animal nutrition (ch. 41) what do animals need to live? o2o2 food atp animals make energy using: –...
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Animal Nutrition
Animal Nutrition(Ch. 41)
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What do animals need to live?
O2
food
ATP
• Animals make energy using:– food– oxygen
• Animals build bodies using:– food for raw materials
• amino acids, sugars, fats, nucleotides
– ATP energy for synthesis
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Nutritional requirements• Animals are heterotrophs
– need to take in food– Why? fulfills 3 needs…
• fuel = chemical energy for production of ATP • raw materials = carbon source for synthesis• essential nutrients = animals cannot make
– elements (N, P, K, Fe, Na, K, Ca...), NAD, FAD, etc.
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How do animals get their food?
filter (suspension) feeding substrate feeding
fluid feeding bulk feeding
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Different diets; different lives• All animals eat other organisms
– Herbivores• eat mainly plants
– gorillas, cows, rabbits, snails
– Carnivores• eat other animals
– sharks, hawks, spiders, snakes
– Omnivores• eat animals & plants
– cockroaches, bears, raccoons, humans– humans evolved as hunters, scavengers & gatherers
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Generalized Animal Body Plan
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Getting & Using Food• Ingest
– taking in food• Digest
– mechanical digestion• Breaking food into smaller pieces
– chemical digestion• breaking down food into small
molecules to be absorbed into cells• Absorb
– absorb across cell membrane• Diffusion, active transport
• Eliminate – undigested extracellular material
passes out of digestive system
intracellulardigestion
extracellulardigestion
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Digestive systems
Everybody’s got one!
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Human digestive systemAlimentary Canal
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Common processes & structures
• Movement & Control – peristalsis
• push food along by rhythmic waves of smooth muscle contraction in walls of digestive system
– sphincters• muscular ring-like valves, regulate the passage of
material between sections of digestive system• Accessory glands
– salivary glands, pancreas, liver & gall bladder• secrete digestive juices (enzymes & fluid)
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Swallowing (& not choking)
• Epiglottis – problem: breathe & swallow through same orifice– flap of cartilage closes trachea (windpipe) when swallowing– food travels down esophagus
• Esophagus
– move food along to stomach by peristalsis
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Ingestion• Mouth
– mechanical digestion• Teeth: breaking up food
– chemical digestion• saliva
– Amylase: enzyme digests starch
– Mucin: slippery protein (mucus). Protects lining of digestive system, lubricates food.
– Buffers: neutralize acid to prevent tooth decay
– anti-bacterial chemicals: lysozyme.
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mouthbreak up foodmoisten food digest starchkill germs
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Stomach• Functions
– food storage: can stretch to fit ~2L food
– disinfect food• HCl = pH 2
–kills bacteria, breaks apart cells
– chemical digestion• Pepsin: enzyme breaks down
proteins–secreted as pepsinogen
»activated by HCl
But the stomach is made out of protein!What stops the stomach from digesting itself?
mucus secreted by stomach cells protects stomach lining
Ooooooh!Zymogen!
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stomachkills germs store food break up fooddigest proteins
cardiacsphincter
pyloricsphincter
mouthbreak up foodmoisten food digest starchkill germs
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• Used to think ulcers were caused by stress
– tried to control with antacids
• Now know ulcers caused by bacterial infection of stomach
– Helicobacter pylori– now cure with
antibiotics
Ulcers
inflammation of stomach
inflammation of esophagus
Colonized by H. pylori
Free of H. pylori
white blood cells
cytokines
inflammatory proteins(CagA)
cell damaging proteins(VacA)
helper T cells
neutrophil cells
H. pylori
Coevolution of parasite & host
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Revolutionizing healthcare"for their discovery of the bacterium Helicobacter pylori and its role in gastritis and peptic ulcer disease"
J. Robin Warren Barry Marshall
1982 | 2005
Helicobacter pylori
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Small intestine• Function
– major organ of digestion & absorption – chemical digestion: digestive enzymes– absorption through lining: over 6 meters!
• small intestine has huge surface area = 300m2 (~size of tennis court)
• Structure– 3 sections
• duodenum = most digestion• jejunum = absorption of nutrients & water• ileum = absorption of nutrients & water
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Duodenum • 1st section of small intestines
– acid food from stomach mixes with digestive juices from accessory glands:
pancreas liver gall bladder
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Pancreas • Digestive enzymes
– peptidases• trypsin
– trypsinogen• chymotrypsin
– chimotrypsinogen• carboxypeptidase
– procarboxypeptidase– pancreatic amylase
• Buffers – reduces acidity
• alkaline solution rich in bicarbonate (HCO3-)
• buffers acidity of material from stomach
Explain how this is a molecular example of structure-function theme.
Ooooooh!Zymogen!
What stopspancreas
from digesting itself
small intestines
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stomachkills germs break up fooddigest proteinsstore food
pancreasproduces enzymes to digest proteins & starch
mouthbreak up foodmoisten food digest starchkill germs
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Liver • Digestive System Functions
– produces bile• stored in gallbladder until needed• breaks up fats
– act like detergents to breakup fats
Circulatory System Connectionbile contains colors from old red blood cells collected in liver =iron in RBC rusts & makes feces brown
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pancreasproduces enzymes to digest proteins & starch
stomachkills germs break up fooddigest proteinsstore food
liverproduces bile
- stored in gall bladderbreak up fats
mouthbreak up foodmoisten food digest starchkill germs
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Digestive enzymes
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Absorption by Small Intestines• Absorption through villi & microvilli
– finger-like projections• increase surface area for absorption
Ooooh…Structure-Function
theme!
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Absorption of Nutrients • Passive transport
– fructose• Active (protein pumps) transport
– pump amino acids, vitamins & glucose• against concentration gradients across intestinal cell
membranes• allows intestine to absorb much higher proportion
of nutrients in the intestine than would be possible with passive diffusion
– worth the cost of ATP!
nutrients are valuable…grab all you can get!
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small intestinesbreakdown all foods
- proteins- starch- fats- nucleic acids
absorb nutrients
stomachkills germs break up fooddigest proteinsstore food
pancreasproduces enzymes to digest proteins & starch
liverproduces bile
- stored in gall bladderbreak up fats
mouthbreak up foodmoisten food digest starchkill germs
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Large intestines (colon)• Function
– re-absorb water• use ~9 liters of water every
day in digestive juices• > 90% of water reabsorbed
– not enough water absorbed back to body
» diarrhea – too much water
absorbed back to body» constipation
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Flora of large intestines
• Living in the large intestine is a richflora of harmless, helpful bacteria– Escherichia coli (E. coli)
• a favorite research organism
– bacteria produce vitamins • vitamin K; biotin, folic acid & other B vitamins
– generate gases• by-product of bacterial
metabolism • methane, hydrogen sulfide
You’ve gotcompany!
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Rectum • Last section of colon (large intestines)
– eliminate feces• undigested materials
– extracellular waste» mainly cellulose from plants» roughage or fiber
• salts• masses of
bacteria
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stomachkills germs break up fooddigest proteinsstore food
small intestinesbreakdown food
- proteins- starch- fats
absorb nutrients
pancreasproduces enzymes to digest proteins & carbs
liverproduces bile
- stored in gall bladderbreak up fats
large intestinesabsorb water
mouthbreak up foodmoisten food digest starchkill germs
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Appendix
Vestigial organ
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2006-2007
Animal NutritionVariations, Adaptations & Regulation
This obese mouse (L) has defect in gene which normally produces leptin, an appetite-regulating protein.
Many herbivores have diets deficient in mineral salts. Must find other sources = salt licks, chewing on bones
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Energy budget
food intake
basal (resting) metabolism
temperature regulation
activity
repair growth reproduction
ATPproductio
n {synthesi
s { glycogen fat
storage {
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Energy storage
• In humans– glycogen storage
• glucose polymer– in liver & muscle cells
• If glycogen stores are full & caloric intake still exceeds caloric expenditure– excess stored as fat– synthesis pathway
from acetyl coA
Why isglycogen highly
branched?
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Balancing calorie needs with intake
• When fewer calories are taken in than are expended, fuel is taken out of storage deposits & oxidized (digested)– breakdown (digest) glycogen
from liver & muscle cells– metabolize (digest) fat Just do it!
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Vegetarian diets• Need to make sure you get enough protein
– 20 amino acids to make protein• humans can synthesize 12 of the amino acids • 8 have to be eaten = “essential amino acids”
– Grains (like corn) have 6 (missing 2)– Beans (like soybean & red beans) have 6 (missing different 2)
• mix beans & grainsfor complete group of amino acids– rice & beans– taco/tortilla & beans– tofu & rice– peanut butter & bread
What no fish!
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Eating a balanced diet
• What happens if an animal’s diet is missing an essential nutrient?– deficiency diseases
• scurvy — vitamin C (collagen production)• rickets — vitamin D (calcium absorption)• blindness — vitamin A (retinol production)• anemia — vitamin B12 (energy production)• kwashiorkor — protein
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Kwashiorkor (a protein deficiency) in a Haitian boy
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Different diets; different bodies• Adaptations of herbivore vs. carnivore
– specialization in teeth– length of digestive system– number & size of stomachs
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Teeth
• Carnivore– sharp ripping teeth– “canines”
• Herbivore– wide grinding
teeth– molars
• Omnivore– both kinds of teeth
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Length of digestive system• Carnivores
– short digestive system
• protein easier to digest than cellulose
• Herbivores & omnivores– long digestive
system• more time to
digest cellulose• symbiotic
bacteria in gut
Rememberthe rabbits,
George!
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Symbiotic organisms
Ruminantsadditional mechanical digestion by chewing food multiple times after mixing it with enzymes
• How can cows digest cellulose efficiently?– symbiotic bacteria in stomachs help digest cellulose-rich
meals– rabbit vs. cow adaptation: eat feces vs. chew cud
ruminantcaprohagy
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Managing glucose levels• Mammals regulate use & storage of glucose
– insulin reduces blood glucose levels• glucose levels rise above set point,
pancreas secretes insulin• promotes transport of glucose into cells &
storage of glucose (as glycogen) in liver & muscle cells• drops blood glucose levels
– glucagon increases blood glucose levels• when glucose levels drop below set point,
pancreas secretes glucagon• promotes breakdown of glycogen &
release of glucose into the blood• raises blood glucose levels Whoa!
Didn’t realizeI was so busy!
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liver
pancreas
liver
blood glucose level(90 mg/100 mL blood)
insulin
body cells take
up glucose from blood
liver storesglucose asglycogen
reducesappetite
glucagon
pancreas
liver releasesglucose
triggershunger
high
low
Feedback: Maintaining Homeostasis
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Liver
Gallbladder
DuodenumPancreas
Stomach
Proteins
Gastrin
Acinarcells
Regulation of Digestion
Coordination of nervous system & endocrine system
HClPepsin
+ –
CCK
–Secretin
Chiefcells
Parietalcells
+
+
+
–Gastric
inhibitorypeptide
+
+
Fats
–
Bile
Enzymes
Bicarbonate
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Hungry for Information?
Ask Questions!
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Make sure you can do the following:1. Label/Identify all organs that play major roles in
the digestive system.2. Provide at least three examples of physical and
chemical digestion and their locations.3. Explain the causes of digestive system
disruptions and how disruptions of the digestive system can lead to disruptions of homeostasis.