is the same as if the ground
is replaced by an mirrorimage of the antenna
http://www.amanogawa.com/archive/wavesA.html
+
-
Elliptical polarization:
change of the rotation sense!
Summary
http://www.amanogawa.com/archive/wavesA.htmlhttp://www.amanogawa.com/archive/wavesA.htmlhttp://www.amanogawa.com/archive/wavesA.htmlhttp://www.amanogawa.com/archive/wavesA.html -
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Property of R Struzak 102
Summary
Introduction
Review of basic antenna types
Radiation pattern, gain, polarization
Equivalent circuit & radiation efficiency
Smart antennas
Some theory
Selected References
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Property of R Struzak 103
Selected References
Nikolova N K: Modern Antennas in Wireless Telecommunications EE753(lecture notes) [email protected]
Griffiths H & Smith BL (ed.): Modern antennas; Chapman & Hall, 1998 Johnson RC: Antenna Engineering Handbook McGraw-Hill Book Co. 1993 Kraus JD: Antennas, McGraw-Hill Book Co. 1998
Scoughton TE: Antenna Basics Tutorial;Microwave Journal Jan. 1998, p.186-191
Stutzman WL, Thiele GA: Antenna Theory and DesignJWiley &Sons, 1981 http://amanogawa.com Software
http://www.feko.co.za/apl_ant_pla.htm Li et al., Microcomputer Tools for Communication Engineering
Pozar D. Antenna Design Using Personal Computers NEC Archives www.gsl.net/wb6tpu /swindex.html ()
Any questions?
mailto:[email protected]://amanogawa.com/http://www.feko.co.za/apl_ant_pla.htmhttp://www.gsl.net/wb6tpu%20/swindex.htmlhttp://www.gsl.net/wb6tpu%20/swindex.htmlhttp://www.feko.co.za/apl_ant_pla.htmhttp://amanogawa.com/mailto:[email protected] -
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Any questions?
Thank you for your attention