answer key: dictionaries and other word...

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Answer Key: Dictionaries and Other

Word References

English 11A Unit 1

Name _________________________________________ Date____________________________

Objective In this lesson you will use general dictionaries, specialized dictionaries, thesauri, histories of language, books of quotations, and other related references as needed. Links Roget’s II: The New Thesaurus http://redirect.platoweb.com/338147Merriam Webster OnLine http://redirect.platoweb.com/339371OneLook Dictionary Search http://redirect.platoweb.com/59389Online Etymology Dictionary http://redirect.platoweb.com/337805Bartleby’s Quotations http://redirect.platoweb.com/338058 Activities 1. Writers and researchers use a wide variety of resources to locate information about words and

the English language. To find the right tool for each job, you first need to determine your purpose and the type of information that best fits your needs. Today, you will find that most reference sources are available in an electronic form on the Internet, as well as in book form in the library or your classroom. Review this list of reference sources:

• A dictionary is a book or other resource that lists the words of a language in alphabetical

order, giving their meanings, pronunciations, spellings, parts of speech, etymologies, etc. Go to “Online Etymology Dictionary” and “Etymologies” to access two online dictionaries.

• A thesaurus is a book that lists synonyms, or words that mean the same thing, for other words. You can find an online thesaurus online thesaurus.

• For other specialized dictionaries, access

o “Etymologies” to locate information about word origins (etymology). o Bartleby’s Quotations to get a searchable database of popular quotations, quotations of

the day, and more. o “OneLook” to find acronyms (words formed from the first letters of multi-word names or

terms, such as FBI), rhymes, translations, slang, specialized subject vocabulary, and more.

http://education.yahoo.com/reference/thesaurus/

http://www.m-w.com/

http://www.onelook.com/

http://www.etymonline.com/

http://www.bartleby.com/quotations/

http://www.m-w.com/


http://education.yahoo.com/reference/thesaurus/


http://www.bartleby.com/quotations/

Using the resources listed above, or those in your classroom or library, locate the following information about the word can. Write your answers, and the resources used to locate each answer, in this chart.

The Word can Your Answer Resource(s) Used Definition(s) Possible answers include: a cylindrical

vessel, a container or jar, to be able to doPossible answers include: dictionary

Etymology Middle English canne, from Old English; akin to Old High German channa

Possible answers include: dictionary, etymology dictionary

Synonym(s) Possible answers include: able, preserve, dismiss, terminate

Possible answers include: thesaurus, dictionary

Slang Possible answers include: to end the employment of, a place for the confinement of persons in lawful detention

Possible answers include: dictionary, thesaurus

Quotation(s) containing the word can

Possible answers include: one can never read all the books in the world, nor travel all its roads; we ought to do our neighbor all the good we can.

Possible answers include: Bartleby’s Quotations

Acronym(s) Possible answers include: WAC (Women’s Army Corps); OPEC (Organization of Petroleum Exporting Countries); ASAP (as soon as possible)

Possible answers include: “OneLook”

2. Etymology is the history of a word, shown by tracing its development from one language to

another. Look at this etymology of the word mouse:




Middle English, from Old English mus; akin to Old High German mus mouse, Latin mus, Greek mys mouse, muscle

The etymology shows that the word mouse can be traced back to as early as the Greek word for mouse or muscle mys, then to the Old English, Old High German, and Latin word mus, and finally to its present form mouse in Middle English.

The etymology shows that the word mouse can be traced back to as early as the Greek word for mouse or muscle mys, then to the Old English, Old High German, and Latin word mus, and finally to its present form mouse in Middle English. Choose three words that you would like to know more about and write them in the chart below. Then use a dictionary and an etymology dictionary to record etymology information for each word. An example has been completed for you.

Choose three words that you would like to know more about and write them in the chart below. Then use a dictionary and an etymology dictionary to record etymology information for each word. An example has been completed for you.

Word Dictionary Etymology Dictionary code Middle English, from Middle French,

from Latin caudex, codex trunk of a tree, document formed originally from wooden tablets

1303, from O.Fr. code system of laws, from L. codex, earlier caudex book, book of laws, lit. “tree trunk,” hence, wooden tablet for writing. The sense in “secret code” is 1808. Codify first attested c.1800.

Answers will vary depending on the words selected by students.






How is the etymological information about the words you selected different in each of these two resources? How is the information similar? Which resource provides a greater depth of


http://www.m-w.com/

information about the words you selected? In what situations would you prefer to use a dictionary to research a word? Why? In what situations would you choose an etymology dictionary? Why? Record your answers to these questions in the space provided.

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Answers will vary.

3. Next, select an unknown or interesting word from a novel or story that you have read. Plan a “word study” by researching the following information about the word, using the most appropriate reference resources:

• A definition or definitions • Etymology • Synonyms • Popular quotations using the word • Slang usage • Other interesting information you locate


Use the space below to take notes. (Answers will vary.)

Your Word: __________________________________________

Definition(s)

Etymology

Synonym(s)

Quotation(s)

Slang

Other: _____________

After gathering information about your word, prepare a presentation. Create a poster or other visuals to make your presentation lively and interesting. If possible, consider a multimedia presentation using PowerPoint or other presentation software.



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Answer Key: Literary Forms

and Techniques

English 11A Unit 1

Name _________________________________________ Date____________________________

Objectives In this lesson you will: • establish and adjust purpose for reading such as to find out, to understand, to interpret, to enjoy,

and to solve problems • understand literary forms and terms: dialogue, drama, tragedy/comedy, comic relief, author,

protagonist, antagonist, dialect, biography, myth, tall tale, structure in poetry, epic, ballad, paradox, and analogy

• analyze characteristics of subgenres (e.g., satire, parody, allegory, pastoral) that are used in poetry, prose, plays, novels, short stories, essays, and other basic genres

• identify and analyze the techniques of fiction: irony, foreshadowing, symbolism, flashback, metaphor, personification, epiphany, oxymoron, and dialect

Links Glossary of Literary Terms http://redirect.platoweb.com/339372Glossary of Poetic Terms http://redirect.platoweb.com/71014The Academy of American Poets http://redirect.platoweb.com/58865 Activities 1. We all may read many different kinds of texts for many different reasons. Perhaps we might

read the newspaper for current events information, magazines that appeal to our special interests in fitness or photography, letters that help us keep in touch with the lives of our loved ones, or biographies that teach us about real people we would like to emulate. Like these reading materials, literary forms such as novels, poems, plays, and essays also appeal to our desire to understand and interpret the world. We may also read literature because we enjoy imagining other people’s lives, learning about different cultures and time periods, or exploring challenging and innovative forms that use our familiar language in new ways. What do you read, and why do you read it? Write your thoughts in the space provided.

Answers will vary.

http://www.gale.com/free_resources/glossary/index.htm

http://www.poeticbyway.com/glossary.html

http://www.poets.org/

2. Some people include only works of creative writing (e.g., poetry, novels, and plays) in their definition of “literature.” Others include all manner of written texts (e.g., personal letters, newspapers, recipe books) in their definition of this term. What do you call “literature” and why? Write your thoughts in the space provided.

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Answers will vary. 3. Literary terms give us the vocabulary to talk about the features of different works we read.

Some terms primarily have to do with literature written for the stage. See if you can match the terms below with their correct definitions. Access “Glossary of Terms” to check your answers and learn more about each term. Add notes of interest to the given definitions and make any corrections to your matching. Then, use the third column in the chart to list examples of works you have read that illustrate or contain examples of each listed term. Notice that many of these terms apply as well to non-dramatic works.

Terms: antagonist, comedy, comic relief, dialogue, drama, protagonist, tragedy

Term Definition Literary Examples dialogue conversation Answers will vary.

drama a written work that tells a story, usually involving conflict

Answers will vary.

tragedy a written work that tells the story of a heroic character who, because of a tragic flaw, causes some disastrous event to befall him or her

Answers will vary.

comedy a written work that tells a humorous story

Answers will vary.



Term Definition Literary Examples comic relief a brief scene in a written work that

allows the reader a moment of amusement to offset the work’s serious tone

Answers will vary.

protagonist the main character in a work Answers will vary.

antagonist a character who creates conflict in a work

Answers will vary.

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4. Select a scene from a play that you have read recently. Take notes on whether you would classify the play as a drama, tragedy, or comedy and why. Locate the protagonist and/or antagonist in the scene. What is it about that person’s words (or actions, as indicated in the stage directions) that identifies him or her as a protagonist or antagonist? Answers will vary depending on the scene and play chosen by the student, but the student

should be able to correctly classify the play as a drama, tragedy, or comedy, explaining why

and should be able to identify the protagonist and/or antagonist in the scene, explaining how

the person’s words and actions identify him or her as the protagonist or antagonist.

By yourself, or with a partner, try to write a dialogue between these characters; imagine them talking about some new subject (not necessarily related to the play), but remain as true as you can to their characters. As you work, think about the role of spoken language in a work of literature and explain how the choices you have made (in vocabulary, tone, and mood) reflect the personality of the speaker. Answers will vary.


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5. Other literary terms reflect aspects of different poetic forms and features. Go to Glossary of Poetic Terms to review the features of the epic poem and the ballad and to consider why a poet (or a writer of other genres) might incorporate a paradox or analogy into his or her work. Write your thoughts in the space provided. Answers will vary.

6. Access “Poets” and browse poems by a variety of poets (check out the Spotlight poem or the list of most popular poets if you need help deciding where to begin). Select a poem you like and print it or copy it by hand. Read the poem out loud (or listen to it on the web site’s Listening Booth). Now, set a timer for ten minutes and write in the margins of your printout everything you can think about the poem and its images, language, and structure. Ask questions, say what you like about a particular image or line, and circle words you do not know or that the poet is using in a way that is new to you. If feasible, trade the poem you have selected and all you have written with a partner. See if you can help each other answer some of the questions you each have asked, and, if you can, find together some of the poetic features you have been studying. If it is not feasible to trade, save your notes to review during a more formal study of poetry later in the semester.

7. Literature takes many forms or genres (e.g., poetry, novels, short stories, essays, plays) and

within those forms, authors use subgenres to achieve their desired effects. Review some of the literary forms used by authors and think about works you have read that employ those forms. Remember to consider both fictional and non-fictional works.

• Satire is a form of writing that mocks a particular situation. The author of a satire

usually intends to point out the flaws of its subject in a sometimes humorous but more often scornful way.

• Parody, a form of satire, is an imitation of another piece of writing, either to amuse the reader or to mock something. When writing parody, an author imitates the style, language, and/or rhythm of the original work.


http://www.poeticbyway.com/glossary.html

http://www.poets.org/

• Allegory is a technique in which an author conveys an abstract theme, moral, or concept through the use of symbolism. Fables are one form of allegory.

• Pastoral is a type of writing in which all the characters and activity have to do with rustic (i.e., rural) settings.

• Biography is a work that tells the story of a life in whole or in part. • Myth is a narrative story passed on from generation to generation, closely associated

with cultural and religious traditions. Usually, the primary purpose of a myth is to describe the origins of something or explain natural phenomena.

• Tall tale is a type of narrative that includes a “larger than life” or “superhuman” hero. Tall tales usually involve outlandish situations and humorous solutions. Exaggeration is a primary element in a tall tale.

8. Visit “Glossary of Terms” again to learn more about each form described directly above. Then,

select one of the forms and find examples of it in works you are reading or have read. What are the techniques the author uses to create the desired effect? Find at least three examples of the author’s use of words, phrases, symbols, or rhyme and rhythm. In the space below explain the style and how the author achieves that style.

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Answers will vary depending upon which style is selected.



9. Next, use the glossary and/or a dictionary to complete the chart below. For each technique you

explore, list a work or a type of work in which you have seen the technique or might expect to see it.

Technique Definition Where might you see it?

Dialect a variety of language characterized by regional accents and the use of idiomatic expressions and grammatical conventions

Answers will vary.

Epiphany a revealing scene or moment, usually brought about by something that seems minor

Answers will vary.

Flashback reference back to a previous event in the chronology of a story

Answers will vary.

Foreshadowing an indication or hint at a future event, usually used to build suspense or set up the explanation for a later event

Answers will vary.

Irony a use of language or a situation in which the intended meaning is the opposite of what is stated

Answers will vary.

Metaphor a figure of speech in which a comparison of two things or ideas is made, without using the words “like” or “as,” so that the reader must draw the comparison for him- or herself

Answers will vary.

Oxymoron a description or phrase that combines contradictory words (e.g., “jumbo shrimp”)

Answers will vary.

Personification a technique of bestowing human qualities on an inanimate object, animal, or abstract idea

Answers will vary.


Technique Definition Where might you see it? Symbolism the use of one object or idea to

represent another

Answers will vary.

10. Throughout this lesson, it may have occurred to you that television and movies employ

techniques similar to those used in works of literature. Flashback, foreshadowing, personification, and symbolism are all prevalent in works written for the small screen and the big screen (especially, but not exclusively, in dramas and horror films). Similarly, you might find examples of parody, dialect, the epic, protagonists, and antagonists in some of your favorite films or television shows. Try to list all of the examples you can think of where literary terms apply to these other media. Use additional paper as necessary.

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Answer Key: Early American Literature

(to 1800)

English 11A Unit 1

Name _________________________________________ Date____________________________

Part 1: Read and Compare Objectives In this part of the lesson you will:

• read selections by American authors (to 1800) • recognize the style of selected American authors • compare content and literary form among several selections of anthologized literature • read in varied sources, such as diaries, journals, textbooks, maps, newspapers, letters,

speeches, memoranda, and electronic texts Links Find Articles http://findarticles.com/ Library of Congress http://www.loc.gov/index.html Project Gutenberg http://www.gutenberg.org/wiki/Main_Page Activities 1. Read from your American literature anthology (e.g., Volume A of Norton or Heath) the excerpts

of Colonial Governor William Bradford’s Of Plymouth Plantation, written in 1630–50 and published in 1856. Of Plymouth Plantation is Bradford’s historical account of the Pilgrims’ journey to and settlement of Plymouth, Massachusetts, from 1621–1646. The following excerpts are recommended for this activity: Book 1, Chapter IV, Showing the Reasons and Causes of Their Removal; Book 1, Chapter IX, Of Their Voyage and How They Passed the Sea, and Their Safe Arrival at Cape Cod; Book I, Chapter X, Showing How They Sought Out a Place of Habitation, and What Befell Them Thereabout; and/or Book II, Chapter XI, The Remainder of Anno 1620 [The Mayflower Compact]. As you are reading, use the chart below to facilitate active note-taking by analyzing at least five passages (two or three paragraphs each). Pay attention to both content (e.g., descriptions of the environment and people, recurring beliefs, Bradford’s own commentary about the events he narrates) and writing style (e.g., Bradford’s word choice, tone, use (or not) of figurative/poetic language).

http://www.findarticles.com/

http://www.loc.gov/index.html

http://www.gutenberg.org/

Passage Characteristics:

Content Characteristics:

Style Explanation

Example from Book I, Chapter X (from Norton Anthology): “But though this had been a day and night of much trouble and danger unto them, yet God gave them a morning of comfort . . .”

Example: Refers to hardships such as weather, starvation, and the Puritans’ encounters with Nauset Indians. Recurring references to God and His providence. A narrated unfolding of real events.

Example: Formal diction/word choice (e.g., “as usually He doth”). Third-person point of view.

Example: This passage illustrates Bradford’s historical account of the Puritans as they settled along the Massachusetts coast. Bradford’s strong belief in God and His manifestation in the Pilgrims’ daily lives is evidenced by his repeated references to God and His mercy and providence.

Passage #1: Answers will vary depending on excerpt chosen.

Answers will vary depending on excerpt chosen.



Passage Characteristics: Characteristics: Explanation Content Style

Passage #2:




Passage #3: Answers will vary depending on excerpt chosen.



Passage #4:





Passage Characteristics: Characteristics: Explanation

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Content Style Passage #5: Answers will vary

depending on excerpt chosen.



2. Answer the questions below about Of Plymouth Plantation.

Considering the typical elements of a diary (e.g., first-person point of view, confessional), explain why you think this work is regarded as a history instead of a diary. Of Plymouth Plantation is written in the third person as a historical account of the past events

of Plymouth plantation settlement. Although Bradford writes in a subjective way, his

subjectivity is that of a historian who details the broader experiences of a group of people from

a particular time and place—not that of an individual who is recounting a personal, individual

history.

What dominant beliefs can you identify in the parts of Bradford’s history that you read?

Bradford’s Puritan belief in God and His divine providence (i.e., the unfolding of a God-given

“master plan”) emerges throughout his historical account. He believes that individuals must call

on God for guidance both in their daily and broader lives. Bradford also holds the predominant

colonial view of American Indian populations (e.g., Nauset) as “savage” and “brutish.”


3. Select one passage (either from above or a new passage) from the recommended excerpts of

Of Plymouth Plantation and rewrite the passage in a contemporary style, using your own paraphrased account of Bradford’s history.

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Revisions will vary.

After rewriting the passage, answer the following questions below. How would you describe Bradford’s overall writing style: highly poetic and figurative, or direct and simple?

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In answers will vary, but students should realize that, despite Bradford’s occasional archaic

diction, his writing style is rather direct and simple (without much figurative or rhetorical

language). His writing, like Puritanism itself, is devoid of ostentation.


What is the relationship between Bradford’s writing style and his beliefs (as you identified and described them above)? _____________________________________________________________________________

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The style is direct and simple like Puritan beliefs (rather than formal, flowery, or ostentatious).

4. Using your school library’s reference database for essays on English language and literature (e.g., the MLA database, Library of Congress, Google’s academic database), research recent essays (i.e., written within the last 10 years) on Of Plymouth Plantation. You can narrow your search by using keywords that interest you (e.g., Of Plymouth Plantation and Native Americans; Of Plymouth Plantation and Puritanism, Of Plymouth Plantation and women). Review the database annotations of at least 10 essays, and then print the one that is the most interesting to you.

After reading the essay in full, write a critical summary of the article. Your two or three paragraph summary should include:

• an overview of the literary critic’s main argument(s) • your own analysis/critique of the literary critic’s main arguments and theories about

Of Plymouth Plantation. _____________________________________________________________________________

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Summaries will vary, but students should be sure to include their own analysis of the article

(not just a plot summary) with concrete references to the article’s key claims.


5. Another representative writer of Colonial America is Anne Bradstreet (1612–1672), who is

perhaps best known for both her religious and political poems (e.g., “A Dialogue Between Old England and New”) and her personal, family poems (e.g., “To My Dear and Loving Husband”). The very well-educated daughter of a colonial Massachusetts governor, Bradstreet settled in the Massachusetts colony in 1630.

Read the overview of Anne Bradstreet in your American literature anthology and turn to the poem “As Weary Pilgrim,” written in 1669. If this particular poem is not in your anthology, you can locate it online. Be sure to take notes as you are reading the poem closely, from a line-by-line perspective. Review the poem again and then complete the following analysis chart; be sure to cite evidence from the poem to support your answers.

Line Question Answer/Explanation

2 Why does Bradstreet write that the pilgrim “Hugs with delight his silent nest”?

The true reward for the pilgrim after his quest for religious freedom is a blessed afterlife; “silent nest” is a metaphor for death.

6 What are “His dangers past, and travails done”?

The pilgrim’s hardships during his journey to America itself and the common trials of settlement (e.g., death at sea, weather both at sea and in the colonial America, lack of food, encounters with Native Americans).

20

What does Bradstreet mean by “With sins . . . vext”?

A Puritan would face both daily temptation and original sin (i.e., the belief that humans are born sinful because of Adam’s and Eve’s fall and banishment from Eden).

22 For what is “clay house” a metaphor?

“Clay house” is a metaphor for the body. Bradstreet describes the body as merely a vehicle (“corrupt carcass,” line 35) for the saved soul.

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What does it mean for Christ to be a “Bridegroom”?

A common metaphor, Christ as a Bridegroom expressed the spiritual marriage of one’s soul to Christ.


6. After closely reading the poem and analyzing certain lines, read the poem aloud before answering the following questions about “As Weary Pilgrim.”

Think about common poetic devices that you have learned about in class (e.g., rhyme, alliteration, metaphors). What common poetic devices does Bradstreet use in “As Weary Pilgrim”? Explain how the poetic devices are used and why you think Bradstreet uses them. _____________________________________________________________________________

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1) Rhyme: Bradstreet uses straightforward rhyming couplets throughout the poem. This rhyme

scheme creates a pleasant mood.

2) Alliteration: Reading the poem aloud, the reader should notice the many soft “s” and “f”

sounds, both of which create a soothing sound and mood as a way to emphasize the poem’s

meditative quality and comfort in death.

Why do you think the speaker’s point of view changes (from third-person to first-person) at line 19?

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After first praising the pilgrim in the first part of the poem, the speaker then addresses (via the

first-person “I”) her own mortal state, longing for the heavenly reward of life with Christ after

death. The speaker aspires to be the “bride” of Christ, the “Bridegroom.”

7. Refer to your analysis charts for both Bradford and Bradstreet. Write a short essay in which

you compare and contrast the content, form, and writing style of Bradford and Bradstreet. Be sure to cite specific examples from each text as you advance your primary claims or arguments. In the last part of your essay, write a brief argument for which piece of literature you think best portrays the life and beliefs of early Pilgrims.

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Answers will vary, but students should notice that Bradford’s straightforward, narrative history

is much more concrete than Bradstreet’s highly figurative, idealistic poetry. Students should

also notice the different emotional scale of each work.


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8. Inherent in colonization is the seizure and stripping of land and the economy, culture, and even the very identity of the people who originally inhabited the colonized land. Efforts by American Indians to save their land, therefore, were expected and common. For example, in 1676 the Wampanoag attacked colonial settlements in an effort to retain their threatened land. Mary Rowlandson, an English settler, wrote a personal account of being held captive by the Wampanoag for eleven weeks in 1676.

Read “A Narrative of the Captivity and Restoration of Mrs. Mary Rowlandson” (published in 1682), which you will find in your American literature anthology, and answer the following questions: How would you describe Rowlandson’s tone? Why do you believe the author takes on the tone you have identified?

_____________________________________________________________________________At times Rowlandson’s tone is melodramatic (e.g., “it was the dolefulest day that ever mine

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How does Rowlandson portray the Wampanoag? Compare her descriptions to Bradford’s, citing passages that stand out to you.

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9. To reclaim some of the many lost American Indian voices of the American Colonial period,

adopt the persona of a Wampanoag and write your own “personal narrative” of Mrs. Rowlandson’s capture as you might have experienced it. Take on the tone and beliefs you think a Wampanoag would have had during the time of English settlement in the “New World.” As you create a voice for your persona, you also can describe the settlers from the perspective of your Wampanoag persona. Most American Indian literary traditions are oral traditions, so you can go a step further by making your personal narrative a story intended to be told instead of read. One way to gauge this step is by reading your story out loud as you write and revise it.


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Accounts will vary but encourage students to take on their persona fully in terms of the

inherent arguments they advance throughout their narrative.


Part 2: Analyzing Themes Objectives In this part of the lesson you will:

• read selections by American authors (to 1800) • illustrate ways in which authors use syntax, imagery, figures of speech, allusions,

symbols, irony, and other devices in the context of history, culture, and style • draw on a broad base of knowledge about the universal themes of literature, such as

initiation, love and duty, heroism, illusion and reality, salvation, and death and rebirth, and explain how these themes are developed in a particular work of literature

• analyze the way in which the theme or meaning of a selection is created, identify the ideas the author uses to create the theme, and analyze how that theme represents a view or comment on life using textual evidence to support the claim

• analyze literature to identify the stated or implied theme: identify the ideas the author uses to create the theme

Activities 1. Review your work from Part I, Read and Compare. As you learned in that lesson, early

American and Colonial literature offers various literary forms (e.g., historical accounts, essays, personal narratives, poetry, oral works, serious essays, personal letters, public addresses) and writing styles (e.g., formal prose, melodramatic poetry).

Despite the many forms and writing styles of this period (up to 1800), several universal themes emerge from the literature of this period. A universal theme is a broad idea in a story, or a message conveyed by a work. This message is usually about life, society, or human nature, and is generally implied. Universal themes are present in literature throughout every culture. They are universal because they are uniform throughout the world. Themes that are carried throughout the whole work are called motifs, or recurring themes. Here are some common universal themes and their definitions.

Theme Definition

Initiation A ceremony, ritual, test, or period of instruction with which a new member is admitted to an organization, either informally (symbolically) or formally, or to an office, or to knowledge.

Love and duty Conflict between an emotional attachment to someone or something (love) and a role that needs to be played, or an obligation that needs to be fulfilled (duty).


Theme Definition Heroism The qualities of a hero or heroine; exceptional or heroic courage when

faced with danger (especially in battle).

Illusion and reality Conflict between what is believed to exist and what truly exists. The illusion can be intentionally or unintentionally created by the characters.

Salvation Preservation or deliverance from destruction, difficulty, or evil.

Death and rebirth This theme does not necessarily have to represent literal death and rebirth. It can be symbolic of a low point in someone’s life (death) followed by a period of rejuvenation (rebirth).

2. Colonial Literature and Universal Themes

Colonial narratives about the English Pilgrims’ journey to the New World and the trials and tribulations of settling in an unknown land are characterized by undeveloped land, Native American populations who held fast to their original claims, and leadership by fledgling (i.e., new) governments that faced both internal conflict and conflict with English rule daily. It is no wonder, then, that colonial works often present the universal themes of initiation (into a New World), the quest for freedom, heroism, love and duty (to God), salvation (salvation from oppression and religious salvation), bravery, and death and rebirth. Although these themes are universal (i.e., they express the same general ideas or message regardless of the piece of literature), they also can take on specific or unique significance depending on the work that expresses them and the ways in which the writer uses the theme to convey an argument about the universal theme.

Review the following works of Colonial America from Part 1, Read and Compare Activity:

• William Bradford’s Of Plymouth Plantation • Anne Bradstreet’s “As Weary Pilgrim” • Mary Rowlandson’s “A Narrative of the Captivity and Restoration of Mrs. Mary

Rowlandson”

Select one of the above works and write a paragraph in which you 1) identify a universal theme that is carried throughout the work, 2) give two or three concrete examples from the work to illustrate the theme, and


3) make a case for how the writer uses the universal theme to make a comment on life (i.e., his or her own argument or position about the theme). For example (numbers refer to essay components above): 1) Bradford conveys the theme of heroism throughout Of Plymouth Plantation. 2) Specifically, he writes about the “great danger” at sea when the Pilgrims “fell amongst dangerous shoals and roaring breakers.” 3) Bradford illustrates such moments as a way, in turn, to comment on (i.e., make an argument about) how brave the settlers were during their dangerous quest for freedom.

______________________________________________________________________________Answers will vary, but students should identify the following universal themes: Bradford:

______________________________________________________________________________heroism, love and duty (to God), freedom, bravery; Bradstreet: death and rebirth, salvation,

______________________________________________________________________________heroism (of a true Christian in the face of earthly hardships); Rowlandson: freedom vs.

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3. Indigenous Voices

The process of colonization, in which one group of people takes over the existing land and resources of indigenous (i.e., native) populations, inevitably threatens not just the land of those whose land is colonized; indigenous culture is threatened as well.

Fortunately the many voices of colonial American Indian populations, including the Winnebago, Zuni, Inuit, Lakota, and Navajo, are available to us as part of the rich body of early American literature. Since American Indian tales, stories, and poems were rooted in oral traditions of storytelling and performance and passed down by memory, English translations of these works never truly can retain their original flair and voice. Yet we still can appreciate the work that celebrates the culture, voice, and identity of Native American populations.

Read one American Indian poem, story, or tale (including Native American “trickster tales,” which use the figure of an animal/man to make a comment about the human condition) that you can locate in your class anthology or an anthology (especially the Heath Anthology, Volume A) in your school library. As you read the poem, story, or tale, pay attention not only to its overarching theme, or main idea, but to its syntax (sentence structure), images (mental pictures “drawn” by words), figures of speech (poetic devices such as metaphor, i.e., a direct comparison between two things, and simile, i.e., comparison using “like” or “as”), and symbols (something that represents another thing, such as a cross for Christianity). Answer the questions below. What universal theme does the work convey? Identify and explain two ways in which the writer carries out the universal theme.

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Answers will vary, but students should comment on a universal theme.

Syntax can refer to the length of a sentence and its resulting flow and pace (or speed of reading) and the use of inversion (a different word order than what is commonly expected). How would you describe the poem’s or story’s syntax, and what is the relationship between its syntax and the oral tradition that characterizes American Indian literary works and poetry in general?

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Answers will vary, but students most likely will notice short sentences and, as a result, a fast

pace.


Now read Anne Bradstreet’s poem “To My Dear and Loving Husband” if you chose an American Indian poem, or a chapter of Thomas Morton’s New English Canaan if you chose an American Indian story. How does the American Indian work’s syntax, sound, and tone (i.e., mood) differ from Bradstreet’s love poem or Morton’s book chapter?

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4. Using Themes to Make a Comment on Life or an Argument: the African Experience in

Colonial America Many English Pilgrims ultimately became oppressors of another kind as well: slave owners. One cannot think about the theme of freedom without considering its counterpoints: the universal themes of bondage and oppression. In addition to commenting on life for American Indian populations, these themes also mark the literary works of Africans who were brought to early America as slaves. Many such works integrate the universal theme of oppression to convey an opinion about their own experience as African slaves. In other words, universal themes are used to advance individual arguments or comments on life.

Phillis Wheatley (1753–1784) was a black slave who was brought to Boston from Africa in 1761. Unlike most slaves, Wheatley was educated by her sympathetic owners, and she ultimately was freed in 1773. Locate in your library, class anthology, or online the Wheatley poems “Should you, my lord, while you peruse my song” (first line of her freedom poem) and “On Being Brought from Africa to America.” Then answer the following questions in a two or three paragraph response.

• What universal theme does Wheatley convey in the first poem? • Identify three words and/or images Wheatley uses to describe bondage/oppression.

How do these words or images advance Wheatley’s ideas about the institution of slavery and its effect on slaves themselves?

• What comment on life does Wheatley convey in the second poem? • Identify three words and/or images Wheatley uses to advance her ideas about the lives

of slaves in her second poem. • Compare and contrast the themes of each poem.


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Answers will vary, but students should notice words/images in the first poem such as

“snatched,” “pangs,” and “sorrows,” to convey Wheatley’s idea that slavery is oppression that

hurts the slave, his or her family, and Africa itself. The second poem presents a different tone

and focus, showing Wheatley’s own Christian conversion.

5. Review the 1620–1800 section of your class’ anthology (or locate a Norton or Heath anthology

at your school library). Choose another work you have not yet read in this lesson or in previous classes on Early and Colonial American literature. Browse, for example, selections by Roger Williams or Samuel Sewall, or additional poems by Anne Bradstreet. Keep in mind that pieces of literature often have more than one dominant theme. Choose just one theme for this activity.

Write the theme below.

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Answers will vary.


Next you will analyze how the writer advances that theme throughout the whole work. Use the following chart to map out how the theme is introduced, continued, and concluded. Cite at least two passages for each (introduction, continuation, conclusion). In addition, research essays about your chosen theme using your library’s reference resources and/or the Internet. (Answers will vary.)

Passage (page reference)

Ideas (i.e., argumentative claims or comments/ viewpoints)

Style Examples (e.g., images, allusions, figures of speech)

Explanation (i.e., how the passage conveys the theme)


Part 3: Historical Perspective Objectives In this part of the lesson you will:

• analyze the way in which authors through the centuries have used archetypes drawn from myth and tradition in literature, film, political speeches, and religious writings (e.g., how the archetypes of banishment from an ideal world may be used to interpret Shakespeare's tragedy Macbeth)

• analyze literature to identify the stated or implied theme • compare works that express a universal theme • write interpretations of literary or expository reading that demonstrate a grasp of the theme or

purpose of the work • write interpretations of literary or expository reading that support key ideas through accurate

and detailed references to the text or to other works Activities 1. As English settlers sought religious freedom and a new life in early America, they carved out

new land, not only for themselves but also for future generations. They created new histories as well. The early American/Colonial Period (1600s to 1800) is marked by significant historical events that, even today, have an influence on Americans’ collective identity. Of course, the Pilgrims and American Indians launched our national Thanksgiving Day, and Puritan communities helped to begin what is now a “melting pot” of religions practiced freely in America. Perhaps the most influential milestone of the period, however, is the American Revolution. The early seeds of revolutionary fervor sparked our declaration and long-sought quest for independence in 1776. In 1789, a new country was constitutionally born, with George Washington as the first face of the United States of America.

Of course, all collective histories, as metaphoric books, comprise individual chapters that depict and reveal the good, the bad, and the ugly parts of any culture’s history. For example, the colonial period cannot be truly understood without reflecting on the Salem Witch Trials of 1692. These infamous trials in Salem, Massachusetts, led to the execution of about 20 men and women, with hundreds more jailed or persecuted. Likewise, the growing plight of American Indians and increasing numbers of West African slaves brought to America cannot be overlooked. As a collective people, American Indians were losing their land, culture, and people during early settlement along the Eastern seaboard. At the same time, the institution of slavery was notoriously marked by the inhuman subjugation of human beings, whose voices and identities were legally and often brutally silenced. Changes in ways of thinking about and understanding the world also were occurring during this time. As inventions and technological advances emerged in the mid-seventeenth century, humans began to gain a greater scientific understanding of the world. New scientific ideas and theories about the world began to shake the Christian beliefs that once shaped the daily lives of early American settlers. Christian faith was called into doubt. Indeed, Puritan ideals began to share the stage with Enlightenment theories that presented the universe as an orderly system


that could be studied and understood through human reason. In England, Sir Isaac Newton discovered gravity, for example. In America, Benjamin Franklin experimented with electricity and lightning, learning about electricity’s many once-unknown properties. Suddenly, the world was known and understood rather than feared and mysterious. For many early Americans, a worldview that was once guided by God gave way to a worldview led by reason and rational thinking. Although “The Great Awakening” movement (early to mid-1700s) tried to call Americans back to their Christian roots through rhetoric (speeches and sermons) and revivals, early America already had laid the firm groundwork for a true melting pot of cultures, religions, beliefs, philosophies, and ways of life. America was coming into its own, and the literature of this period cannot be read without this historical perspective and its social, political, cultural, and economic contexts. In addition to the universal themes you studied in Part 2, themes that are specific to the work itself and its unique context are conveyed as well.

Review the work you chose in Part 2 for your universal theme paragraph (Activity 2). Now, re-read the piece from a historical perspective. Identify and consider any historical or “contextual” themes conveyed in the work. Be sure to cite 2–3 concrete techniques (e.g., images, figures of speech, allusions) from the work to illustrate how the writer presents that particular theme. For example, Bradford refers repeatedly to the Pilgrims’ particular call in fulfilling “God’s providence.” He means that the Pilgrims’ journey to the New World was ordained by God. This idea of fulfilling God’s providence at sea and then in the New World is particular, in Bradford’s writing, to the group of Pilgrims that settled Plymouth, Massachusetts.

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Answers will vary, but students should identify any themes that are not universal but particular

to the work itself.


2. Review the 1620–1800 section of your anthology used in class or locate a Norton or Heath

anthology at your school library. Choose one of the following works, which you can locate in an American literature anthology (e.g., Volume A of Norton or Heath) or online.

• Cotton Mather, Memorable Providences, Relating to Witchcrafts and Other Possessions (1689)

• Jonathan Edwards, “Sinners in the Hands of an Angry God” (1741) • Thomas Paine, excerpts from Common Sense (1776) • Benjamin Franklin, The Autobiography, Part II (1784)

As you are reading, use the chart below to facilitate active note-taking while analyzing at least five passages (two or three paragraphs each). Pay attention to both content (e.g., descriptions of the environment and people, arguments and viewpoints, historical clues) and writing style (e.g., word choice, tone, use of figurative/poetic language, rhetorical language such as rhetorical questions and direct addresses to the audience). Be sure to pay attention as well to the intended audience; you will be analyzing the audience later in this activity.

Passage Characteristics: Content

Characteristics: Style

Explanation

Example from Cotton Mather: “Those condemned prisoners of our Atmosphere have not really sent Letthers of Thanks from Hell, to those that are on Earth, promoting of their Interest, yet they have been forced, as of old, To confess that Jesus was the Holy one of God, so of late, to declare that Sin and Vice are the things which they are delighted in.”

Example: Mather refers to witches as those who are sinners (delighting in sin and vice) who have supposedly turned away from Puritan beliefs.

Example: Mather uses the figure of “Letthers (sic) from Hell” to exaggerate the alleged sins of the “witches.”

Example: This passage from the introduction sets Mather’s tone of condemnation of presumed “witches” and his pleas to convert them to Christianity. This passage sets the stage for the Salem trials and executions of 1692.



Passage #1: Answers will vary depending on the work selected.

Answers will vary depending on the work selected.


Passage #2:






Passage #3: Answers will vary depending on the work selected.



Passage #4:





Passage Characteristics: Characteristics: Explanation

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Content Style Passage #5: Answers will vary

depending on the work selected.



3. A crucial aspect of analyzing literature from a historical perspective is understanding the

audience. As you were reading your chosen work, you should have noticed that you were not the intended audience of these historically rooted works (even though some of Franklin’s virtues may seem timeless). Answer the questions below about audience.

Who is the intended audience of your selection (e.g., their social class, beliefs, historical background, political views), and how would you describe that audience? How do you know (i.e., what textual “clues” influenced your description)? Answers will vary, but students should note clues such as religious background, and political

views based on the ways in which the author addresses the audience.

How would a contemporary audience (i.e., you and your peers) respond to the piece you selected?

Answers will vary; this can be a subjective answer to prompt thought and reflection about the

idea of an audience.


What is the relationship between audience and the historical context of the piece?

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Answers will vary, but students should reflect on the fact that these pieces have an “of their

time and place” quality.

4. Think about the historical context of the work you have chosen and answer the questions

below.

What historical events can you identify in the work? Cite passages to support your answer.

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Answers will vary, but students should have concrete evidence to support their claims.

What comment or viewpoint on life does the author make about the primary historical event conveyed in the piece of literature?

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Answers will vary; students should identify an argument.

5. Using your school library’s reference database for essays on English language and literature (e.g., the MLA database, Library of Congress, Google’s academic database), research recent essays (i.e., written within the last 10 years) using the following keywords:

1) the author’s name 2) the title of the work 3) the historical event you identified.


Review the database annotations of at least 10 essays, and then print the one that is the most interesting to you.

After reading the essay in full, write a critical summary of the article. Your two- or three-paragraph summary should include:

• an overview of the literary critic’s main argument(s) • your own analysis/critique of the literary critic’s main arguments and theories about the

piece of literature.

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6. Despite the historical context of changes in literature, many works of literature that are

influenced by their time and place draw on archetypes, an original model or pattern from which other models are made. Literary archetypes have been drawn from myths and traditions throughout history. Literary critics have noted, for example, that Olaudah Equiano’s Narrative of the Life of Olaudah Equiano, or Gustavus Vass, the African, Written by Himself (1789) is a spiritual autobiography—a personal narrative of Equiano’s spiritual life set within the archetypal context of a journey (an archetype rooted in works such as Homer’s The Odyssey) from innocence to experience, and from bondage to freedom.

Read the excerpts of Equiano’s Narrative included in either the Norton (Volume A) or Heath Anthology (Volume B). As you are reading, note moments that illustrate Equiano’s personal journey in the chart below. (Answers will vary.)


Passage Answer/Explanation

Example (from Chap. II): “The change I now experienced, was as painful as it was sudden and unexpected.”

Equiano compares his happy life in Africa, where he enjoyed his family and stature (his father was a distinguished elder), to his life as a slave traded to an owner in colonial Virginia.

7. Review Phillis Wheatley’s poems from Part 2 of this lesson. Write a three- or four-paragraph

essay in which you compare and contrast Wheatley’s universal themes with Equiano’s archetypal journey and particular experiences. Cite passages from the works to support your arguments. Be sure to answer the questions below in your essay.

• How do Wheatley and Equiano appeal to their audience? In other words, how do you

describe the relationship of writing style to Wheatley’s and Equiano’s arguments? • What is the difference in terms of appealing to (or emotionally moving) an audience

when speaking from a universal experience (Wheatley) vs. a particular experience (Equiano)?


• What relevance does Equiano’s Narrative have today, and for which current or recent events does the work have relevance?

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Answers will vary, but students should notice how Equiano’s work takes on more specific and

historical accounts of his personal experience as a slave (once he narrates his life in colonial

Virginia).



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Answer Key: The Writing Process

English 11A Unit 1

Name _________________________________________ Date____________________________

Part 1: Topic and Purpose Objectives In this part of the lesson you will:

• use prewriting strategies to generate ideas and develop voice and plan • develop drafts both alone and collaboratively by organizing and reorganizing content and

by refining style to suit occasion, audience, and purpose Activities 1. Themes in literature, such as heroism, love, corruption, greed, and perseverance, often reflect

and relate to the issues we encounter in our daily lives or read about in the news. In this activity, you will develop ideas for an essay that relate a current news issue with a theme from a work of literature you have read.

First, think about some of the literature that you have read. Consider novels, essays, speeches, poems, and short fiction. Brainstorm a list of titles in the space provided.

Answers will vary but preferably should reflect the literature read in class during the school

year.

Next, choose three titles from your list and write them in the chart below. Then, list the themes from each one. Remember that the theme of a piece of literature is the main idea, the message, the subject, or the concept that the author is trying to convey by telling the story. Some examples of a theme might include love, hate, the innocence of youth, love of life, courage, struggle, loyalty, triumph over adversity, and survival.

Title Themes Answers will vary. Answers will vary depending on the literature selected.

2. Now, you will begin to develop ideas for a five-paragraph essay exploring a theme from one of

the literary works that you listed in the chart above. Select one of the titles from the chart and write information about this work in the space below. (Answers will vary.)

Title: ___________________________________________________________________

Author: ___________________________________________________________________

Genre: ___________________________________________________________________

Themes: ___________________________________________________________________

In your essay, you will select one or more themes from the work that you have selected and relate the theme to an issue discussed in the news. For example, you might relate the theme of courage from Jack London’s novel Call of the Wild to the actions of rescue workers after the events of September 11, 2001 or another catastrophe in the news. Recall this prewriting strategy for generating ideas for your writing:

• List what you know. • List what you do not know. • Consider alternate viewpoints.

What do you know about the themes of the work you selected? What are some examples (e.g., dialogue, character actions) from the work that illustrate the theme? What are some news stories and issues that illustrate this theme? List your ideas in the space provided. __________________________________________________________________________

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Answers will vary.


What are some things you do not know about the work you selected for your essay? What are some possible additional themes? What additional evidence from the text can you locate? List your ideas in the space provided.

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What are some alternate viewpoints you might consider before beginning to write? If possible, collaborate with a classmate and add information about his or her perspective to your own. What themes could a peer identify from the work you selected? What evidence from the text might he or she suggest? Can someone else suggest additional news or issues that relate to the work’s themes? Write your or your peer’s responses in the space provided. ___________________________________________________________________________

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Answers will vary.

From the ideas that you have generated, identify the theme on which you will base your essay, as well as the issues or news stories that relate to the theme. Write your response in the space provided. __________________________________________________________________________

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Answers will vary.


3. Before beginning to write, consider the purpose and voice of your essay.

An author has a reason for writing something; he or she wants to have an effect on the reader. This is the author's purpose. As you think about your topic, think about your purpose for writing. There are several categories into which an author's purpose usually falls. An author may seek to:

• Entertain by creating a story that elicits an emotional reaction of enjoyment in the reader.

o comedy, drama, musicals, operas, novels, etc.

• Persuade by attempting specifically to make a convincing argument for or against something in the hopes that the reader may change his or her mind.

o persuasive essays, logical arguments, editorials, etc.

• Inform by providing details, facts, figures, and other information required to give a reader a better understanding of a topic.

o documentaries, textbooks, articles, essays, monographs, historical fiction (both entertainment and information), etc.

• Evaluate by targeting a particular object, concept, or artistic or written work for analysis, with the goal of proving, disproving, clarifying, reviewing, or judging the relative merits of that target.

o review, analysis, response, rebuttal, literary criticism, legal criticism, etc. What is your purpose for writing this essay assignment? Write your response in the space provided.

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Answers may vary, but students will likely select inform. Evaluate, entertain, and persuade are

valid responses if the student can support his or her answer.

Voice is an author’s use of language that allows a reader to feel the author’s personality. In considering voice, remember the following elements as you begin your first draft:

• Tone: The tone of a piece of writing reflects the feelings of the writer. The tone can be

serious, humorous, playful, ironic, sarcastic, objective, etc. A writer’s tone depends on the audience. A college application essay might require a different tone than an editorial letter, for example.

• Diction: Diction is an author’s choice of words. You might select a specific word or words to clarify meaning or to have a specific effect on the audience.

• Sentence structure: Sentences can be written in active voice or passive voice.


o In active voice the subject of the sentence is doing the action. See these examples: Frank casually tossed his jacket onto the chair. Lila asked Charlene to feed her goldfish.

o In passive voice the subject is being acted upon instead of acting. See these examples:

The jacket was casually tossed onto the chair. Charlene was asked by Lila to feed her goldfish.

Sentences written in passive voice can sometimes be unclear or seem wordy to the reader, so it’s important to consider sentence structure when writing. Writing in active voice tends to make your sentences seem stronger and more concise. Of course, there are times when writing in passive voice is a better choice. Some occasions when passive voice may be a better choice include:

o when you want to draw attention to the person, place, or thing being acted upon.

Joe Smith, Marilyn Williams, and Tim White were selected as class officers.

o when writing requires an impersonal voice, such as technical writing. Damage to the system may be caused by spilled liquids or rough handling.

Based on the purpose for writing you described above, what is an appropriate tone for your essay? Write your response in the space provided.

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_______________________________________________________________________ 4. Next, record information about your essay in this essay organizer.

Essay Organizer

Title of work selected Answers will vary.

Author Answers will vary.

Genre Answers will vary.

Selected theme Answers will vary.


Essay Organizer

Evidence from the text that supports the theme

Answers will vary.

News or issues related to the theme

Answers will vary.

Author’s purpose Answers will vary.

Selected tone Answers will vary.

5. Create an outline that will help you write a first draft of your essay. Look at this sample outline

and then create your own using information from the essay organizer.

I. Introduction, beginning with a thesis statement II. First example describing how the theme relates to a current issue or news story A. evidence from the text B. evidence from the text III. Second example A. evidence from the text B. evidence from the text IV. Third example A. evidence from the text B. evidence from the text V. Conclusion

Remember that this outline provides a sample that may be different from your own. Create your outline based on the information you listed in the chart, including the current event or news and the novel you selected.


6. Now create the first draft of a five-paragraph essay based on the information you recorded in the chart above. As you write your draft, be sure to refer back to your outline and your essay organizer. Be sure to keep the following in mind as you write and make changes to your draft as necessary:

1. Your audience 2. Your purpose for writing 3. Your writing style

Have a classmate peer-review your draft. Then, make additional revisions based on his or her suggestions.


Part 2: Writing and Proofreading Objectives In this part of the lesson you will:

• proofread writing for appropriateness of organization, content, style, and conventions • use effective sequences and transitions to achieve coherence and meaning

Activities 1. Now that you’ve completed an outline and first draft of your essay relating a theme from

literature to a news event, the next step is to proofread your writing and make appropriate edits in the following areas:

• Conventions: Have you used correct spelling, punctuation, and grammar throughout

your essay? • Content: Have you included all the important information recorded in your essay

organizer and outline? Did you clearly identify an appropriate theme from the book you selected? Have you selected a news event that relates appropriately to the theme?

• Style: Are your diction (i.e., choice of words), sentence length, and other aspects of

your writing consistent and appropriate for the essay topic? • Organization: Does your essay follow a logical sequence? Are paragraphs coherent

with appropriate transitions? Are sentences within each paragraph in a logical, coherent order? Have you used transitions, where appropriate, between sentences?

Use the proofreading checklist as you proofread your essay, paying attention to each of these areas. As you work though each area, refer back to your checklist and record the edits you have made. If you make no edits, indicate so on the checklist.

2. Conventions: Check your essay for correct spelling, capitalization, punctuation, and grammar. Be sure to: • Use a dictionary to check the spelling of words you are unsure of. • Check that each sentence begins with a capital letter and ends with a proper punctuation

mark. • Check that sentences are grammatically correct and that you have avoided tense shifts.

Tense shifts are inappropriate changes from one verb tense to another within a sentence of a piece of writing. Look at these examples:

o At the picnic we ate, played baseball, and were fishing. This sentence inappropriately shifts from the past tense (ate, played) to the past progressive tense (were fishing).


Practice avoiding tense shifts by rewriting the following sentences in the space below.

o John left the game early and had stopped for pizza on the way to Mike’s house. o Last night we had walked to the mall but later rode the bus home.

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o This summer I will travel to Florida, and I’m going to the beach.

John left the game early and stopped for pizza on the way to Mike’s house.

Last night we walked to the mall but later rode the bus home.

This summer I will travel to Florida and will go to the beach.

Describe any changes you make to your essay in the proofreading checklist. 3. Content: Check that you’ve included all the required information in your essay.

• Check to see that you have included all the important information recorded in your essay organizer and outline. Add any missing information to your draft.

• Check for and delete unnecessary information that strays from your topic. • Be sure you have clearly identified and described an appropriate theme from the book you

selected. • Be sure you have selected a news event or issue that relates appropriately and accurately

to the theme.

Describe any changes you make to your essay in the proofreading checklist.

4. Style: Review your choice of words, tone, and sentence length.

• Read your draft out loud. Does your choice of words reflect the intended tone (i.e., feeling) of the essay? For example, if you intend to write an objective essay, how does your choice of words reflect that tone? Use a thesaurus to locate alternate, appropriate word choices where necessary.

• Remember that in an essay, sentences of varied lengths are more interesting to read. Try this technique for checking sentence length and variety:

o Highlight every other sentence using two different colors. o Are all the color blocks about the same size? If so, you may want to edit

sentences or combine sentences to vary their lengths. o Read the piece out loud. How do your sentences sound? Do they all sound

alike? Do the same words repeat several times?



5. Organization: Review the sequence of your paragraphs and sentences.

• Check that paragraphs in your essay follow a logical sequence. Is your information presented in a logical order?

• Be sure paragraphs and sentences are coherent with appropriate transitions. Recall that transitions are words and phrases that help to connect sentences logically within a paragraph, or paragraphs within an essay. Take care to use transitions between paragraphs that show the logical relationship between the ideas.

Look at these examples:

• Although basketball and baseball are played on special playing fields, basketball is

played indoors on a court. In contrast, baseball is played outdoors on a field. • In the morning we fished in Johnson’s Pond. Later, we played soccer.

In the first example the transition in contrast shows a compare-and-contrast relationship. In the second example, the transition later shows a time relationship.

Review your draft looking for areas that might benefit from a transition between sentences or between paragraphs. Try this strategy:

• Read the end of each paragraph and the beginning of the next. • Think about how the ideas in each paragraph are related. • Try a few common transitions and choose one that fits the relationship. (See the

transitions resources above for some ideas to get you started.) • For stronger transitions, restate the ending and/or the beginning sentences.



Proofreading Checklist

Areas of Improvement/Edits Made Conventions

Spelling

Punctuation and capitalization

Grammar

Content

Required information

Appropriate theme

Current news issue

Style

Diction

Sentence length

Organization

Paragraph sequence

Paragraph transitions

Sentence sequence

Sentence transitions


Part 3: Peer Review and Revision Objectives In this part of the lesson you will: • revise text to highlight the individual voice, improve sentence variety and style, and enhance

subtlety of meaning and tone in ways that are consistent with the purpose, audience, and genre

• evaluate how well writing achieves its purposes and engage in conversations with peers and the teacher about aspects of your own writing and the writings of others

• revise writing to improve style, word choice, sentence variety, and subtlety of meaning after rethinking how well questions of purpose, audience, and genre have been addressed

• respond productively to peer review of your own work Activities 1. Now that you’ve written and proofread your essay relating a theme from literature to a current

news event, the next step is to review your writing and make revisions where necessary. As you make revisions, remember to consider these aspects of your writing:

• Its purpose: Why are you writing this piece? What do you intend to accomplish by

writing it? • Its audience: Who will read your writing? What does your audience expect? • Its genre: What type of writing is it? An essay? A speech? A letter? A story? A play?

______________________________________________________________________________ Answers will vary but may include: Purpose—to inform the reader about the novel, or as a

______________________________________________________________________________ school assignment; Audience—teacher; Genre—essay

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What are the purpose, audience, and genre of your writing? Write your response in the space provided.

2. As you make revisions, focus on the following characteristics of your essay:

• Voice: an author’s use of language that allows the reader to feel his or her personality. Elements of voice include the tone, word choice, sentence structure, and sentence variety.

o Tone: The tone of your essay should reflect your feelings as a writer. Recall

that tone can be serious, objective, humorous, ironic, etc. o Sentence variety: Remember that writing is more interesting when sentences

are of varied lengths and use interesting, strong words. o Sentence structure: Sentences can be written in active or passive voice.


In active voice the subject of the sentence is doing the action. (John bounced the ball.)

In passive voice the subject of the sentence is being acted upon. (The ball was bounced by John, or The ball was bounced.)

o Word choice: Think about your choice of words and how they reflect what you

are trying to say about the topic. For example, look at the following sentences:

I asked Laura to clean her room. I requested that Laura clean her room. I begged Laura to clean her room.

These sentences all have a similar meaning, with subtle differences. Note how the word begged in the last sentence best denotes a sense of urgency or importance. On the other hand, note that the second sentence’s use of the word requested has a more formal meaning.

For each of the italicized words below, use a thesaurus to locate a word that could be used in place of the original word to make a subtle change in meaning. Briefly describe how the word changes the meaning of the sentence.

Sentence Alternate word Change in meaning Ken fell as he walked across the driveway.

Answers will vary. Answers will vary.

As she sang a lullaby, the baby quietly fell asleep.


He confidently walked into the job interview.


The family ate a meal together in the dining room.


Carl angrily put the book on his desk.


Tone, sentence variety, sentence structure, and word choice all affect the overall voice of your essay. As you review your paper, evaluate how well these elements reflect your audience and purpose for writing.

3. Next, get the opinions of another writer. Ask a peer to use the peer review sheet below to evaluate your essay, paying attention to each area on the sheet. As your peer works through each area, ask him or her to make notes about your writing, including positive comments and suggestions for improvement. Then discuss your peer’s comments about your essay and make appropriate revisions to your work.


Peer Review Sheet

Comments Are there any spelling, punctuation, or capitalization errors?

Is grammar correct throughout? Are verbs in agreement? Are there any inappropriate tense shifts? Does the essay stay on topic and answer the essay question?

Has the writer selected an appropriate theme from the novel?

Does the selected news or issue relate appropriately to the novel’s theme?

Is the writer’s choice of words clear, concise, and appropriate?

Are there interesting sentences of varied lengths?

Do paragraphs follow a logical sequence with appropriate transitions?

Do sentences follow a logical sequence with appropriate transitions?

Do you have any other comments about the essay?


Part 4: Publishing Objectives In this part of the lesson you will: • refine selected pieces to publish for general and specific audiences • accumulate and review your written work to determine its strengths and weaknesses and to set

your own goals as a writer Activities 1. Now that you have proofread your essay and have made edits based on peer input, the next

step is to refine your work before publishing it. When publishing your writing, remember that your purpose for writing is based on your audience. Take a moment to record the purpose and audience for your essay relating the theme of a work of literature to a news event or issue.

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Answers will vary.

During the final revision process, a writer should consider how well the piece suits the intended audience, as well as whether it is clearly written and interesting to read. Read your essay once again and consider how well these points relate to your own essay. In the space below, write your responses.

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• Is the work suitable for the intended audience? Answers will vary.

• Is it clear and easy to understand? Answers will vary.

• Is the writing interesting to read? Answers will vary.

Thinking about your answers to the questions above, write about the strengths and weaknesses of your essay. For each weakness you identify, write about how you can revise your essay. (Answers will vary.)


Strength or Weakness? How can this area be improved? The suitability of the writing for the intended audience

The clarity of writing; how easy the writing is to understand

How interesting the writing is to read

2. Next, evaluate the strengths and weaknesses in two additional pieces of your writing. Identify two essays or other pieces of writing in your portfolio. Consider the interest of your writing, the clarity of your writing, and the suitability of your writing for its intended audience. In the space below, write your responses.

What strengths do you note in the selections from your portfolio?

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Answers will vary but should reflect strengths the student has identified in the selected pieces

of writing, based on teacher, peer, or own review of the work.

What weaknesses do you note in the selections from your portfolio?

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Answers will vary but should reflect weaknesses the student has identified in the selected

pieces of writing, based on teacher, peer, or own review of the work.


How do these strengths and weakness differ from those of the essay you wrote relating a literary theme to a current issue?

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Answers will vary but should contrast the strengths and weaknesses noted in selected pieces

from the student’s writing portfolio to those noted in the essay written during this activity.

How are these strengths and weakness similar to those of your essay? ______________________________________________________________________________

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Answers will vary but should compare the strengths and weaknesses noted in selected pieces

from the student’s writing portfolio to those noted in the essay written during this activity.

3. Review comments made during the peer review of your essay. In the space below, write your

responses. What were some positive aspects noted during the peer review? ______________________________________________________________________________

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Answers will be based on work completed in part three of this activity.

What were some areas of concern noted during the peer review?

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Have you addressed all of the concerns raised by your peer reviewer? How?

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4. Next, consider the strengths and weaknesses you described above and the information you

learned from the peer review of your writing. Thinking about these points, make a list of writing goals—how you want to grow as a writer and what you expect to accomplish as you refine your work. Write your list in the space provided.

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1. Answers will vary but might include adding more interesting words by using a thesaurus,

revising confusing wording or sentences written in the passive voice, and using more

precise language.

2.

3.

4.

5.


5. Finally, using your writing goals as a guide, make the necessary revisions to complete the final draft of your essay.



Answer Key: Critiquing Oral Addresses

English 11A Unit 1

Name _________________________________________ Date____________________________

Objective In this lesson you will identify logical fallacies used in oral addresses (e.g., ad hominem attack, false causality, red herring, overgeneralization, bandwagon effect). Links Logical Fallacies and the Art of Debate http://redirect.platoweb.com/339328Logical Fallacies http://redirect.platoweb.com/340040 The Nizkor Project: Fallacies http://redirect.platoweb.com/339375Identifying Fallacious Arguments in the Bilingual Education Debate http://redirect.platoweb.com/339376Commission on Presidential Debates: Debate Transcripts http://redirect.platoweb.com/339377 Activities 1. In debate, as well as in day-to-day life, you need to be able to consider all sides of an

argument on any given topic in order to form your own well-thought-out opinions. However, there are many mistakes people can make when giving their opinions or arguments. Being a good judge of the factors that make a strong argument, therefore, will help you effectively analyze any argument—whether a political speech or an argument by your brother, sister, or other relative.

Strong arguments convey good and reasonable lines of argument—that is, rhetorical strategies used when making persuasive arguments. Bad arguments, on the other hand, are full of logical fallacies, or errors of reasoning. Knowing logical fallacies (as opposed to errors of fact) can help you recognize flawed arguments, allowing you to form a stronger, more well-informed opinion about whether an argument can hold up its claims.

There are many types of logical fallacies. Access “Logical Fallacies and Art of Debate”, Logical Fallacies, and “Fallacies” to read about logical fallacy and its importance in debate and to learn about the different types of fallacies.

http://www.csun.edu/%7Edgw61315/fallacies.html

http://www.logicalfallacies.info/index.html

http://www.nizkor.org/features/fallacies/

http://coe.sdsu.edu/people/jmora/Prop227/BEFallacies.htm

http://www.debates.org/pages/debtrans.html

http://www.csun.edu/%7Edgw61315/fallacies.html

http://www.logicalfallacies.info/index.html

http://www.nizkor.org/features/fallacies/

As you find each of the logical fallacies listed in the chart below, write a definition or explanation of the fallacy. Next to each one, give an example of the way the fallacy might be manifested. After you have found and explained each of those listed, find three more types of fallacies and add them, their definitions, and original examples of how they can be presented to the chart. (Answers will vary. Some possible examples are provided.)

Logical Fallacies

Logical Fallacy Definition/Explanation Example Ad hominem

Dismissal of a speaker’s point based on some criticism of the speaker rather than the argument.

Of course my opponent would say that we shouldn’t have prayer in the schools. He is an atheist.

Appeal to emotion

Speaker appeals to strong emotions about a claim rather than the validity of the claim itself.

Everyone should be afraid of terrorists. They are in our cities, our suburbs, our own backyards. No military expense to fight this enemy, therefore, is too great.

Bandwagon

Speaker appeals to a growing popularity or trend to support an idea rather than its merits.

More and more people are against this war. Pulling out now is the right thing to do.

False dilemma

Speaker only presents two alternatives when more options exist.

We must either cut our military spending or learn to live with a huge budget deficit.

Red herring

Speaker distracts the audience from the issue at hand by changing the subject or offering an irrelevant point.

You say we’re spending too much on this war, but if you look at where student test scores are, you’ll see that we’re certainly spending a lot on education!

Overgeneralization Speaker makes a broad statement based on either a too-small sample or an anecdotal piece of evidence.

We need more funding for urban education. All of our inner city schools are a shambles!

Post hoc, ergo propter hoc

Speaker connects two events even though there is no clear causality (one event happened before the second but did not necessarily cause it).

Every time we’ve increased funding for education in this country, we’ve seen a rise in test scores. We must fund our schools to keep up in the world.


Logical Fallacy Definition/Explanation Example Slippery Slope Speaker makes a statement that

one event will eventually lead to another, clearly negative situation even though it is not inevitable that event would follow.

We have to force oil companies to stop raising gas prices. If we don’t put price caps on gasoline, before we know it we’ll be paying $20 a gallon for gas!

Answers will vary. Answers will vary depending on logical fallacy chosen.

Answers will vary depending on logical fallacy chosen.





Why is it important to be able to recognize logical fallacies? Explain your answer.

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Answers will vary but should show student understanding of how logical fallacies weaken an

argument and how recognizing and countering these fallacies can help strengthen and

improve an argument.


2. Go to “Identifying Fallacious Arguments in the Bilingual Education Debate” to examine the critique of an argument. Look for examples of the types of logical fallacies you have studied. How does the author of this critique counter the fallacies identified? Now think about political speeches or debates that you have seen or heard and how the opponents either used, or perhaps failed to refute, fallacies. Visit “Debate” to find debate transcripts from presidential debates going back to 1960. Using the three debates listed below, complete the fallacy scavenger hunt activity below.

Debates: October 11, 1992: The First Clinton-Bush-Perot Presidential Debate October 9, 1996: The Gore-Kemp Vice Presidential Debate October 8, 2004: The Second Bush-Kerry Presidential Debate

As you read through the debates, look for clear examples of the fallacies you have studied. Are the debaters basing their assessments of each others’ ideas and policies on their opponents’ points? Do any of the debaters point out fallacies used by their opponents? Whom do you think commits the most logical fallacies, and whom do you think commits the least? In the Explanation/Response column, explain how the speaker has erred and what you would recommend as a counterargument or response.

Logical Fallacies Scavenger Hunt

Fallacy Example Explanation/Response Answers will vary. Answers will vary depending

on fallacy chosen. Answers will vary depending on fallacy chosen.

Answers will vary. Answers will vary depending on fallacy chosen.

Answers will vary depending on fallacy chosen.










http://coe.sdsu.edu/people/jmora/Prop227/BEFallacies.htm

http://www.debates.org/pages/debtrans.html

Fallacy Example Explanation/Response Answers will vary. Answers will vary depending

on fallacy chosen. Answers will vary depending on fallacy chosen.







3. When you have completed the scavenger hunt, select one debate and write a two- or three-

paragraph critique of one of the participants’ performances. Answer the following questions in your critique: Which debater did you find to be most compelling? Why? How did his use or recognition of logical fallacy contribute to your opinion?

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Answers will vary.


answer key: dictionaries and other word...

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