antartic sciences.pdf

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ANTARCTIC SCIENCEIN THE GLOBAL CONTEXT2000-2005


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The 5-Year Science Programme of theBritish Antarctic Survey

2nd EditionContentsForeword 1

Signals in Antarctica of past global changes 3

Global interactions of the Antarctic ice sheet 5

Antarctic climate processes 7

Magnetic reconnection, substorms and their consequence 9

Geospace-atmosphere transfer functions 11

Antarctica in the dynamic global plate system 13

Antarctic biodiversity past, present and future 15

Life at the edge stresses and thresholds 17

Dynamics and management of ocean ecosystems 19

Independent projects and medical research 20

The Antarctic Funding Initiative 21

Scientific collaboration in the UK and worldwide 22

Supporting Antarctic science infrastructure 23

Science and Society talking about Antarctic science 24

Map of Antarctica 25

Antarctic Science in the GlobalContext 2000-2005

The British Antarctic Survey (BAS)research programme is planned on afive-year timetable. The current

programme,Antarctic Science in theGlobal Context, 2000-2005, is basedon proposals from staff. Afterinternational peer review, the mosthighly rated proposals wereintegrated into the Surveysinfrastructure capability. Theoutcome is a suite of nineprogrammes complemented byprojects in the environmental andmedical sciences and a small numberof independent research activities.Also, the competitive Antarctic

Funding Initiative provides access toAntarctica for BAS and NaturalEnvironment Research Council (NERC)staff and the university community.

Locations of BAS Antarctic stations, Map of Antarctica on page 25


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ForewordTHE CHALLENGE

The Antarctic continent and its surrounding ocean are the most

remote and hostile regions of the planet. Simply maintaining a

human presence there is a considerable challenge. Yet the need

to investigate how the Earth operates as a global system, and

to exploit the unique character of the south polar environment,

drives scientists with a host of interests to work there.

Field measurements and long-term observations on the

Antarctic continent and in the Southern Ocean are crucial. They

advance our understanding of current and past global change,biological evolution and adaptation, the physics and

consequences of Sun-Earth interactions, and the tectonic

evolution of the Earths crust. They contribute to the global

effort to set the actions of policy-makers and the public on a

firm scientific foundation in crucial matters such as

environmental protection; the exploitation of natural resources;

and the long-term achievement of a sustainable, equitable and

satisfactory lifestyle for the world population. Antarctica is

truly Remote but Relevant.

The scale and scope of research in the Antarctic are immense,

with subjects ranging in size from molecules to the continental

ice-sheet; in timescale from the flickering of the magnificent

aurora to billions of years of geological history; and across all

natural science disciplines.

In our Antarctic Science in the Global Context Core

Programme we aim to address only the most important, relevant

and exciting issues. An independent peer review by our parent

body, the Natural Environment Research Council, ensured that

we included only research activities ranked among the top 20%

for international science.

We believe that the programme will produce crucial and exciting

results. In the longer term we see it as an essential step

towards our goal: for the British Antarctic Survey to become the

world-leading, international centre for Global Science in the

Antarctic Context.

1

Prof Chris RapleyDirector, British Antarctic Survey

Britain in the Antarctic

Britain has been involved in Antarctic research and

exploration for more than 200 years. For over 50 years

the BAS, a research centre of the Natural Environment

Research Council, has undertaken most of the UKs

research on and around the continent. Today it shares

the continent with scientists from over 27 countries.

Operational area of the British AntarcticSurvey

Currently, BAS operates three research stations throughout

the year in the Antarctic and sub-Antarctic regions. Bird

Island station is at the western end of South Georgia;

Rothera station is on Adelaide Island off the Antarctic

Peninsula; and Halley station is afloat on the Brunt Ice

Shelf in Coats Land. The BAS also manages on behalf of

the Government of South Georgia a year-round fisheries

research station at King Edward Point, Cumberland East

Bay, South Georgia. In addition, during the summer

months biological research is carried out at Signy stationin the South Orkney Islands.

To support the extensive aircraft and field operations, two

logistics facilities are opened each summer at Fossil Bluff

on Alexander Island and Sky-Blu in eastern Ellsworth Land

along with a number of occupied forward depots of food

and fuel. The two BAS research vessels RRSJames Clark

Ross and RRS Ernest Shackleton operate extensively in the

polar oceans supporting scientific cruises and logistic

operations.

Mission Statement of the BritishAntarctic Survey

To undertake a world-class programme of science in the

Antarctic and related regions, addressing key global and

regional issues through research, survey and

monitoring, and including the maintenance and

development of necessary facilities and infrastructure.

In so doing:

To support the mission of the UK Natural

Environment Research Council

To sustain for the UK an active and influential

regional presence, and a leadership role in

Antarctic affairs.

In addition, to help discharge the UKs international

responsibilities under the Antarctic Treaty System,especially concerning environmental protection and

management, and to assist with the administration of

the British Antarctic Territory.


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BAS scientist measures the electrical

properties of 100,000-year-old ice in the

laboratories at Dome C, Antarctica

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TECHNOLOGY HIGHLIGHTS

The new Clean Air Sector laboratory (CASLab) near

Halley station is a specially built state-of-the-art

facility away from any contamination sources. The

units, designed by BAS engineers, will improve our

interpretation of ice cores.

Ice cores can now be scanned as soon as they are

extracted using a new BAS-designed ice core

profiler. This device allows us to estimate the

approximate age of the ice through the conductivity of

ions in the ice, and identifies which sections need

detailed analysis.


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Signals in Antarctica of Past

Global ChangesTHE CHALLENGE

The 4 km-thick Antarctic ice sheet preserves a record of climate

for the last 500,000 years, including an archive of atmospheric

gases trapped in bubbles within the ice. Here we have evidence

of global industrial pollution, changing climate and ozone

depletion in the upper atmosphere. Marine and lake sediments

also hold information about past regional climate that is a key

to understanding global changes.

The challenge for BAS scientists is provide the evidence from

ice, lake and marine sediments. This evidence will be used totest the validity of models

that other scientists develop

to predict the magnitude,

pattern and timing of future

climate change under

different scenarios. The public

and politicians will then be

able to make informed

choices on how to avoid or

cope with such changes in

future.

OBJECTIVES

To discover whether ice shelves in the Antarctic Peninsula

have disintegrated previously in the Holocene (last 10,000

years).

To determine the regional pattern of climate change in

the Antarctic Peninsula during the Holocene.

To look for evidence of past rapid climate

changes in the Weddell Sea region

To obtain, with European partners, the

best possible Antarctic climate record

of the last 500,000 years.

To develop quantitative

mathematical relationships between

key atmospheric variables and

chemical concentrations in ice cores.

To understand what controls the chemistry

of the troposphere (the Earths lowest layer of

atmosphere, where weather originates), and itsinteraction with the seasonal accumulation of snow called

the snowpack.

To develop at Halley a world-class facility for tropospheric

chemical research.

DELIVERING THE SCIENCE

BAS has a long history of involvement in Antarctic

palaeoclimate studies, and

has led work on the

Antarctic troposphere. For

the first time these topics

will be integrated, to

enhance the Antarctic input

to global change

programmes.

We will retrieve marine

sediment cores from an area

where part of the Larsen Ice

Shelf has disintegrated, to

find whether this recent

event was unique or part of

a sequence of advance and

retreat. Lake sediment cores

from throughout the

Antarctic Peninsula will

show the pattern of natural

variability in environmental change. We will drill a 1000m-long

ice core at Berkner Island to reveal the effect in the Weddell

Sea region of dramatic changes at the end of the last ice age,

10,000 years ago.

We will take part in the European Project for Ice Coring in

Antarctica; one objective is to collect at Dome C a 500,000-

year climate record by drilling to bedrock. We will construct a

new Clean Air Sector Laboratory at Halley from

which, with collaborators, we can study the

processes in the Antarctic troposphere

and the connection between the

atmosphere and the atmospheric

record contained in ice cores.

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Principal Investigator: Dr Eric WolffEmail: [email protected]

A On the RRS James Clark Ross: Marine

sediments being collected from theseabed in areas where ice shelves

recently retreated

B Antarctic freshwater lake sediment core

C Locations for the 2001/2002 ice core drill

sites for the European Project for Ice

Coring in Antarctica (EPICA)

PROJECTS

The last 10,000 years.

The last 500,000 years.

Air-ice relationship.

A

B

C


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Rifting in Larsen B before

its break-up in 2001

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Phase-sensitive radar: This radar detects ice melt at

the bottom of ice sheets up to 2000m thick. It works

by comparing very precise ice thickness

measurements over time. We can, therefore, assess

ice loss from melting without complex drilling.

Calculating ice loss from the base of ice sheets is

important in assessing whether ice sheets are

thinning or thickening.

Airborne polarimetry: As with previously developed

radar, this helps us measure ice thickness. However,

it also enables us to measure the structure of the ice

and the layers in the ice sheet formed by volcanic

eruptions, and gives us a better picture of the

geology of the bed on which the ice sheet rests.


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Global Interactions of the

Antarctic Ice SheetTHE CHALLENGE

The Antarctic ice sheet has radically changed since the end of

the last ice age about 10,000 years ago. Reports of melting ice

sheets threatening to raise sea levels, global warming and

climate change pervade the mass media and spread concern

among governments and public alike. However, the timing and

causal links between

changes in the Antarctic

ice sheet and other

features of the global

system such asatmosphere, oceans and

land masses are neither

simple nor direct.

Our challenge is to

describe and understand

the interactions and

internal processes

controlling the Antarctic

ice sheet, to explore its history, and to predict its future

evolution and how this will drive global changes.

The results will be of wide-ranging value to

scientific research and to policy-makers

concerned with the future of the Antarctic

ice sheet, its effect on sea level and its

changing role in the Earth system.

OBJECTIVES

To describe how interactions between

the ice sheet and the oceans modify

globally important water masses such

as Antarctic Bottom Water a mass of

water created when relatively warm seawater contacts the ice shelf.

To understand geological and glaciological controls

on ice-stream flow.

To study the history of the ice sheet over the last 10

million years using volcanic evidence.

To understand the coupling between ice sheets and the

Earths uppermost layers during deglaciations.

To integrate real ice-sheet histories into ice-sheet

simulation models.

To use the models to produce policy-relevant predictions ofthe future effect of the West Antarctic Ice Sheet on global

sea level.


The programme draws together an experienced team of

oceanographers, geologists, geophysicists and numerical

modellers. We will study large-scale and local processes linking

ice with the environment. Oceanographers will make

observations from ships and through access holes drilled

through ice shelves up to 1000m thick.

Geophysicists will infer the physical conditions

beneath ice sheets using seismic techniques, radar

to map ice thickness, and aerial magnetic and

gravity survey techniques to map the geologicalstructure beneath the ice. Satellite data will be

used to measure contemporary changes in the most

dynamic and potentially unstable areas of

Antarctica, including the Pine Island / Thwaites

Glacier basin. Also, geologists will study the marks

left on the landscape by past ice sheets. Ice-sheet

computer simulations will underpin the entire

programme. A suite of simulations of marine ice-

sheet dynamics will include the most sophisticated

and realistic representations available.

Together, the integration of theory,

observations and modelling studies should

lead to a clearer understanding of the

history of the ice sheet and its future

evolution.

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Principal Investigator: Dr David VaughanEmail: [email protected]

A BAS Twin Otter aircraft flying over a crevasse field on the

Antarctic Peninsula

B Over 50 years of data were brought together to create a

map of the thickness of ice across Antarctica

A

B

PROJECTS

Response of the ice-shelf ocean

system to climate.

Late-Cenozoic history of the

Antarctic ice sheet.

Targeting ice stream onset regions

and under-ice systems.

Data and dynamics (Optimal

estimation of the state of the

Antarctic Ice Sheet).

Basin balance assessment and

synthesis.


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Using a kite near Halley research station

to carry instruments for measuring wind

speed and temperature

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The strong winds that blow from central Antarctica to

the coast can now be monitored all year round using

a doppler sodar. This machine measures wind

profiles up to 1 km from the surface using a

commercially available sodar (acoustic radar)

adapted for operation with minimal human interaction

by adding a radio transmitter and solar- and wind-

power units.

Micro-power automatic weather stations have been

our main system for atmospheric research for the

last 5 years. Designed in-house to cope with the

severe conditions of the Antarctic winter, these

comparatively simple, low-power machines are now

used in 13 Antarctic locations.



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A

Antarctic Climate

ProcessesTHE CHALLENGE

Antarctica is an integral part of the global climate system.

What happens there affects, and is affected by, global changes.

The global climate system may be thought of as a heat engine,

driven by heating in the tropics and cooling in the polar

regions. The cold end is as important scientifically as the

tropics, where most energy enters the system. Understanding

this system requires detailed knowledge of each component and

the mechanisms that couple them. Few of these processes are

well understood.

An improved description of how the Antarctic climate system

works will have many benefits. Variability in climate (year to

year or between decades) should be explained; future climates

should be predicted with greater confidence; and the evidence

of past climates be more easily interpreted. In the last 50 years

the Antarctic Peninsula has experienced a rapid and dramatic

warming not seen anywhere else on Earth. In Antarctica,

interactions between atmosphere, oceans, sea ice and land ice

introduce considerable complexity and sensitivity into the

system and present a major challenge to meteorologists and

climatologists.

OBJECTIVES

To determine the cause of the recent climatic warming

of the Antarctic Peninsula.

To establish how tropical and mid-latitude climate

variations are linked to Antarctic changes.

To provide best estimates of how the Antarctic climate

will change over this century.

To improve the representation of surface processes in

global and regional climate models.

To determine what processes control the katabatic windsproduced by the flow of cold dense air down a slope.

Uniquely, these winds blow over the entire continent and

control climate on a broad scale.


Understanding variability in the Antarctic climate requires the

synthesis of many observations of the atmosphere, oceans and

sea ice. These come

from various

sources

observations at

research stations,

measurements from

remote automatic

weather stationsand remotely

sensed data from

satellites. To bring

these data together

we use such indispensable tools as the atmospheric

reanalyses produced by the European Centre for Medium

Range Weather Forecasts. Major global and regional climate

models are also important tools, available through collaboration

with the Hadley Centre at the UK Met Office.

Halley station is ideal for studying the interaction of the

Antarctic atmosphere with the underlying ice sheet. At Halley,

making detailed measurement and using insight gained from

experiments with a

regional atmospheric

model, we will help

improve

representations of

Antarctic surface

processes for use in

global climate models.

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Principal Investigator: Dr John KingEmail:[email protected]

PROJECTS

Variability of the Antarctic climate

system.

Surface processes affecting

Antarctic climate.

A At Halley, a BAS scientist attaches a tethersonde,

which measures wind speed and temperatureprofiles up to 500 m altitude, to a kite line

B A doppler sodar system for measuring wind

profiles at a remote site. Power is provided by

solar panels and wind generator arrays

C Automatic weather station

B

B


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Aurora above the antenna system of

the Southern Hemisphere Auroral

Radar Experiment (SHARE)

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With nine international partners, we have developed

radar to research space weather. The Southern

Hemisphere Auroral Radar Experiment (SHARE),

located at Halley, sends high-frequency radio waves

to research flow patterns above the atmosphere,

scanning 4 million sq km every 2 minutes.

BAS engineers have designed a low-power device to

measure variations in the Earths magnetic field with

extreme precision every second in remote Antarctic

locations. These low-powered magnetometers are

light (so they can easily be deployed by aircraft) and

can store a years data. They are powered by solar

energy in summer, and battery in winter.



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Magnetic Reconnection, Substorms

and their ConsequenceTHE CHALLENGE

BAS scientists are attempting to predict space weather through

a better understanding of what happens when the magnetic

fields of the Earth and Sun meet. Electrical currents separate

these fields, but there is evidence that they join intermittently

by magnetic reconnection the primary means of introducing

particle and field energy from space into the Earths magnetic

field. This energy builds up and is released explosively,

creating a substorm rather like the violent release of energy

during earthquakes.

Multiple substorms lead to magnetic storms, which damage

spacecraft, disrupt power supplies, communications and

navigation

systems, and

hasten the loss

of height of

low-altitude

satellites.

Antarctica is

well placed to

collect

information

about magnetic

reconnection

events, as the pulses of these reconnections, and

substorms, are transmitted via the Earths magnetic field

to the polar regions.

Our challenge is to measure variations in the Earths magnetic

field and upper atmosphere, so we can understand and predict

when reconnection takes place and how energy is released in a

substorm.

OBJECTIVES

To measure the rate of magnetic reconnection on the day

side of the Earth.

To identify the most important factors that affect the rate

of magnetic reconnection.

To determine whether electromagnetic waves can initiate

magnetic reconnection by scattering charged particles.

To develop a database of substorms and use it to identify

the rules governing the storage and release of energy

during substorms.

To determine how magnetic field boundaries over the polar

cap, and electrical currents flowing along the magnetic

field, change during a substorm.

To calculate the rate at which particles in space are lost into

the Earths atmosphere, and are accelerated to very high

energies in the radiation belts by electromagnetic waves.


This ability to anticipate magnetic storms could help insurance,

telecommunications, and aerospace industries to better protect

spacecraft costing upwards of 200 million US dollars. BAS

scientists are members of European Space Agency and NASA

research teams that are launching spacecraft into regions where

reconnection and substorms occur.

We can synthesize and analyse key components of this complex

problem in a unique way by combining experiments using a

network of multi-million-pound radars in the Antarctic, data

from spacecraft, in-house theory and computer modelling.

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Principal Investigator:Dr Richard Horne

Email: [email protected]

PROJECTS

Magnetic Reconnection.

Substorms.

A Solar flare erupts from the Sun

B Halley research station from the airC Grey boxes indicate area of magnetic-reconnection (A)

and area where the release of energy is located (B).

These activities are monitored at the Earths poles. Physics Today, Vol. 54 No. 10

B

A

C


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Smoke plume following launch of Viper 3A

rocket from Rothera during UK/German

mesospheric temperature campaign

10

An iron lidar (laser radar): In a joint project with the

University of Illinois, a lidar at Rothera fires pulsed

laser beams into the atmosphere 100 km above

ground level. Each pulse, with the power of over

20,000 domestic light bulbs, excites iron atoms

originating from meteors burning up in the upper

atmosphere. These atoms then emit light. Two 40 cm

telescopes at Rothera detect this to give a

temperature profile of the mesosphere. This facility is

also used to study noctilucent clouds.

Images of atmospheric waves: A sensitive electronic

camera at Rothera (used in collaboration with Utah

State University) captures movie pictures of waves inthe atmosphere (~90 km high), traced by the faint

glow given off by molecules.



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A A recent phenomenon due to human activity: noctilucent

clouds visible at 83 km above Earth. Tom Eklund

B Aurora over Halley research station

C Assembling the aerials of the Imaging Riometer for

Ionospheric Studies (IRIS) which monitors cosmic radio

noise within the ionosphere

Geospace-atmosphere Transfer

FunctionsTHE CHALLENGE

Although the Earths lower atmosphere is warming, the upper

atmosphere will be cooled by increasing levels of greenhouse

gases. The greatest cooling may occur in the least explored

region of our atmosphere, below the level of orbiting satellites

and above the highest balloons, known as the mesosphere and

lower thermosphere (60-180 km altitude). This region connects

geospace where the atmospheres of the Sun and Earth

converge to the lower atmosphere.

This is a complex region of opposites where great surges ofenergy meet, carried downward by particles energised by the

solar wind which create dramatic auroral displays, and upward

from the troposphere

and stratosphere by

atmospheric tides and

waves creating the

Earths coldest

environment (-145C)

at 85 km altitude in

the mesopause.

In the past 30 years, there has been a steady increase in the

occurrence of noctilucent clouds formed by ice particles 83 kmabove Earth. Some 120 years ago no evidence of this

phenomenon existed. The rise may be due to lower

temperatures and more moisture created through increased

carbon dioxide and methane in lower altitudes. Noctilucent

clouds could prove very sensitive indicators of human activity

on Earth and in space.

BAS scientists aim to exploit the unique conditions in the

Antarctic upper atmosphere to improve our understanding of

global upper atmospheric circulation, temperature balance,

short-term variability, long-term changes, and how these

changes may be linked to human activity.

OBJECTIVES

To study the vertical coupling of energy linking upper and

lower atmospheres.

To identify what controls the extremely cold mesopause

temperatures around 85 km.

To confirm whether long-term change in the upper

atmosphere is present and, if so, whether it occurs

naturally or is linked to human activity.

To understand what causes differences between the

Antarctic and Arctic in the mesosphere and thermosphere.

To quantify the balance of energy at 60-150 km altitude from

solar, magnetospheric, meteorological and chemical sources.

To assess the effect of mesosphere and thermosphere

energetics and dynamics on people due to our increasing

use of space.


BAS has indirect evidence that the Antarctic thermosphere is

cooling. With the University of Bonn, we have used rockets to

make the first measurements of temperature in the Antarctic

mesosphere.

Using remote-sensing techniques upwards from the ground or

downwards from satellites, we measure temperatures, densities,

winds, waves and

energy input in the

mesosphere and lower

thermosphere. We aim

to quantify the

physics behind the

short-term variability

that acts as noisehiding global change

indicators. We will

also provide the first

full temperature profile for 0-115 km altitude over the Antarctic

Peninsula as a benchmark for estimates of global change.

BAS collaborates closely with overseas scientists and

participates in international satellite programmes that scan the

upper atmosphere.

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Principal Investigator: Dr Martin JarvisEmail: [email protected]

PROJECTS

Upward propagating waves and responding dynamics.

Change due to human activity and geospace

electrodynamics.

A

B

C


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Drilling strata samples for

palaeomagnetic analysis

12

We monitor the strength and direction of the Earths

magnetic field on board our ships using shipboard

three-component magnetometers (STCM). Using

commercially available components, BAS engineers

have constructed these devices to compensate for

the motion and magnetic field of ships. Unlike

conventional magnetometers, which must be towed

behind the ship, the BAS devices can operate in any

ice conditions, providing data in some of the worlds

most poorly sampled regions.

Hafnium as a geographic tracer: Isotope analysis of

the element hafnium gives important information on

where the mineral zircon, and the rock in which it

grew, originated geographically. Zircon is found in

many igneous, metamorphic and sedimentary rocks

and is useful in obtaining dates now geographical

contexts can be added.



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Antarctica in the Dynamic Global

Plate SystemTHE CHALLENGE

Antarctica was not always the cold and isolated continent it is

today. During the Jurassic period, 180 million years ago, it

formed the core of a supercontinent called Gondwana. When

Gondwana broke up, Africa, South America, India, Australia and

New Zealand in turn drifted away from the Antarctic core, and

the Southern Ocean was born. Continental margins and sea

floors show how this happened.

Large volumes of volcanic rock erupted early in this break-up.

Scientists have implicated mantle plumes (hot spots in theEarths subsurface) in the generation of this volcanism. But

they are unsure how many mantle plumes there were, or how

powerfully they contributed to fracturing Gondwana.

Much smaller pieces of continents, called terranes, can move

independently, in some cases for thousands of kilometres.

Exotic terranes arrived at the Antarctic Peninsula about 110

million years ago at the time a mountain chain was uplifted.

BAS scientists want to find out whether the mountain-building

forces changed the speed or direction of the fragmenting

Gondwana.

They need to understand how tectonic forces interacted to

produce the sequence of events during break-up. To do so, they

must identify the positions of the mantle plumes during break-

up and learn how and when the

mobile terranes collided.

OBJECTIVES

To understand the crustal

forces affecting Gondwana

at the time of break-up.

To understand the mantle processes forming the large

volcanic province in Dronning Maud Land and southern

Africa at that time.

To identify any mantle plumes involved in the eruption of

the volcanic rocks, and how they affected the subsequent

motion of the continents.

To identify the terranes found at the Antarctic Peninsula, and

discover whether any originated elsewhere in the Pacific.

To understand the origin of the mountain-building Palmer

Land event which deformed rocks of the Antarctic

Peninsula in the Jurassic.


The Antarctic holds unique evidence about how and why

Gondwana dispersed. BAS is well placed logistically and

scientifically to gather the field evidence.

The programme will use methods from many branches of

geosciences. We will interpret

satellite images to identify

surface features, and surveys

to determine deep crustal

structure. High-precision

dating tools will allow

accurate determination of

key age relationships.

We will assemble a computer-based Geographic Information System containing geological

data from the start of Gondwanas break-up to the present day

as the foundation of a computer-based model for the dispersal

of the fragments of Gondwana. It will combine on-land data

such as the age of volcanic events with shipboard geophysical

data on the structure of the sea floor. It will supply the most up-

to-date reconstructions and animations of the break-up of

Gondwana and the birth of the Southern Ocean.

13

Principal Investigator: Dr Phil LeatEmail: [email protected]

PROJECTS

Magmatism as a monitor of Gondwana break-up processes.

Superterranes in the Pacific-margin arc.

Demise of Gondwana and the birth of the Southern Ocean:

a computer model.

A Zircon crystal from the Antarctic Peninsula, with growth rings

showing points dated in millions of years ago

B Geology reconstructed for Gondwana at 150 million years

ago. Commission de la Carte Gologique du Monde

(http://www.ccgm.org)

C BAS Twin Otter aircraft equipped with under-wing radio-echo

antennae used in radio-echo/aero-gravity survey flights

A

C

B


16/28

Jellyfish under sea ice

14

The Antarctic Genomics Laboratory (ANGEL) is

fully equipped with all the tools required for

modern genetics. These include several

polymerase chain reaction (PCR) machines, used

to copy sections of DNA millions of times, and

equipment to separate fragments of DNA. This

facility is important to several BAS projects that

use genetics to characterise the diversity of

Antarctic ecosystems and the evolution of

Antarctic animals.

We have added a high-capacity DNA sequencing

and fingerprinting machine (Amersham

Pharmacia MegaBACE 500) and a DNA robot. This

will enable us to carry out large DNA-sequencing

projects to estimate relatedness among

populations of marine animals. We can use DNA

sequencing to look at how Antarctic animals and

plants have evolved in response to past climate

change. Fingerprinting is important to identify

stock structure in commercially exploited fish and

squid in the Southern Ocean. The robot will help

us investigate how Antarctic organisms adapt to a

harsh environment that is predicted to occur with

global warming.



17/28

Antarctic Biodiversity Past,

Present and FutureTHE CHALLENGE

Some Antarctic marine invertebrate species are surprisingly

diverse. Patterns of species diversity across the southern

hemispheres latitudes can differ greatly from those in the north.

Challenges include understanding the patterns in polar regions

and the processes that have influenced the evolution of species.

We are currently investigating whether polar species formed a

seed bed that recolonised our oceans following mass

extinctions associated with past climate change. Understanding

such prehistoric events will help us interpret the effects ofpresent climate change on the marine environment.

The challenge is to study how simple communities respond to

environmental changes such as global warming or increased

ultraviolet (UV) radiation. From this we can find the

fundamental links between patterns of species diversity and

ecosystem stability. This relationship is critical in understanding

how the extinction of plants and animals by human activity

influences the functioning of the whole polar community,

especially in the light of current global climate change.

OBJECTIVES To study the role of the polar regions in the structure and

formation of the larger-scale patterns of life on Earth.

To study patterns of polar/equatorial species diversity on

scales of time and space.

To clarify changes in polar biodiversity in relation to past

episodes of global climate change, shifts in ocean currents

and continental drift.

To investigate the evolution of polar marine animals and

its influence on the global ocean.

To test theoretical relationships between species diversityand community stability using Antarctic terrestrial and

freshwater ecosystems.

To characterise microbial / micro-organism diversity in a

range of West Antarctic sites using genetic and microscopy

techniques.

To establish a series of

laboratory experiments

to test how Antarctic

terrestrial and

freshwater communities

respond to changes in

temperature and UV

light.


The Antarctic biodiversity programme focuses on the sea.

Constructing a comprehensive database of living Antarctic

marine invertebrate

animals will allow

detailed studies of the

distribution of selected

groups in various

localities. Evolutionary

studies will begin on

well-studied groups suchas molluscs and will

employ state-of-the-art

genetic and

palaeontological

techniques.

In contrast, our investigations into the basic relationship

between ecosystem diversity and stability will focus on

terrestrial and freshwater

communities. We believe

we know enough to

reconstruct these

communities in the

laboratory. We will collect

a representative series of

micro-organisms,

including fungi, bacteria,

worms and mites, from

various West Antarctic

sites. We will then establish model soil and freshwater

communities of varying levels of complexity in the laboratory.

We will subject these experimental communities to alterations

in temperature and UV light to find which communities are

most susceptible or resistant to climate change.

15

Principal Investigator: Dr Alex David RogersEmail: [email protected]

PROJECTS

Patterns of marine biodiversity and the

origins of the Antarctic fauna.

Biodiversity and stability of climatically

disturbed Antarctic terrestrial and

freshwater food webs.

A Scanning electron microscopic view of an Antarctic

terrestrial miteB One netted catch showing the high diversity of

starfish in the Antarctic region

C The Microtron designed to predict the effects of

climate warming on Antarctic microbial food webs

B

C

A


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Lichen growing on Leonie

Island, Antarctic Peninsula

16

Microrespirometry:to measure respiration rates in

the larval stage in starfish, marine snails and bivalve

molluscs.

Phenylalanine flooding dose methodology:to

measure protein metabolism in marine invertebrates

at different seasons.

Differential scan calorimetry and ice nucleation

spectrometry: increasingly effective tools for

investigating the survival of freeze-tolerant andfreeze-avoiding organisms under extreme conditions.



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Life at the Edge Stresses

and ThresholdsTHE CHALLENGE

Few Antarctic plants and animals live on land. Communities

that do are ecologically simple, and often seem to cling at the

edge of existence. In contrast, in the sea, temperatures are low

but stable, with distinctly seasonal winter ice cover and

summer plankton blooms. Biological communities here are rich

and diverse.

Antarctic

marine animals

can live onlywithin narrow

temperature

ranges and

many die at

around +5C.

Key challenges

are to identify

the diverse forms

of life; and to investigate how organisms from bacteria

through fungi to fish and clams respond or adapt to major

environmental stresses, and how well they may survive the

predicted environmental warming.

Investigating Antarcticas extreme desert environment could be

relevant to the search for life on other planets. Using

experiments in Antarctica and on satellites, scientists are

attempting to compare communities in the most extreme

Antarctic conditions with reconstructions of possible former

Martian habitats.

OBJECTIVES

To quantify community diversity in high-latitude

Antarctic sites.

To assess how Antarctic land animals and community

structures change in response

to environmental stresses.

To evaluate the biological

flexibility of land and sea

animals identifying the

limits of their capacity to

survive change, and their

responses to stresses.

To identify species at risk in

future environmental changes.

To determine the effects of ultraviolet (UV) radiation on

blue-green algae in Antarctica and in Earth-orbit

experiments.

To identify the productive and protective pigments of

photosynthetic microorganisms.


We will exploit the excellent facilities for biological sciences at

the Bonner Laboratory at Rothera station, which will include

high-quality diving facilities and a spectroradiometer for

accurate measurement of UV. A new unit will be commissioned

at Rothera with up-to-date molecular and microbiological

systems to support the work. Terrestrial scientists will deploy

field equipment deep in Antarctica and have rapid access to

field sites by aircraft so they can accurately sample field

populations.

Detailed environmental

monitoring using

micrometeorological

stations will enable us

to link changes in

terrestrial populations

to environmental factors

such as snow cover,

temperature and

humidity, as well as UV.

Controlled-temperature

equipment will enable us to make detailed analyses of the near-

lethal effects of elevated temperature on physiology.

One of the programmes main strengths is its year-round access

to Antarctic field and diving sites, a capability few countries

possess. We will use it to evaluate seasonal changes in plant

and animal activity, maintenance of seabed populations and

physical disturbance from ice.

17

Principal Investigator: Professor Lloyd PeckEmail: [email protected]

PROJECTS

Patterns of marine biodiversity andthe origins of the Antarctic fauna.

Biodiversity and stability of

climatically disturbed Antarctic

terrestrial and freshwater food webs.

A BAS diver inspecting benthic (sea bottom)

community under sea ice near Rothera

B Acrylic screens used to alter ultraviolet

radiation (UV) received by Antarctic mosses

and liverwortsC Antarctic plunderfish resting on sponge

A

B

C


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Ocean full of icebergs, brash ice and

bergy bits near the Antarctic Peninsula

18

BAS marine biologists have helped to lead animal

instrumentation technology for 20 years. A recent

development has been electronic geolocatorsthat

track the position of an animal. Capable of recording

for eight years, this 9 g micro logger calculates

latitude and longitude from light levels. A wet/dry

sensor records time spent at sea.

Understanding the movements of krill is key to this

programme. BAS scientists use commercially

available satellite driftersto follow the currents atthe depth where krill live. These devices consist

of a surface buoy with satellite transmitter and

positioning device, anchored to a drogue

positioned 20 m or 50 m below the surface.



21/28

A BAS biologist sorts krill samples at BAS CambridgeB BAS biologist studies macaroni penguins on Bird Island

C A female Antarctic fur seal with a satellite transmitter,

time-depth recorder and VHF radio transmitter, which

allows scientists to study the seals behaviour while

foraging at sea

Dynamics and Management of

Ocean EcosystemsTHE CHALLENGE

In the oceans, interactive ecological systems play a key role in

determining the Earths climate. Antarctica is surrounded by the

Southern Ocean, which connects the Atlantic, Indian and

Pacific Oceans. Although cold and often ice-covered,

biologically the Southern Ocean is extremely rich.

Changes in the Antarctic environment affect the biological

communities that live in this ocean in ways we do not fully

understand.

The Southern Ocean has a history of uncontrolled exploitation.To manage the globally significant communities of finfish, squid

and krill, and avoid future

long-term damage from

over-fishing, scientific data

are needed.

The challenge for

environmental scientists is

to predict how human

activity and climate

changes will affect this

environment and how

biological communities will

respond. To shape our

future world, scientists

need to study how ocean

ecosystems work.

OBJECTIVES

To develop a spatial analysis of how Southern Ocean

ecosystems work.

To quantify the importance of ocean currents in the transport

of biological material in Southern Ocean food-webs.

To examine how Southern Ocean ecosystems respond to

variability and change, focusing on links between krill and

predators.

To develop an ecosystem approach to the management of

Southern Ocean fisheries.


BAS research has already led to major new insights into how

large-scale ecosystems function. New research will concentrate

on the Scotia Sea, particularly the food-web and fishery

dynamics around South Georgia. The programme will use the

sampling facilities on RRSJames Clark Ross, which include

vertical profiling for measuring temperature and salinity from

the surface to the ocean bed; sensory and acoustic systems for

measuring ocean currents and mapping the distribution of

plankton, fish and squid; and nets for biological specimens.

The land-based studies will take place at Bird Island, South

Georgia. Year-round study of seabirds (penguins and albatross)

and marine mammals (fur seals) will allow us to assess breeding

performance, growth, diet and foraging. We will go on

developing satellite-tracking capabilities to link the land-based

predator studies to the ship-based ocean analyses.

The entire programme will integrate interdisciplinary studies in

modelling populations and food webs. With other BAS

programmes and independently funded projects, it will

contribute to the development of management principles withininternational conventions.

19

Principal Investigator: Dr Eugene MurphyEmail: [email protected]

PROJECTS

Dynamics of pelagic organisms in

Southern Ocean ecosystems.

Dynamics of predators and fisheries

in Southern Ocean ecosystems.

A

B

C


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Independent Projects and

Medical ResearchTHE CHALLENGES

Our science programme also includes medical research as well as

a small number of projects that may entail higher risk in terms

of outcomes.

OBJECTIVES

To understand

albatross lifestyles:

their ranges,

migrations andvulnerability, and

especially how to

reduce death rates

from the use of

longline fishing.

To detect small changes in glaciers to study their internal

and basal structure, what controls their movement, and

how they were formed.

To examine the interactions between oceanography and the

movements of short-lived squid populations in response to

major environmental changes.

To independently assess a battery of psychological tests for

workers in Antarctica so that all nations can take a

standardized approach.

To understand the carriage and transmission of co-existing

(Escherichia coli) strains in humans.

To show how adapting to shift work affects hormonal

changes and body rhythms, and to link hormonal and

metabolic responses to food intake.


Using data from the worlds best long-

term study on albatross, we can show

that fishery practices cause the

albatross population to decline, a

point that was originally disputed

by tuna commissions and fisheries

managers.

Contact: Higher Predators, Prof

John Croxall, [email protected]

The dynamics and structure of Antarctic ice

is complex. Flying an airborne polarimetric synthetic aperture

radar (SAR) capable of imaging the base of a glacier, will

enable us to detect small changes in glaciers, to understand

better their internal and basal structure and the processes that

control their movement.

Contact: Glacier Geophysics, Dr Chris Doake, [email protected]

To examine the dynamics of short-lived squid, we will use a new

source of remotely sensed imagery (the US Defence

Meteorological Satellite Program). This will help us collate

oceanographic data with data from tracking the movements of

squid fishing fleets, and with catch/effort data from the fisheries.

Contact: Squid Biology, Prof Paul Rodhouse, [email protected]

The assessment of various psychological tests derived from

NASA and US Polar stations, Canadian weather stations and

other remote situations, and which are used in the selection of

personnel who work in the Antarctic. This assessment of the

various tests is a new project. We compare the performance

that was predicted by various tests on staff with their actual

performance.

Contact: BAS Medical Unit, Dr Iain Grant,

[email protected]

Escherichia coli (E. coli) is a bacterium that normally lives in

animal and human intestines. There are many strains and most

are harmless. Some however cause severe illness. The

transmission of E. colibetween individuals is difficult to

measure, especially identifying particular strains and their

abundance. Methods of molecular enumeration were developed

to identify E. colistrains in staff spending the winter atRothera and Halley and to study their frequency, mutation rates

and routes of dispersal between individuals.

Contact: University of Aberdeen, Dr Ken Forbes,

[email protected]

Almost 20% of the UK

workforce is involved in

shift work, an activity

that has a known

increased likelihood of

heart disease. The long

dark winter and unusualenvironment of the

Antarctica provides the

opportunity to examine

the links between night-shift work and disease. Controlled

studies at Halley have shown, for the first time, that before

shift workers adapt, they react to meals taken during a night

shift by increased fat intolerance and insulin resistance. This

conclusion has significant implications for healthcare systems

in many industries.

Contact: University of Surrey, Prof Jo Arendt,

[email protected]

20

A Pair of grey-headed albatross on Bird Island

B The route taken by a female grey-headed albatross during her

year off between breeding attempts. She circumnavigated the

globe twice before returning to Bird Island to breed

C Walking back to Halley station in a 30 knot wind

A

B

C


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The Antarctic Funding InitiativeThe Antarctic Funding Initiative (AFI) encourages the broadest

possible participation in Antarctic field-based research. 1.5

million a year (about 20% of the BAS science budget) is

available to support UK scientists from universities and other

research organisations to do fieldwork using BAS facilities and

logistics in the Antarctic. The following are examples of AFI

projects from the 29 programmes funded so far:

Chemistry of the Antarctic atmosphereand the interface with snow

This major initiative is a new collaboration between BAS and

partners from four UK universities to explore the chemistry of a

region of the atmosphere up to 2 km from ground level. A

year-round study of the chemistry of this layer will first take

place in 2003, using state-of-the-art instruments at the CleanAir Sector Laboratory at Halley.

History of the George VI Ice Shelf

The project will produce climate records from sediment cores

taken from lakes near the George VI Ice Shelf, Antarctica.

Enhancing an existing BAS programme, scientists from the

Universities of Durham and Edinburgh, with BAS partners, will

find out whether the George VI Ice Shelf disappeared during

past warm periods. The main field season for drilling the lake

sediment cores was in 2001/02.

Enhanced flow inside the Antarctic ice sheet

This project develops an existing collaboration between the

University of Bristol and BAS, which has suggested that iceflow in the interior of Antarctica is far more complex than

previously thought. AFI funding has made possible a joint field

programme in 2001/02 using BAS radio echo-sounding

equipment to investigate the properties of the ice in a region

of faster-flowing ice.

Genetic variation in Antarctic lichens

This University of Nottingham programme is the first study of

population genetics in Antarctic lichen. Using the latest

technologies in molecular biology developed at the University,

it will discover genetic variation in selected lichen species.

Several sampling sites covering a wide range of locations were

visited during the 2001/02 field season.

21

Highlights of AFI projects

Discovery of new fossil plants in Antarctica.

Installation of new atmospheric imaging devices.

Using kite-borne instruments to measure ice nuclei.

Measuring krill requirements of predators.

A Geological field camp funded by AFI at Seymour Island

B Locations of AFI-funded fieldwork projects, Rounds 1-4

C AFI projects cover a wide range of topics, from biology to

atmospheric sciences

B

C

A


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Scientific Collaboration in the UK

and WorldwideSome science programmes are so large in concept that no one

country can wholly fund them, therefore coordination through

international programmes, funding and participation are

essential. Deep drilling of ice and marine sediments and

geospace-related research are prime examples.

European funding for Antarctic research has led to the

development of strong ties between European scientists

(particularly from The Netherlands and Germany) and beyond

(notably the USA), and

large multinational

programmes have

emerged to tackle issues

of highest priority.

These scientists

strengthen the

intellectual capacity of

the programmes through

visiting the UK and

taking part in our Antarctic operations. Reciprocal visits

provide cost-free access to other countries logistics. Currently

we undertake joint research projects with over 40 UK

universities, and many of the scientists involved may visit the

Antarctic.

International programmes in which we participate are

devised through the Scientific Committee on Antarctic Research

(SCAR). British scientists take a very active part in SCARs

discipline-based Working Groups and are prominent in its

Groups of Specialists, which provide independent advice.

The international forum for Antarctic operators is the Council of

Managers of National Antarctic Programmes (COMNAP), in

which, since its outset, we have played an important role.

COMNAP committees decide on environmental management,

emergency planning etc.

The European Polar Board (EPB), drawn from 22 organisations,

encourages the development of new initiatives and offers

opportunities to share expensive facilities. We have been

represented on its Executive Committee since its inception in 1995.

COLLABORATIVE USE OF TECHNOLOGY

National and international technological collaboration is crucial

for the success of our science programmes.

VIBROCORER: To understand the geology of the seafloor, BAS

scientists use the British Geological Societys rock drill, the

vibrocorer. This is a microprocessor-controlled, electro-

hydraulically operated, seabed-coring tool which can collect a

wide range of sediment and rock types. It is deployed via a

special signal/power/hoist cable 2500 m long.

AUTOSUB: NERCs remotely operated submarine Autosub is

sent under Antarctic ice shelves to study the ice/ocean

interaction and the dynamics of the ice. It is being fitted with

a special sonar device to detect features in the ice. The autosub

has enabled us to collect data on the distribution of krill

beneath sea ice and on sea ice thickness. For the first time we

can compare the abundance and distribution of krill beneath sea

ice and in open water. We aim to find evidence of whether the

extent of sea ice controls the size of krill populations. Sponsors

for these missions include the Marine Laboratory in Aberdeen,

the Southampton Oceanography Centre, BAS, and NERC.

EARTH OBSERVATION SATELLITE: In 2002 the ENVISAT Earth

observation satellite was launched. We will use data from

ENVISAT to measure ice flows and monitor ozone levels.

SEA-FLOOR PROFILING: BAS, in collaboration with Bristol

University, can now observe the sea-floor in unprecedented

detail using multibeam sonar and sub-bottom profilers fitted to

the RRSJames Clark Ross.

22

A BGS vibrocorer being recovered from RRS

James Clark Rossoff James Ross Island

B European field camp at Halley station

C Autosub 2 onboard RRS James Clark Ross

A

B

C


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Supporting Antarctic Science

InfrastructureTHE CHALLENGE

Going to work in the white laboratory requires a great deal of

support from specialist operations and a range of complex

technologies. Modern, appropriate, safe and cost-effective

logistics are essential to achieving scientific goals in the

Antarctic. Research needs must match the operational means to

achieve them. Scientific programmes and the logistics to

support them are planned and executed from BAS in Cambridge.

Over the years, BAS has developed an efficient and technically

advanced logistics infrastructure. Ice-strengthened ships, RRSJames Clark Ross and RRS Ernest Shackleton, and a fleet of five

aircraft support the five main Antarctic research stations. Ships

and aircraft are equipped with a range of technology; the

stations are wired for satellite communications and have

computer networks.

DELIVERING THE NEEDS OF SCIENCE

Airborne science

Our Twin Otter and

Dash-7 aircraft are

equipped with

sophisticated

technology to enable

us to make precise

measurements of

Earths magnetic field

in remote Antarctic

locations and use state-of-the-art radar to measure the

roughness of the ground beneath glaciers, ice flow and

layers in the ice sheet.

Ship-borne science

Using a range of specialist equipment, we do valuable

geophysical and biological research from laboratories aboardRRSJames Clark Ross. This helps us investigate the formation

of the Earths crust beneath the ocean, study ocean currents

and assess the potential impact of commercial fishing in the

Southern Ocean.

Technology

Modern scientific research inevitably relies on technology.

Hostile environments, such as the polar regions, pose

significant challenges for the design engineer. Equipment must

above all be reliable, especially where it cannot be regularly

serviced. For fieldwork we must also consider its power, weight

and ability to survive transport over rugged terrain. We employa skilled engineering team whose total technical support spans

the design, construction, installation and operation of

specialist equipment.

Mapping and Geographic Information Centre (MAGIC)

Detailed maps to analyse results and plan activities are

essential. Because of the hostile environment and the vast

areas to be covered, Antarctica is poorly mapped compared with

the rest of the world. To support BAS science and operations,

our mapping and geographic information specialists often

prepare new maps using aerial photographs, survey information

and satellite images.

Information for creating maps is usually sparse, so we develop

new techniques that use limited data. We use computers to

compile maps, and store the results in digital databases. Wemaintain a digital map for the whole of Antarctica on behalf of

the Scientific Committee on Antarctic Research (SCAR).

23

A Map of Bird Island created by BAS MAGIC

B The air facility at Rothera, with hangar and fuel store in

the background

C Routes taken by BAS ship and aircraft to get to

Antarctica

A

C

B


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24

Science and Society Talking about

Antarctic ScienceTHE CHALLENGE

Dialogue with various audiences is critically important to BASas our research produces more information about the Antarcticand its role in globally important issues such as climatechange, the ozone hole, sustainable management of theSouthern Ocean ecosystem, and environmental conservation.

We want to increasepublic interest andconfidence in Antarcticscience and scientists

through a series ofScience and Societyinitiatives. We aim topresent clear andunambiguousinformation about ourwork to the public, andwillingly engage indebates and discussionsabout Antarctica andthe global environment.

We are committed togiving the public journalists, young people, teachers,

taxpayers and policy-makers alike access to Antarcticinformation and data.

OBJECTIVES

To reach a wide range of people through positive

relations with the media.

To organise visits to Cambridge and Antarctica for

journalists.

To collaborate with documentary film-makers.

To write or prepare articles for magazines and

newspapers, and material for radio and TV programmes. To provide information on science and operations through

a public information service, publications, events and the

BAS website.

To prepare educational material for teachers,

schoolchildren and the general public.

To organise outreach activities with BAS scientists.

To participate in national and international science

festivals, advise museums and prepare exhibitions

for various events.

To improve access through an Artists and Writers

programme.

DELIVERING THE DIALOGUE

We recognize the role that the media can play incommunicating our work worldwide. The BAS Press Office issuespress releases announcing findings from new research orsignificant events, and can put journalists in touch withscientists and support staff for information on any of our

research and operations. Stunning images, stills andbroadcast-quality video, shot by our professionalcameramen/photographers, are available for bona fidejournalists and broadcasters.

Educational initiatives include an award-winning AntarcticSchools Pack for GCSE and A-level geography students,written by our staff (with help from an educationalconsultant) and was funded and published by the Foreignand Commonwealth Office. A free copy was sent to all UKsecondary schools. The pack received a GeographyAssociation Gold Award.

Antarctic Waves is a multi-media music compositiontoolkit for GCSE and A-level music students created byBAS and multi-media specialists Braunarts. It is inspiredby Sir Peter Maxwell Davies Antarctic Symphony,commissioned by the Philharmonia Orchestra and BAS.For the first time, music students have access to Antarctic

scientific data to create music inspired by global issues such asclimate change and ozone depletion.

In a bid to create greater access to the continent, BASlaunched the Artists and Writers Programme in 2001. Theinitiative aims to bridgethe cultural gapbetween science andthe arts. Scholars fromthe visual arts, writing,history, poetry, dramaand music have theopportunity toexperience the Antarctic

and the scientificresearch carried outthere firsthand, and toportray its uniquefeatures through theirchosen medium.

One of our key strengths is how scientists and other supportstaff take part in various local and regional outreachprogrammes. Their topics range from living and working in theAntarctic to details of their particular scientific or operationalduties. About one-third of the staff at Cambridge volunteertheir time to give talks and demonstrations to schools, clubs

and societies.

Day-to-day activities on the Antarctic stations are exciting andprompt many emails and telephone enquiries. A totally differentway of life is brought alive in the diary entries found on theBAS website from staff aboard our ships and on the Antarcticstations.

Head of Press, Public Relations & EducationSection: Linda Capper

Email: [email protected]

A BAS website at www.antarctica.ac.uk

B Question time for a BAS scientist during the British

Associations Festival of Science

B

A


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13Front cover BAS field camp on Alexander Island

Published by the British Antarctic Survey, Cambridge.

Designed by Candy Sorrell (NERC) & Mark Howlett.

Printed by Piggott Printers Limited on Revive Silk from 75%

recycled pulp of which 35% is post-consumer waste.

ISBN 1855312123

Feedback and further information

We welcome your feedback and comments on thisdocument. These should be addressed to:Professor Chris Rapley, DirectorBritish Antarctic SurveyHigh Cross, Madingley Road, Cambridge CB3 0ET, UK.

For further information about BAS, please visit ourwebsite at www.antarctica.ac.uk

Map of Antarctic showing the scientific stations in 2001

(all year, nationality in parentheses)


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