animal physiology i 2010 edit
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![Page 1: Animal Physiology I 2010 edit](https://reader030.vdocuments.site/reader030/viewer/2022012905/5494e743b47959204b8b468e/html5/thumbnails/1.jpg)
Circulatory Systems(Ch. 42)
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Exchange of materials• Animal cells exchange material across their
cell membrane– fuels for energy – nutrients – oxygen – waste (urea, CO2)
• If you are a 1-cell organism that’s easy!– diffusion
• If you are many-celled that’s harder
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Overcoming limitations of diffusion
O2
CHO
CHO
aa
aa
CH
CO2
NH3aa
O2
CH
aa
CO2
CO2
CO2
CO2
CO2
CO2 CO2
CO2
CO2
CO2
NH3
NH3 NH3
NH3
NH3
NH3
NH3NH3
O2
aa
CH
aa
CHO
O2
• Diffusion is not adequate for moving material across more than 1-cell barrier
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In circulation…• What needs to be
transported– nutrients & fuels
• from digestive system– respiratory gases
• O2 & CO2 from & to gas exchange systems
– intracellular waste• waste products from
cells: water, salts, nitrogenous wastes
– protective agents• immune defenses
– regulatory molecules• hormones
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Circulatory systems• All animals have:
– circulatory fluid = “blood”– tubes = blood vessels– muscular pump = heart
open closed
hemolymph
blood
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Open circulatory system
• Taxonomy– invertebrates
• insects, arthropods, mollusks
• Structure– no separation
between blood & interstitial fluid • hemolymph
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Closed circulatory system• Taxonomy
– invertebrates• earthworms, squid,
octopuses– vertebrates
• Structure– blood confined to vessels
& separate from interstitial fluid• 1 or more hearts• large vessels to smaller
vessels• material diffuses
between blood vessels & interstitial fluid
closed system = higher pressures
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Vertebrate circulatory system• Adaptations in closed system
– number of heart chambers differs
4 chamber heart is double pump = separates oxygen-rich & oxygen-poor blood; maintains high pressure
What’s the adaptive value of a 4 chamber heart?
2 3 4
low pressureto body
low O2
to body
high pressure & high O2
to body
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FISHES AMPHIBIANS REPTILES (EXCEPT BIRDS) MAMMALS AND BIRDS
Systemic capillaries Systemic capillaries Systemic capillaries Systemic capillaries
Lung capillaries Lung capillariesLung and skin capillariesGill capillaries
Right Left Right Left Right Left Systemic
circuitSystemic
circuit
Pulmocutaneouscircuit
Pulmonarycircuit
Pulmonarycircuit
SystemiccirculationVein
Atrium (A)
Heart:ventricle (V)
Artery Gillcirculation
A
V VV VV
A A A AALeft
Systemicaorta
Right systemic
aorta
Evolution of vertebrate circulatory system
Birds ANDmammals!
Wassssup?!
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• Selective forces– increase body size
• protection from predation• bigger body = bigger stomach
– endothermy• can colonize more habitats
– flight• decrease predation & increase hunting
• Effect of higher metabolic rate– greater need for energy, fuels, O2, waste
removal• endothermic animals need 10x energy• need to deliver 10x fuel & O2 to cells
Evolution of 4-chambered heart
convergent
evolution
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Vertebrate cardiovascular system
• Chambered heart– atrium = receive blood– ventricle = pump blood out
• Blood vessels– arteries = carry blood away from heart
• arterioles
– veins = return blood to heart• venules
– capillaries = thin wall, exchange / diffusion • capillary beds = networks of capillaries
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Blood vesselsarteries
arterioles
capillaries
venules
veins
artery
arteriolesvenules
veins
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Arteries: Built for high pressure pump
• Arteries – thicker walls
• provide strength for high pressure pumping of blood
– narrower diameter– elasticity
• elastic recoil helps maintain blood pressure even when heart relaxes
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Veins: Built for low pressure flow• Veins
– thinner-walled – wider diameter
• blood travels back to heart at low velocity & pressure
• lower pressure– distant from heart– blood must flow by skeletal muscle
contractions when we move » squeeze blood through veins
– valves• in larger veins one-way valves
allow blood to flow only toward heart
Open valve
Blood flowstoward heart
Closed valve
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Capillaries: Built for exchange• Capillaries
– very thin walls • lack 2 outer wall layers • only endothelium
– enhances exchange across capillary
– diffusion• exchange between blood &
cells
Precapillary sphincters Thoroughfarechannel
Arteriole
CapillariesVenule
(a) Sphincters relaxed
(b) Sphincters contracted
VenuleArteriole
(c) Capillaries and larger vessels (SEM) 20 m
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Controlling blood flow to tissues• Blood flow in capillaries controlled by
pre-capillary sphincters• supply varies as blood is needed• after a meal, blood supply to digestive tract increases• during strenuous exercise, blood is diverted from digestive tract to
skeletal muscles
– capillaries in brain, heart, kidneys & liver usually filled to capacity
sphincters open sphincters closed
Why?
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Exchange across capillary walls
Arteriole
Bloodflow
Venule
Lymphaticcapillary
Interstitialfluid
Fluid & solutes flows out of capillaries to tissues due to blood pressure• “bulk flow”
Interstitial fluid flows back into capillaries due to osmosis plasma proteins osmotic
pressure in capillary
BP > OP BP < OP
15% fluid returns via lymph
85% fluid returns to capillaries
What aboutedema?
Capillary
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The interrelationship of blood flow velocity, cross-sectional area of blood vessels, and blood pressure
5,0004,0003,0002,0001,000
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5040302010
0
120100806040200
Aor
ta
Art
erie
s
Art
erio
les
Cap
illar
ies
Ven
ules
Vei
ns
Ven
ae c
avae
Pre
ssur
e (m
m H
g)V
eloc
ity (
cm/s
ec)
Are
a (c
m2)
Systolicpressure
Diastolicpressure
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Lymphatic system• Parallel circulatory system
– transports white blood cells• defending against infection
– collects interstitial fluid & returns to blood• maintains volume & protein
concentration of blood• drains into circulatory system near
junction of vena cava & right atrium
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Lymph system Production & transport of WBCs
Traps foreign invaders
lymph node
lymph vessels(intertwined amongst blood vessels)
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Mammaliancirculation
What do blue vs. red areas represent?
pulmonary
systemic
systemic
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Mammalian heart
Coronary arteries
to neck & head& arms
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Coronary arteries
bypass surgery
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AV
SL
AV
Heart valves
• 4 valves in the heart– flaps of connective tissue– prevent backflow
• Atrioventricular (AV) valve – between atrium & ventricle– keeps blood from flowing back
into atria when ventricles contract• “lub”
• Semilunar valves– between ventricle & arteries– prevent backflow from arteries into
ventricles while they are relaxing• “dub”
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AV
SL
AV
Lub-dub, lub-dub
• Heart sounds – closing of valves– “Lub”
• recoil of blood against closed AV valves
– “Dub”• recoil of blood against
semilunar valves
• Heart murmur– defect in valves causes hissing sound when stream of
blood squirts backward through valve
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• 1 complete sequence of pumping– heart contracts & pumps– heart relaxes & chambers fill – contraction phase
• systole• ventricles pumps blood out
– relaxation phase• diastole• atria refill with blood
Cardiac cycle
systolic________diastolic
pump (peak pressure)_________________fill (minimum pressure)
110____
70
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The control of heart rhythm
SA node(pacemaker)
AV node Bundlebranches
Heartapex
Purkinjefibers
1 2 Signals are delayedat AV node.
Pacemaker generates wave of signals
to contract.
3 Signals passto heart apex.
4 Signals spreadthroughoutventricles.
ECG
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Semilunarvalvesclosed
AV valveopen
AV valveclosed
Semilunarvalvesopen
Atrial and ventricular
diastole
1
Atrial systole; ventricular
diastole
2
Ventricular systole; atrial diastole
3
0.1 sec
0.3 sec0.4 sec
The cardiac cycle
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Measurement of blood pressure
• High Blood Pressure (hypertension)– if top number (systolic pumping) > 150– if bottom number (diastolic filling) > 90
Artery
Rubber cuffinflatedwith air
Arteryclosed
120 120
70
Pressurein cuff
above120
Pressurein cuff
below 120
Pressurein cuff
below 70
Sounds audible in
stethoscope
Sounds stop
Blood pressureReading: 120/170
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Plasma 55%
Constituent Major functions
Water Solvent forcarrying othersubstances
SodiumPotassiumCalcium
MagnesiumChloride
Bicarbonate
Osmotic balancepH buffering, and
regulation of membrane
permeability
Albumin
Fibringen
Immunoglobulins(antibodies)
Plasma proteins
Icons (blood electrolytes
Osmotic balance,pH buffering
Clotting
Defense
Substances transported by bloodNutrients (such as glucose, fatty acids, vitamins)
Waste products of metabolismRespiratory gases (O2 and CO2)
Hormones
Cellular elements 45%
Cell type Numberper L (mm3) of blood
Separatedblood
elements
Functions
Erythrocytes(red blood cells) 5–6 million Transport oxygen
and help transportcarbon dioxide
Leukocytes(white blood cells)
5,000–10,000 Defense andimmunity
Eosinophil
Basophil
Platelets
Neutrophil Monocyte
Lymphocyte
250,000400,000
Blood clotting
The composition of mammalian blood
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Differentiation of blood cells
B cells T cells
Lymphoidstem cells
Pluripotent stem cells(in bone marrow)
Myeloidstem cells
Erythrocytes
Platelets Monocytes
Neutrophils
Eosinophils
Basophils
Lymphocytes
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Plateletplug
Collagen fibers
Platelet releases chemicalsthat make nearby platelets sticky
Clotting factors from:Platelets
Damaged cellsPlasma (factors include calcium, vitamin K)
Prothrombin Thrombin
Fibrinogen Fibrin5 µm
Fibrin clot Red blood cell
The clotting process begins when the endothelium of a
vessel is damaged, exposing connective tissue in the
vessel wall to blood. Plateletsadhere to collagen fibers in the connective tissue and release a substance that
makes nearby platelets sticky.
1 The platelets form a plug that provides
emergency protectionagainst blood loss.
2This seal is reinforced by a clot of fibrin when
vessel damage is severe. Fibrin is formed via amultistep process: Clotting factors released fromthe clumped platelets or damaged cells mix with
clotting factors in the plasma, forming an activation cascade that converts a plasma protein
called prothrombin to its active form, thrombin.Thrombin itself is an enzyme that catalyzes the
final step of the clotting process, the conversion of fibrinogen to fibrin. The threads of fibrin become
interwoven into a patch (see colorized SEM).
3 Blood clotting
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Atherosclerosis
(a) Normal artery (b) Partly clogged artery50 µm 250 µm
Smooth muscleConnective tissue Endothelium Plaque
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Coronary Embolism
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Cerebral Aneurysm
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Bloody well asksome questions, already!
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Make sure you can do the following:1. Label all parts of the mammalian heart and
diagram blood flow through it.2. Explain the causes of circulatory system
disruptions and how disruptions of the circulatory system can lead to disruptions of homeostasis.