ancient history student handbook

7/30/2019 Ancient History Student Handbook

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Ancient HistoryStudent Handbook

Parts adapted from the University of Queensland Classics and Ancient

History Writing Guide

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Contents

Contents........................................................................................................... 2

The Research Book...........................................................................................5Essay Writing....................................................................................................7

TERMINOLOGY..................................................................................................8

STARTING YOUR RESEARCH............................................................................. 9

CRITICAL USE OF SOURCES..............................................................................9

RESEARCH AND NOTE-TAKING.......................................................................12

REFERENCING.................................................................................................14

ACADEMIC PROSE...........................................................................................16

STRUCTURE OF THE ESSAY............................................................................17

PRESENTATION............................................................................................... 18

SAMPLE ESSAY OUTLINE.................................................................................19

ESSAY CHECKLIST..........................................................................................20

Sample Essay: Christianity in Roman Britain..................................................22

Figure 1: Structuring student inquiry

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Figure 2: Aspects of inquiry

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THE RESEARCH BOOK

Purchase an A4 notebook which will become the research book for your assignment.

Assign the first few pages for the development of your hypothesis and essay planning.This should also become a space for you to break down the assignment task to clearly

identify what is being asked of you. What are the key words? (see p.8)

Essay Plan

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Initial Hypothesis

This should be based on your background reading and analysis of the

assessment task

Reflection

Has further research altered what your essay will

be about?

Are there enough sources for your argument?

Do you want to argue a different position?

Changed Hypothesis

Final Hypothesis


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It is likely that your essay plan will evolve as you conduct further research. Use the

research booklet to document the changes. For a detailed discussion of essay structure see

p.17.

Assign a page for your reference list. Record all of the sources from which you have

gathered information. (see p.14)

The remainder of the notebook should be dedicated to research notes. (see p.12)

Highlight key aspects your research notes to identify your critical analysis of sources.

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Introduction

- What will be my hypothesis?

Body (What points am I going to make to support my hypothesis?)

Point 1

- What point am I going to make to support my hypothesis?

Point 2


Point 3


Point 4


Conclusion


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ESSAY WRITING

Essays are structured pieces of persuasive writing containing an argument and supportingevidence. They must present a hypothesis and validate it with evidence. In Ancient

History there is a great deal of assessment that is essay-based.

You must answer the question you are set. This sounds simple, but it is surprising howmany people actually fail to answer the question! Drafting and proofreading will help you

determine whether you have fulfilled your goals.

You will be given essays that have different word limits, but their fundamental structure

and purpose remains the same. When you are preparing essays, one of your key goals

should be to learn about your topic. If you are able to get the information into your head,your task becomes infinitely easier!

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TERMINOLOGY

Your teacher will frame the essay questions using a variety of terms. It is essential youunderstand what these mean if you are to answer the question properly. Here is a list of

the most common terms and what they mean:

a) Assess: Determine the value or significance

b) Analyse: Consider in detail

c) Explain: Offer reasons for

d) To what extent: Quantify the importance (i.e., to a large extent, a small extent)e) Compare: Examine and note similarities

f) Contrast: Emphasise the differences (some questions will ask you to compare

and contrast, i.e., look for similarities and differences)g) Discuss: Examine and consider (this does not simply mean describe!)

h) Account for: Give reasons why

i) Illustrate: Clarify or demonstrate with examples (this does not mean you need todraw anything!)

j) Consider: Judge and come to an opinion

Regardless of the question, every essay paper must be a piece of argumentative writing.Do not simply tell the story! If you are unsure of exactly what the essay requires, please

see your teacher as soon as possible.

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STARTING YOUR RESEARCH

Now that youve chosen a topic, you can begin to research your essay. You may feeloverwhelmed by the many books and articles on the subject and unsure of where to

begin. If you dont know much about the topic, a good place to start would be a goodgeneral history of the period or standard textbooks, such as The Cambridge AncientHistory, From the Gracchi to Nero or A Penguin History of Greece. Alternatively, the

Oxford Classical Dictionary is an excellent starting point for a synopsis of a historical

period, place or person.

CRITICAL USE OF SOURCESIn writing your essay, you should present evidence that will support your answer to the

question. In Classics and Ancient History, there are two types of sources of information

that we use, ancient sources and modern works. Remember that ancient sources maycontain both evidence and opinion. Modern works can only add opinion.

Ancient SourcesThese should form the backbone of your essay. Every ancient historian must base his or

her argument on the evidence from the ancient world. There are many different types of

ancient evidence.

A. Literary Sources: The works of many writers from antiquity have survived to the

present day, and these are indispensable to all scholars, even those who workprimarily with archaeological evidence. Ancient authors such as Tacitus, Livy,

Thucydides and Plato wrote in Latin or Greek, but their works are available to us

in English translations. There is no substitute for a knowledge of the ancient

languages, but English translations will suffice for undergraduate papers.

The two major translation series are Penguin paperbacks and the Loeb series

(small hardcover books, green for Greek and red for Latin, which contain theoriginal text facing the translation). Always read the ancient writers critically

they often have an agenda to push, and do so shamelessly.

B. Archaeological Remains: Archaeological material has shed invaluable light on

the ancient world, and provided evidence that either corroborates or contradictsthe literary sources. Archaeological evidence could be a pot illustrating scenes

from mythology, food remains, or even the ruins of a Mycenaean citadel. Reportsfrom archaeological excavations are often published in journals or book series.

C. Inscriptions: Inscriptions were set up throughout the ancient Greek and Romanworld. They could chart the career of an important politician, indicate a boundary

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marker, or record a peace treaty. Scholars usually publish such inscriptions in

books or articles with a commentary.

D. Papyri: Egypt has provided us with tens of thousands of documents preserved onpapyri (the most widely used writing material in the Graeco-Roman world),

dating particularly from the period of the Roman empire. Mainly written in Greek,

they cover an enormous range of subject matter, from official regulations andpetitions to tax receipts and private letters.

E. Coins: Money makes the world go round, and the ancients have left plenty of itfor us to find. Coins might commemorate a military victory, an emperors

accession, marriage or a politicians family ancestry. In a world without television

and newspapers, coins were essential propaganda tools for spreading a political

agenda.

NB: Archaeological evidence is not necessarily unbiased in contrast with the literary

sources. Reports of digs are still the product of the excavator, and thus often omit or pass

over details the writer considers irrelevant. Other aspects, such as the thoroughness of thedig and whether the site has been looted in antiquity or modern times, must also be

considered.

Notes on the use of Ancient Sources:

When you are reading your ancient sources, remember to bear the following things in

mind and think about how they affect the usefulness of the work as a piece of historical

evidence:

1. TIME: Is the text contemporaneous with the event, or was it written afterwards?

If so, how much later?

2. BIAS: Consider how the authors place of origin, social status, religion, political

leanings etc., may affect his (and very occasionally, her) objectivity.

3. PURPOSE OF WORK: What is its intended audience?

4. SKILLS: How reliable is the author? What sources did he rely on? What

techniques did he use?

Modern WorksModern scholars aim to synthesise and analyse the evidence from the ancient world toproduce reliable and unbiased historical accounts of the period. Be aware that modern

historians often fall into the same traps as writers from antiquity. Always read thewritings of modern classical historians with the same critical eye as you would the

ancient writers, and go back and check their sources for crucial points of your argument.

Modern scholarship takes several forms:

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A. Books: Books represent the culmination of many years of scholarship, and often

synthesise large amounts of evidence into an account of a particular historical

period, author, theme, or region. As it takes many years to write and publish abook, they are often beginning to become out of date by the time they hit the

library shelves. Be sure to note the date when a book was published it could be

seriously out of date if it was released in the 1930s and new evidence or theorieshave come to light since then. However, there are some classic treatments that

will always be worth reading, such as the New Zealander Sir Ronald Symes The

Roman Revolution, or Emily Vermeules Greece in the Bronze Age. Your coursebibliography will guide you as to which books are the most relevant to your topic.

Always consult your lecturer or tutor if you have any doubts about a source.

B. Journal Articles: Much more specific scholarly research is published in

academic journals, which appear at least once a year, with some published

biannually or quarterly. Articles will usually address one specific historical

problem and attempt to solve it. Owing to the shorter publication time, historical

debates can often be tracked over the years through journal articles.

C. Commentaries: Commentaries are written to accompany and elucidate the worksof classical authors. In a commentary, the author will provide in-depth, sometimes

line-by-line analysis of the historical and/or literary and grammatical complexities

of a work. These can be extremely useful for passages whose interpretation issubject to debate.

D. Reviews: Some journals, such as Classical Review, are devoted to publishing

reviews of recent books. These can be helpful in deciding whether a particularscholars view is controversial and whether his/her arguments withstand scholarly

scrutiny by his/her peers.

Notes on the use of Modern Works:

Modern works should be used judiciously. Do not simply quote large chunks of text from

standard text books. You should use these works to inform your awareness and reading ofrelevant ancient sources and to become aware of scholarly debates.

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RESEARCH AND NOTE-TAKING

Always start your research early. There is nothing worse than going to the library a weekbefore your essay is due and finding the shelves completely cleared out. It is your

responsibility to secure your research material ahead of time. It takes time to research,plan, write and then edit and re-write a paper. Leave yourself plenty of time to completeall the steps. You should research actively, not passively. What is the difference?

Here is a brief illustration:Marcus is reading Stocktons The Gracchi while watching the latest episode of CSI:Crime Scene Investigation. He often stops to highlight sentences, but does not make any

notes. Fulvia is also reading the The Gracchi, but adopts a different approach,

conscientiously taking notes that are of relevance to her essay topic. When necessary, shenotes down references in the footnotes for later reference.

Marcus is a passive reader: highlighting does not equal understanding! Fulvia, on theother hand, is actively engaging with the text and noting what is relevant to her specificquestion at hand. You should always research with the aim of your question in mind. If

you are writing a paper on Augustus moral legislation, you do not need to make copiousnotes on his skills as a general. Often it is a good idea to skim through an article or book

chapter first to determine whether it will be of use to your essay. If it does prove to be

useful, you can then read it again, taking in-depth notes. Similarly, dont spend all your

time reading entire books when only a chapter or two may be relevant to your paper usethe contents and index to guide your reading.

When reading a text, ask yourself the following questions:

1) Who wrote it and when?

2) What is the genre of the text? (history, biography, philosophicaltreatise, defence speech, letter, tragedy, comedy, etc.)

3) What is the purpose of the text? (to entertain, inform, to acquit a

defendant)

4) What are the biases of the writer?5) What are the writers sources?

6) What socio-political environment was the text written in?

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Taking good notes takes practice. Here is a way of setting out your page to ensure logical

arrangement of material and so that you can follow your notes when the time comes to

write your essay!

Top of the page: Here you should record the bibliographical details of the work from

which you are taking notes.

Bibliographic Details

1. Author

2. Title

3. Year of Publication

4. Publisher

5. Place of Publication

6. Page reference

Herodotus, The Histories, trans. de Slincourt, A., revised edition, 1996, Penguin,Harmondsworth.

Column 1: References Column 2: Notes Column 3: Critical

Use of Sources

1. Accuracy

2. Validity

3. Cross references

4. Relevance to hypothesis5. How would you use it?

Book 3, Chapter 33(p.167, Penguin ed.)

Book 4, Chapter 34

(pp. 167-168, Penguin

ed.)

Cambyses said to bea madman who

suffered from the

sacred sickness.

Cambyses kills the

son of Prexaspes to

prove he is not mad.

Consider Herodotushostile treatment of

Cambyses throughout

Book 3.

What part do such

stories play in the

larger narrative?

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REFERENCINGYou must support your assertions with references to the ancient evidence and modern

discussions. A system of referencing allows you to show readers where you obtained theinformation from so they can go and look it up for themselves. A list of all the source

materials, known as a bibliography, must be included at the end of your essay. The

bibliography should be clearly divided into two sections: ancient sources and modernworks. As your bibliography is a list of works consulted, it should not only include thosebooks specifically cited in the text of your essay, but also those that you have used in

your research.

When do I need to put in a reference?You must reference any information you have taken from both ancient sources and

modern works. There are two types of quotations:

A. Direct Quotation

A direct quotation is a word-for-word extract taken from the original work. The generalrules for all direct quotations, ancient and modern, are:

1. Keep them short.2. The fewer you have in any given essay, the better.

3. If the quotation contains a mistake or misspelling, you must not correct it when

you are reproducing the text. To show that you know there is a problem and it is

not your fault, place [sic] directly after the mistake.4. For quotations less than one sentence long, place them within the text of your

paragraph, clearly marked by quotation marks, .

For example: Rankin (1987: 145) states, We may doubt whether Vindexwished to replace the emperor at Rome.

5. For a quotation longer than one sentence, you should set it below the text of your

paragraph and indent it; you do not need to place the quotation in quotation

marks. You should place it in single-line spacing (the rest of your essay should be1.5-line or double-line spacing).

For example:

Suetonius (Nero 4) states,Indeed there is no kind of relationship that he did not violate in his career of

crime. He put to death Antonia, daughter of Claudius, for refusing to marryhim after Poppaeas death, charging her with an attempt at revolution; and hetreated in the same way all others who were in any way connected with him by

blood or by marriage.

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B. Indirect QuotationAn indirect quotation is when you have used an idea or opinion from another source but

have put it into your own words.

For example:

SuetoniusLife of Domitian depicts the emperor in an unfavourable light (Jones1996:xv).

How do I reference correctly?

The Harvard system is perhaps the easiest referencing system. It employs references both

within the body of the essay (for a single reference) and in footnotes (for more than one

reference). Below is a quick example of the Harvard style referencing system, for amodern book:

It has been suggested that Valerius Asiaticus was a social climber (Syme 1958: 602).

As you can see, the reference is placed before the full stop, it is enclosed in brackets,stating the authors surname, and the year of publication, followed by a colon and the

page number. In your bibliography, books, journals, reviews and websites will have morecomplete information provided about them. In the bibliography, this work, for example,

would appear thus:

Syme, R. 1958, Tacitus, Clarendon Press, Oxford.

The bibliographic entry should include the authors surname and initial(s), the year of

publication, the title of the work, the publisher and the place of publication.

Here is an example of an ancient source cited using the Harvard system:

The Germani were noted for their strict moral code (Tac. Germ. 19).

The reference contains the abbreviated name of the ancient author, Tacitus, theabbreviated name of his work, the Germania, and the number of the chapter that contains

the evidence for this assertion. Abbreviations of ancient works and of some basic modern

works are standardised and can be found at the beginning of the Oxford Classical

Dictionary (third edition). Sometimes you will be able to provide book, chapter and line

numbers for works, but it will depend on the layout of the source you are using.

Providing more information is always better than providing less information about a

source; that way your reader can find it if he/she wishes. The bibliographic entry for theabove work would appear thus:

Tacitus, Germania, ed. Anderson, J. G. C., 1938, Clarendon Press, Oxford.

A bibliographic entry for an ancient source should include the authors name, the title, the

editor, the year of publication, publisher and place of publication.

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N.B.:

1. Dates should be listed as follows: AD 69; 76 BC. You may use AD and BC (or

BCE and CE) with or without stops (i.e. AD or A.D., BC or B.C., etc). Centuriesmust be named fully, e.g. the third century BC.

2. Proper names should always be capitalised. Certain terms also require

capitalization, e.g. Iron Age, Roman Empire.

ACADEMIC PROSEYou must use academic prose when you write your essays and answer your exam

questions. This means that you must write in complete, logical, structured sentences andparagraphs. Academic prose need not be boring, but it should avoid sensationalism.

Always check grammar and spelling. Be aware that many word processors will not

recognise technical terms and names from the ancient world you will not be able to rely

on your computer to pick up many errors. Many essays too have been sabotaged by the

use of the autocorrect function. You must use language that is appropriate for scholarlywork: it should be clear, succinct, and objective. Never use racist, sexist, or offensive

language. The use of colloquialisms is inappropriate. Do not use contractions. Avoid theexcessive use of jargon. Employ a formal tone, but do not use flowery, oblique, or

pretentious language. If a simple word will do, use it. Although you will see it done, try

to avoid the use of personal pronouns, such as I, we, and you. For example, insteadof writing In this essay I will demonstrate, use an impersonal construction such as

In this essay it will be demonstrated. This technique maintains an objective,

scholarly tone. Avoid making sweeping generalizations, as they can be all too easilydiscredited or questioned, such as, All Roman slaves lived a miserable existence.

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STRUCTURE OF THE ESSAYYour essay should weave together the available ancient evidence and modern scholarship

into a cohesive synthesis of the issue. To achieve the highest marks, you need to showevidence of wide reading, demonstrate understanding of modern scholarly debates, and

provide an original evaluation of the subject matter.

Planning your EssayWhen planning your essay, keep the word length in mind. Do not anticipate having five

paragraphs dealing with Marius military reforms in a 1,500 word essay on the collapse

of the Roman republic. Every piece of argumentative writing should have the same basicstructure.

IntroductionThe introduction is your opening paragraph and must do two things:

1) Answer the question asked.2) Lay out your line of argument for the essay. This is known as the

hypothesis.

An introduction should be concise and to the point. For example, if your essay question

was Why did the Roman Republic collapse?, your introduction should clearly state the

reasons why the Roman Republic collapsed and how you will prove this in subsequent

paragraphs.

BodyIn the body of your essay, you should lay out your evidence to support the hypothesis

proposed in the introduction. For example, if you were answering the above questionabout the fall of the Roman Republic, each paragraph should focus on a specific reason

for the collapse of the Republic, including evidence from both ancient and modernsources. Each paragraph should begin with a topic sentence that introduces the specific

issue to be dealt with. For example, in the Roman Republic question, one paragraph

could start with: One of the major reasons the Roman Republic collapsed was thegrowing importance of the army in politics. In that paragraph, you would then

demonstrate with examples from the sources how the armys changing status helped to

lead to the fall of the Republic.

Every assertion you make must be supported by at least one reference to an ancient

source, whether it be a literary text or a piece of archaeological evidence.

A key component of any argumentative essay is your critical use of sources. In order toaccomplish this, you must demonstrate to the marker that you understand the biases

inherent in certain sources, or why one writers version of events must be believed over

anothers.

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ConclusionYour conclusion is a statement of what your essay has argued or proved it is not the

place to introduce new evidence. Your conclusion and introduction must always agree onthe position that you take in answering the question. If you change your mind while

writing your essay, make sure you rewrite your paper to ensure your argument is

consistent.

EditingYou should not be handing in your first draft. Make sure you leave plenty of time forrewriting to ensure your argument is both consistent and convincing, and the evidence

supports your point of view. You should also be reading for errors in spelling and

grammar the most professional paper will seem amateur if it is littered with typos.

PRESENTATION

It is of course in your own interest to present your arguments clearly in terms of structure,layout, and style. If your essay is relatively easy to read, your reader will be able to

engage with your argument much more easily and willingly. Essays should always be

typewritten. You have free access in the library to computers running word processors.There are printers available in the library. You must give yourself ample time when

preparing your essays so that computer or printer failure will not cause you to hand your

paper in late. You cannot submit essays in electronic form they must be printed out.Essays should have a margin of at least 2.5 cm on the left-hand side of the page. This

allows room for your marker to make comments on your work. Essays should be in 1.5 or

double line spacing. Single line spaced essays become extremely difficult for markers toread. Ideally you should use Times New Roman font in 12-point, no smaller. Please use

clean white paper to print your essay upon.

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SAMPLE ESSAY OUTLINEThis is a very simple outline of an essay, illustrating how to construct an argument from

introduction to conclusion and arrange your evidence into logical paragraphs.

Can HomersIliadbe used as historical evidence for Bronze Agesociety?

IntroductionStatement of hypothesis: This paper will argue that Homers epic poemtheIliadcannot beused as historical evidence for Bronze Age society as the archaeological evidence

conflicts with the world presented in the epic.

Notice how the introduction takes a definitive stand on the question posed. The marker isin no doubt as to what the writer will be arguing in this essay.

BodyEach paragraph should tackle one specific issue, presenting the evidence from ancient

and modern sources that support your argument. Ensure you employ your sources

critically: tell the marker why a source is or isnt to be trusted.

Paragraph 1: Difference: Politics Bronze Age: Many different city states

Iliad: One cohesive Greece, with Agamemnon as supreme leader

Bronze Age: Wanax the supreme leader

Iliad: Agamemnon described as (W)anax and Basileus

Paragraph 2: Difference: Warfare Bronze Age: Chariots used in warfare

Iliad: Warriors dismount from chariots before engaging in battle

But: Odysseus boar-tusk helmet, Ajaxs tower shield match

archaeological evidence

It is necessary to present evidence from the other point of view to show that you are

aware of both sides of the argument. Do not simply ignore conflicting views present

them and then, if you can, defeat them! It should be added that it may be the case that on

reflection you believe there are strengths in both sides of the argument. While refrainingfrom sitting on the fence, you certainly can argue that a question is not a simple yes or

no, right or wrong.

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Paragraph 3: Difference: Culture Bronze Age: Inhumation practised, tholos tombs, cists

Iliad: No inhumation, rather cremation

Bronze Age: Incredibly bureaucratic culture

Iliad: A chief culture, like that found at Lefkandi

ConclusionRestatement of hypothesis: Therefore, since it has been shown that (despite some

similarities) the archaeological remains of the Bronze Age world give a very differentpicture to the society depicted in Homers Iliad, the epic cannot be used as historical

evidence for Bronze Age society.

The conclusion introduces no new ideas, but simply sums up the evidence and shows thatthe hypothesis outlined in the introduction has now been proved correct.

ESSAY CHECKLIST

When you have finished your essay, ask yourself the following questions

1. Does my essay answer the question?

2. Do my introduction and conclusion agree?

3. Does my argument flow logically from paragraph to paragraph?

4. Is every point backed up with evidence from the ancient sources?5. Have I used my sources critically?

6. Are all pieces of evidence properly referenced?

7. Have I acknowledged all direct quotations from ancient and modern sources?

8. Have I checked that my spelling and punctuation are correct?

9. Have I employed technical terms in the correct way?

10. Have I separated my bibliography into ancient sources and modern works?

11. Is my essay within the word limit?

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WRITING DRAFTS

Although every respectable historian knows the importance of gathering information

before completing a historical essay, most also know how important it is to begin the

writing process as early as possibleThe almost unanimous testimony of good writers in

all disciplines is that writing is always difficult and that they must write several drafts to

be satisfied with an essay or a book. Your final draft must express a clear understanding

of your own thoughts. But the way to that understanding may lead through several drafts.

Writing, taking notes, rereading, and revising clarifies your thoughts and strengthens your

hold on your own ideas. Inexperienced writers often assume that an accomplished writersimply does the entire research fist and then writes. On the contrary, most experienced

writers find that no matter how much they know about a subject at the start, the act of

writing forces them to confront new problems and new questions, gives them new leads,

sends them off in search of more information to pursue those new leads, and eventually

takes them to conclusions different from those with which they began. For the

experienced writer, the writing proceeds in a process of leaping forward and jumping

back, but above all involves some sorts of writing very early and continuing until the

essay is completed.

Marius, R. & Page, M. (2007) A Guide to Writing about History (p. 106-107)

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SAMPLE ESSAY: CHRISTIANITY IN ROMAN BRITAIN

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The isles of Britain between the first and fifth century AD represented the unlimited

capabilities of Roman expansion. Such was the influence of the Roman Empire that very

few areas of native societies would remain untouched. Britain was no exception. In time

much of native British society was affected, including the role and significance of

religion. Whilst people may contend that relatively little is known about the individual

beliefs of the people of Roman Britain, the following pages will attempt to show

otherwise. Of major importance in the years being considered was the birth and growth of

Christianity. Such was its role in transforming individuals and societies elsewhere in the

Empire, that an examination of archaeology and literature would suggest similar impacts

throughout Roman Britain by the end of the fourth century. To reach such a conclusion

one must begin with an assessment of ancient literature available concerning this subject.

By establishing an initial understanding, archaeology can be assessed within this context.

Three major areas of archaeological discoveries will be used as evidence in asserting the

significance of Christianity in the Romano-British belief system. This includes possible

church structures, remains pointing towards Christianity in everyday life and finally a

look at what insight can be gained from Christian graves. Bringing all of this together

allows for a knowledgeable claim that Christianity had a following from people in

Roman Britain.

A number of early authors mention the presence of Christianity but fail to describe what a

personal belief for Romano-British subjects would look like. The first of these is known

to be Tertullian writing around 200 AD of places in Britain inaccessible to the Romans,

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but which have submitted to Christ (Against the Jews in Ireland 1996, p. 204). Critics

regard such a statement as a possible attempt to glorify a still illegal church which

continued to face active persecution (Petts 2003, p. 30). The fact that Tertullian was a

strong advocator of Christianity often causes readers to doubt this claim. Added to this is

the knowledge of Roman Britains position within the Empire. Being so far away from

the centre of Christian growth makes it difficult to think the religion had spread to Britain

by the end of the second century. However, when considering the Christian movement

was unstoppable under persecution the claim becomes more plausible. Tertullians

comments may suggest that in the climate of the times it was not an overstatement to

believe Christianity had a presence in Britain (Petts 2003).

This presence is all but assured by the fourth century. With the toleration of Christianity

proclaimed under the rule of Constantine, Christianity in Britain is represented at the

Council of Arles in 314 A.D:

Eborius, bishop of the city of York in the province of Britain, Restitutus, bishop

of the city of London in the above-mentioned province, Adelphius, bishop of the

city Colonia Londenensium, also Sacerdus, presbyter, and Arminius, deacon.

(Council of Arles in Ireland 1996, p. 204)

Such a recording is critical in providing evidence of a Christian community by the early

years of the fourth century. It is most likely though that these officials only represented

a minority of Christians on the island. Frend (1967) argues that Christianity in Britain

was nothing more than another cult brought from the East. This may be assumed, but it

was clear that these early days were paving the way for successful growth of the

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religion into the lives of Romano-British people. The Confessions of St Patrick provide

an account of a Romano-British Christian. Estimated to be written towards the end of

fourth century and beginning of the fifth, Patricks writings attests to at least three

generations of Christians in his family (Bieler 1967, p. 129). This would indicate a

definite Christian presence in Roman Britain but should not be accepted as the norm as

there are few reasons to believe Christianity was the major religion.

In general it appears that there is limited literature directly concerning the Christian

community within Roman Britain. This is a common theme for outlying provinces of the

empire in the west (Frend 1967). The majority of what is available has been written by

people outside of Britain and only when it is in their self interest. As a result, the

literature does not aid greatly in understanding how the personal belief system of a

Christian may have looked. This need not be a major concern, as what has been provided

is still constructive in indicating that a Christian belief system would have been taking

root throughout certain clusters of people by the fourth century AD. A broad awareness

of this allows the assessment of archaeological evidence within the right framework.

For Christians in the fourth century a place was needed for meeting, worship, prayer and

other rituals. The church building was the answer to this need. However, prior to the

Edict of Milan in 313 AD, times of meeting would have been confined to discreet

locations such as houses to avoid mass persecution. The one example of this style of

congregation in Roman Britain can be found at the villa of Lullingstone. The Christian

nature of this villa is apparent in paintings uncovered (Meates 1987). The images include

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a large chi-rho symbol flanked by an alpha and omega and figures depicting early

Christian prayer positions (Petts 2003). The chi-rho symbol is known to represent

Christianity in the religions early years (Thomas 1981). Although it is considered that

the rooms were re-organised for use as a house church in the second half of the fourth

century the villa is confirmation that such meetings took place in Roman Britain.

As the public nature of Christianity changed under Constantines leadership the creation

of purpose built churches became more apparent. Yet Roman Britain throughout the

fourth century experienced a considerable decline in new public buildings and the

maintenance of existing structures (Petts 2003). As a result many church buildings were

adapted to the existing structures (Petts 2003). A disputed example of this is located at

the town of Calleva. King (1983) is an advocate for the belief that the likely use of this

structure was for pagan cults. A claim like this can be disputed by understanding the

challenges facing early Christians. The Christian community in the early fourth century

was still learning how exactly they were going to express themselves. They were

followers of a new religion with relatively few institutionalised practices. As a result

there appears to be evidence of pagan practices in the Romano-British Christian

community (Watts 1991). However, adaptation of buildings used by pagans would not

necessarily have been considered an evil practice as it was later. A few notable

similarities between Christian and pagan worship meetings include site location, altars

and the interior decoration of buildings (Watts 1991). This link therefore allows the

basilica at Calleva to be labelled Christian without being an opposition to pagan themes.

Yet the reason to believe the basilica at Calleva had an overtly Christian use includes the

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narthex, nave, aisles, and an apse (Boon 1974). One feature that is substantial in

prescribing a Christian use is the presence of a transept. There is yet to be found a pagan

basilica possessing such a feature (Boon 1974). Confidence can be taken from the

knowledge that similar church structures have been found elsewhere in the Empire. The

most common example is the small fourth-century church of St Severin from Cologne

(Petts 2003, p. 59). It appears therefore that the architectural layout of the basilica at

Calleva could be attributed to Christian use.

As the tolerance of Christianity within the Roman Empire continued to increase during

the fourth century, it is no surprise that at this time evidence for Christian practice

presents itself. No longer would converts feel the risks that possibly once existed and

therefore church growth would have increased. The increase in numbers naturally lead

from house gatherings to the creation of larger meeting areas, namely churches. The

number of churches found relating to Roman Britain is minimal compared to other areas

of the Empire, but it is still conformation of the growing practice of Christians meeting

and sharing their faith.

With the increase of churches during the fourth century, there is also the emergence of

archaeological evidence pointing towards other aspects of the Christian belief system. Of

course the time of religious celebrations such as the Eucharist were of utmost importance

for the Christian believer, but outside of these times, Christianity would still have been

prominent in many areas of peoples lives. This has been revealed through the ways in

which believers expressed their faith.

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The expression of Christianity has been found in a variety of forms throughout the

Roman Britain province. One of the most prominent however is the use of symbolism.

Just like in todays culture a logo or word can represent an image, belief or lifestyle, so to

would ancient symbolism. The chi-rho symbol is regarded as the earliest and most

widespread symbol of Christianity (Watts 1991, p. 202). Its design originally involved

the capital letter P overlapped with the capital letter X. Later on this was to be changed to

a simpler capital letter P with a stroke across its shaft. The value of this symbol lies in the

letters being associated with the Greek letters alpha and omega (Petts, 2003, p. 104).

These letters refer to the book of Revelation which reads I am Alpha and Omega say the

Lord God, which is and which was and which is to come (Rev 1:8). A primary example

of this symbolic use is found in the Water Newton treasure dated no later than the fourth

century AD. Discovered in 1975, the Water Newton treasure contains numerous objects

such as strainers and bowls displaying the chi-rho symbol (Painter 1977). This is

consistent with the idea that Christians would adopt the principle of a pagan activity and

apply it in a Christian format (Watts 1991, p. 201). Rather than engraving materials to

honour pagan beliefs, Christians would conduct the same activity to honour their God. It

is interesting to note that the possible reason for depositing such objects may have been

out of fear of persecution from other cults and theft from raiders outside the Empire

(Painter 1977). The fact that Christians were prepared to take such action sheds light on

the great value attributed to these objects.

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The possibility of the chi-rho symbol being confused with pagan imagery is doubtful. The

emergence of this symbol throughout the Roman Empire during the fourth century aligns

with the acceptance of Christianity in general. Just as important is the placement of this

symbol in art work. Usage of the symbol found in the Hinton St Mary and Frampton

pavements has yet to be found in pagan imagery (Toynbee 1968, p. 181). It is not a

stretch of the imagination to consider that this was a way for followers of this new

religion to identify themselves and promote it at the same time. The principles underlying

the use of such a symbol seem very applicable to the Christian community later on in

history which used crosses and other symbolism to achieve the same goal.

A final aspect that is of immense value when assessing the state of Christianity in Roman

Britain is death. A persons belief system would often affect how this event was to be

approached. Archaeological finds relating to cemeteries should align with the picture

already being painted of Christianity in Roman Britain. Like many issues though there

are conflicting views. When it comes to Christian burial in Roman Britain, the dispute

surrounds the idea of whether or not it is possible to identify Christian graves (Petts,

2003, p. 137).

To begin with it is important to know what would have been the consensus regarding

burial throughout the Roman Empire. It is generally viewed that inhumation burials,

reintroduced during the third century, was the widely accepted way of doing things

(Sparey-Green 2003, p. 93). This practice reveals graves containing a body, laid out at

full length, on its back (Collingwood and Richmond 1969). An initial assumption by

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academics was that burials aligned west-east could be labelled as Christian. The

Lankhills cemetery is often quoted as an example. At this site the majority of graves

were found to display consistency in organisation and layout (Clarke 1979). Graves did

not overlap each other, much more care was taken in digging the graves and relatively

few contained grave goods. Organisation of this kind leads one to believe that the

cemetery must have been managed. Dating this cemetery to the period 300 320 AD

raises the possibility that the church was powerful enough at this stage to influence the

lay out of a cemetery (Macdonald 1977). This view has since been widely criticised.

Thomas (1981) suggests that it is unlikely that Christians were the pioneers of this ritual;

instead it is more likely that believers were influenced by prior existing non-Christian

communities. This explanation can also be attributed to the presence of grave goods in

fourth century cemeteries. Depending on the zealousness of a Roman-British Christian,

pagan traditions would have still pervaded areas of their lives, especially when facing

death. Clearly centuries of engrained pagan practices were not going to disappear

overnight (Watts 1991, p. 66). Grave goods are evidence of Roman-British Christians

still clinging to aspects of their former religion. Even though the Church frowned upon

certain grave furniture, other items may have been accepted given their relatively

inoffensive nature. This includes hobnails, broken pots and purposefully positioned

stones found at the Ancaster and Cannington cemeteries (Watts 1991, p. 73).

Although the evidence for Christian burials in Roman Britain is considered tenuous it

should not be disregarded. It cannot be denied that a Christian belief system was

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emerging intertwined with older pagan traditions throughout the fourth century. This is

consistent with what the archaeological evidence is revealing in other areas.

The fourth century can truly be labelled as the time when Christianity became prominent

throughout the Roman Empire. Although the literary sources concerning the Christian

belief system in Roman Britain are scarce, there is enough to acknowledge some form of

presence on the island. The extra evidence examined in the previous pages support this.

What is most intriguing is the nature of Christianity in these early years. Believers of this

faith were experiencing great change. Coming out of years of intense persecution, it can

be said that Christians were faced with a never before seen opportunity to define their

belief. In all the aspects analysed, it appears that to some extent habits from pagan

tradition were adopted in a matter that was appropriate for Christianity. This was seen in

the use of basilicas for meetings, engraving of objects and burial practices. This is a

plausible explanation when understood in context. The cultural norms would have been

influencing Christian believers as they developed certain aspects of their religion. From

what has been discussed here it can be proposed that Christian believers in the fourth

century lived a religion that was discovering itself inside a changing Empire.

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Ancient Sources

Acts of the Council of Arles in Ireland, S 1996,Roman Britain: A Sourcebok, Routledge,

London.

Tertullian,Against the Jews in Ireland, S 1996,Roman Britain: A Sourcebok, Routledge,

London.

Archaeological and Secondary Sources

Boon, GC 1974, Silchester, The Roman Town of Calleva, David and Charles, Newton

Abbot.

Bieler, L 1967, St Patrick and the British Church, in Barley, MW & Hanson, RPC (ed.),

Christianity in Britain, 300 700, Leicester University Press, Leicester City.

Clarke, G 1979, The Roman Cemetery at Lankhills, Oxford University Press, Oxford.

Collingwood, RG and Richmond I 1969, The Archaeology of Roman Britain, Methuen,

London.

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Frend, WHC 1967, The Christianization of Roman Britain, in MW Barley and RPC

Hanson (ed.), Christianity in Britain, 300 700, Leicester University Press, Leicester

City.

King, A 1983, The Silchester Church Reconsidered, Oxford Journal of Archaeology,

no. 2, pp. 225-237.

Macdonald, J 1977, Pagan Religions and Burial Practices in Roman Britain, in R Reece

(ed.),Burial in the Roman World, Council for British Archaeology, London.

Meates, GW 1979, The Roman Villa at Lullingstone, Kent Archaeological Society,

Maidstone.

Painter, KS 1977, The Water Newton Early Christian Silver, British Museum

Publications, London.

Petts, D 2003, Christianity in Roman Britain, Tempus Publishing, Gloucestershire.

Philpott, R 1991,Burial Practices in Roman Britain, Tempvs Reparatvm, Oxford.

Sparey-Green, C 2003, Where are the Christians? Late Roman Cemeteries in Britain, in

M Carver (ed.), The Cross Goes North: Process of Conversion in Northern Europe, AD

300-1300, York Medieval Press, York.

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Thomas, C 1981, Christianity in Roman Britain to AD 500, Batsford, London.

Toynbee, JMC 1967, Pagan Motifs and Practices in Christian Art and Ritual in Roman

Britain, in MW Barley and RPC Hanson (ed.), Christianity in Britain, 300-700,

Leicester University Press, Leicester City.

Watts, D 1991, Christians and Pagans in Roman Britain, Routledge, London.

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