animal digestion and nutrition. nutritional requirements animals are heterotrophs –need to take in...
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Animal Digestion and Nutrition
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Nutritional requirements• Animals are heterotrophs
– need to take in food– Why? fulfills 3 needs…
• fuel = chemical energy for production of ATP • raw materials = carbon sources for biosynthesis• essential nutrients = substances animals cannot
make themselves– elements (N, P, K, Fe, Na, K, Ca, etc.), NAD, FAD, etc.
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Energy budget
food intake
ATPproduction
biosynthesis
• basal (resting) metabolism
• activity• temperature
regulation
• growth• reproduction
{{
storage• glycogen• fat{
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Energy budget
• The flow of food energy into & out of an animal can be viewed as a “budget”– if animal takes in more calories than it needs
to produce ATP, “bank” the rest– excess used for biosynthesis & storage
• growth in size • reproduction• stored in energy
deposits
This obese mouse (L) has defect in gene which normally produces an appetite-regulating protein
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Energy storage• In humans
– store as glycogen• glucose polymer
– storage in liver & muscle cells
• If glycogen stores are full & caloric intake still exceeds caloric expenditure– excess stored as fat
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Managing caloric intake
• When fewer calories are taken in than are expended, fuel is taken out of storage deposits & oxidized (digested)– breakdown glycogen from liver & muscle cells– metabolize (digest) fat
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Regulation: Maintaining Homeostasis
• Balancing glucose levels in bloodpancreas
pancreas
insulin
glucose storage
glucose uptake
glucose release
depress appetite
stimulatehungerglucagon
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Managing glucose levels• Human body regulates the use & storage of
glucose, a major cellular fuel– insulin reduces blood glucose levels
• when glucose levels rise above set point, pancreas secretes insulin
• promotes transport of glucose into cells & storage of glucose as glycogen in liver & muscle cells
• dropping blood glucose levels
– glucagon increases blood glucose levels• when glucose levels drop below set point,
pancreas secretes glucagon• promotes breakdown of glycogen &
release of glucose into the blood• increasing blood glucose levels
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Nutritional requirements• Fuel for ATP production• Raw materials for
biosynthesis– source of N & P
• to make complex molecules = proteins, nucleic acids
– need complex molecules animals cannot synthesize • amino acids, vitamins
– need minerals• iron, calcium, etc.
Many herbivores have diets deficient in mineral salts. Must find other sources = salt licks, chewing on bones
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Vegetarian diets• 8 essential amino acids
– what about the other 12? we can synthesize them!
• Possible amino acid deficiency can be avoided by eating foods with complementary amino acids– beans & grains
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Essential Nutrients
• What happens if an animal’s diet is missing an essential nutrient?– deficiency diseases
• scurvy — vitamin C (collagen production)• rickets — vitamin D (calcium absorption)• blindness — vitamin A (retinol production)
• anemia — vitamin B12 (coenzyme function)
• kwashiorkor — protein
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Essential vitamins (coenzymes)
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Essential vitamins (coezymes)
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Essential minerals (cofactors)
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Dietary regimes • All animals eat other organisms
– Herbivores• eat mainly autotrophs (plants, algae)• gorillas, cows, hares, snails
– Carnivores• eat other animals • sharks, hawks, spiders, snakes
– Omnivores• consume animals & plants or algae• cockroaches, bears, raccoons, humans• humans evolved as hunters, scavengers &
gatherers
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Feeding adaptations
suspension feeding substrate feeding
fluid feeding bulk feeding
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Food processing• Ingestion
– eating
• Digestion– breaking food down into molecules
small enough for the body to absorb– enzymatic hydrolysis
• Absorption– animal cells take up small molecules
• Elimination – undigested material passes of
digestive system
intracellulardigestion
extracellulardigestion
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Digestive systems
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Mammalian digestive system• Alimentary canal
– peristalsis• push food along by rhythmic waves of smooth
muscle contraction in walls of digestive canal– sphincters
• muscular ring-like valves, regulate the passage of material between specialized chambers of digestive canal
• Accessory glands– salivary glands, pancreas, liver & gall bladder
• secrete digestive juices (enzymes & fluid)
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Human digestive system
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Swallowing
• Mouth ingests– mechanical digestion & chemical
digestion of starch
• Epiglottis – closes trachea when swallowing– problem: breathe & swallow through
same orifice
• Esophagus – moves food to stomach by peristalsis
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Ingestion• Mouth, pharynx & esophagus
– physical & chemical digestion of food – trigger reflexive release of saliva from salivary
glands, containing:• mucin
– slippery glycoprotein
– protects soft lining of mouth from abrasion & lubricates food for easier swallowing
• buffers – help prevent tooth decay by neutralizing acid in mouth
• antibacterial agents – kill bacteria that enter mouth with food
• amylase– digests starch & glycogen
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Stomach• Food storage
– can stretch to fit ~2L food & fluid
• Digestion– gastric juice
• digestive fluid secreted by epithelial lining
• HCl– pH 2– breaks down matrix
binding cells– kills bacteria
• pepsin– breaks down proteins– secreted as pepsinogen
• mucus– protects stomach lining
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Small intestine• Major organ of digestion & absorption
– over 6 meters!– 3 sections
• duodenum = most of digestion• jejunum = absorption of nutrients & water• ileum = absorption of nutrients & water
– absorption through lining of intestines
• small intestine has huge surface area = 300 m2
(roughly size of tennis court)
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Duodenum
• Acid material from stomach mixes with digestive juices from glands:– pancreas, liver, gall bladder & glandular cells
of intestinal wall
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Pancreas • Digestive enzymes
– peptidases• trypsin
– trypsinogen
• chymotrypsin– chimotrypsinogen
• carboxypeptidase– procarboxypeptidase
– amylase
• Buffers – lowers pH
• alkaline solution rich in bicarbonate (HCO3-)
• buffers acidity of material from stomach
Explain how this is a molecular example of structure-function theme.
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Digestive enzymes
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Liver • Many functions in body
– digestive system• production of bile
– stored in gallbladder until needed– act as “detergent” to help digest & absorb fats
– circulatory system• toxin & damaged red blood cell removal
– bile contains pigment by-products of RBC– bile pigments eliminated from body with feces – brown feces = rusty iron from hemoglobin!
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Absorption
• Villi – increase surface area
Explain how this is a structural example of structure-function theme
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Absorption of Nutrients • Passive
– fructose
• Active (protein pumps)– pump amino acids, vitamins & glucose
• against concentration gradients across intestinal cell membranes
• allows intestine to absorb much higher proportion of nutrients in the intestine than would be possible with passive diffusion
– worth the cost of ATP!
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Large intestines (colon)• Reclaiming water
– used as solvent for various digestive juices
• ~7L of fluid secreted intodigestive tract daily
• > 90% of water reabsorbed– diarrhea = insufficient
water absorbed – constipation = too much
water absorbed
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Flora of large intestines• Living in the large intestine is a rich flora
of mostly harmless bacteria– Escherichia coli
• a favorite research organism
– bacteria produce vitamins • vitamin K; biotin, folic acid & other B vitamins
– generate gases• by-product of bacterial
metabolism • methane, hydrogen sulfide
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Structural adaptations• Structural variations reflecting diet have
made mammals very successful– differences in teeth– length of digestive system– number & size of stomachs
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Teeth
• evolutionary adaptation of teeth for processing different kinds of food
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Length of digestive system• Herbivores &
omnivores– long digestive
systems– harder to digest
cellulose (cell walls)
• Carnivores– short digestive
systems
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Digesting cellulose • How well you digest cellulose governs life
strategy of herbivores
starch vs. cellulose
position of glycosidic linkage governs digestibility
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Cowcan digest cellulose well; no need to eat supplemental sugars
Gorillacan’t digest cellulose well; must supplement with sugar source, like fruit
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Symbiotic organisms• How can cows digest cellulose efficiently?
– symbiotic bacteria & protists help digest cellulose-rich meals of herbivores
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Any Questions??