ANCIENTGREECE

THELEGACYOF

ALEXANDERTHEGREAT

T.D.VANBASTEN

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INTRODUCTIONAlexanderIIIofMacedon,betterknowntotheworldasAlexandertheGreat,wasoneofthemostpowerfulrulersoftheancientworld.Duringhistime,heamassedthelargestamountoflandthattheGreekempirewouldeversee.HeseemedtocapturelandwitheaseandmanagedtospreadthecultureandlanguageoftheGreekempirefarandwide,usheringinwhatisreferredtoastheHellenicPeriod.BornthesonofKingPhilipIIofMacedonandhismainwife,Olympias,Alexanderhadaprivilegedupbringing.Whilemuchabouthischildhoodhasbeenlosttotheproverbialsandsoftime,weknowthathehadaverycloserelationshipwithhismotherandarathertumultuousrelationshipwithhisfather,ashisfatherwasgoneagooddealofthetime,conqueringlandsandtheirwomen.ItwasduringthetimeofhisfatherthatthevariousGreekcity-statescametogetherunderasingleruler.DubbedtheLeagueofCorinth,itwascomprisedofalltheregionalcity-statesandPhilipIIwasthesoleleaderoftheLeague.Hewas,unfortunately,unexpectedlyassassinatedathisdaughter'swedding,whichthrewtheLeagueandMacedoniaintoabitofchaos.HisdeathresultedinalackofleadershipfortheLeagueofCorinth.Alexander,whowasonlyabout20yearsoldandhadreceivedahighquality,worldrenownededucationfromAristotle,aswellasanumberofsuccessfulmilitarycampaigns,wasworriedthatduetothesuddennessofhisfather'sdeaththeremaybecounterclaimstothethrone.Alexanderwasnotsurewhathisstepmotherwasplanningwithregardtosuccession,butAlexanderwastakingnochances.Hedidn'twanttotakethechanceofhisclaimtothethronebeingchallengedbyahalf-sibling.RallyingthesupportoftheMacedonianmilitary,Alexanderwasabletotakethethrone.Inordertoensuretherewouldbenofurthercounterclaims,hehadalllivingrelativesthatmightbeheirskilled,includinghissiblings.OnceincontrolofMacedonia,Alexandersethissightsontherestoftheknownworld.Hefirststartedbysubduingtherebellingcity-stateswithintheLeagueofCorinthbeforesettinghissightsuponthePersianempireofDariusIII.Ittooktwodecisivevictories,butultimately,AlexanderprevailedoverDariusandwasabletosubsequentlytakecontrolovertheentiretyofPersia.Duringthistime,hebecamequiteenamoredwithPersiancustomsandbegantointegratetheminto

hislifeandrule,muchtothedismayofhismilitaryfellows.AfterhehadtakenPersia,Alexander,whowasnowabout26yearsold,hadnointentionsofstoppingthere.Itwashisintentiontoconquerthewholeoftheknownworld,which,totheGreeksofthattime,wastheedgeofIndia.Despitehisyoungage,hehadtheskillandconfidencetohavethestrengthtomakethisdreamareality.HeregroupedhisforcesandwalkedintotheareathatisnowPakistanprettymuchunchallenged.Hefound,however,adifferentstoryoncehegotintothehillsoftheregion.TherehemetwithformidableoppositionandheandhisforcestookheavycasualtiesinthesuccessestheyhadinnorthernIndia.Havinghadenoughwarandhavingbeenawayfromtheirfamiliesfortoolong,Alexander'smenmutiniedbeforetheycouldcrossintothemainlandportionofIndia.TheydemandedthattheyreturntoPersia.Thoughhetriedtochangetheirmind,theywouldnotbend.HehadnochoicebuttoacquiescetohistroopsandheledthembacktoBabylon.Itwastheyear326BCandAlexanderwas30yearsold.BackinBabylon,AlexanderhadeveryintentionofregroupingandgoingbackouttocompletehiscaptureofIndiaandmovetowardstheAfricansubcontinent.However,hewouldneverleaveBabylonagain.Thoughthereisspeculationastothecausesofhisdeath,wedoknowthathediedin323BC,attheearlyageof32.Uponhisdeath,hismassiveempirebegantounravel.Greciancity-statesthathadonlytenuouslyagreedtohisruleimmediatelyrevolted.InfightingintheNearEastamongsthisgeneralscausesregularwarandpowershifts.InfightingathomeastothepropersuccessoralsoledtoMacedoniadescendingintoacivilwar.ThesetensionswouldnotreallyenduntiltheRomanscametopowerandbeganthespreadoftheirempire.

TABLEOFCONTENTSIntroductionI:THEORIGINOFTHEDYNASTYMacedoniaBeforePhilipIITheFatherofAlexandertheGreatBattleofChaeroneaII:THEYOUTHOFALEXANDERAlexanderandAristotleTheFirstBattlesandFamilyRelationshipIII:ALEXANDERCOMESTOPOWERConsolidationofPowerIV:THECONQUESTSOFALEXANDERTheExpeditionofTroyTheConquestofEgyptandEstablishmentofAlexandriaExpeditiontoPersiaandIndiaV:THEDEATHOFALEXANDERTHEGREATTheFallofAlexander'sEmpireTheImportanceofAlexanderandtheHellenisticWorldConclusionANotefromT.D.vanBastenAbouttheAuthor

THEARGEADDYNASTY540B.C.–308B.C.

I

THEORIGINOFTHEDYNASTY“OnethingIknow,thatIknownothing.Thisisthesourceofmywisdom.”

-SOCRATES

AlexandertheGreat'sforebearsarereferredtoastheArgead(Argives)dynasty.ThisdynastyruledovertheareacalledMacedonia,andlater,allofGreeceandbeyond,fromroughly700-310B.C.ThisroyalbloodlineisthoughttohaveoriginatedintheArgosregionoftheGreekborderlands.Hencetherootoftheroyalfamilyname.Thisfamilyboastedsomeofthemostimportantleadersthattheancientworldwouldeversee.TheArgeaddynastyisallegedtobeabletotracetheirheritagebacktothefamousHeracles.SeeingashowHeracleswasincrediblywellrenownedandnearlydeified,thisinitselfgavethisfamilyagreatdealofpowerandinfluence.ThefounderofthisdynastywasPerdiccasI.ItwashewhowasseenasleaderofthedisparategroupoftribesthatencompassedtheregioncalledMacedon.DuringtheruleofPerdiccasI,thebordersofthisterritorybegantoexpand.Astheterritorialowningcontinuedtoexpand,sotoodidthepowerandinfluenceoftheincreasinglyinfluentialMacedonianroyalbloodlineunderKingPerdiccasI.Themoreterritoryandpeopleswhocameunderhiscontrol,naturally,thepowerandstrengthoftheMacedoniancivilizationwasenhanced.TheboundariesofthelandscontrolledbyMacedoniacontinuedtoexpandwitheachsuccessivegeneration.Witheachnewterritorialholding,thepowerandinfluencewieldedbytheKingofMacedoniawascontinuallyincreasinganditwasbeginningtoinfringeuponthetraditionalGrecianpowerstructure.TheMacedoniansseemedtobeintentuponassimilatingasmuchlandaspossible,includingsomeofthereigningpowersoftheGreekcity-states.This,obviously,causedconcernandtensionintheregionthatwouldremainthroughouttheruleoftheArgeaddynasty.ThefamousKingArchelaus,whowasthesonofPerdiccasII,wouldreallyhelptobuildupandstrengthentheMacedonianempire.Itwasduringhisrulethatmassiveinfrastructureprojectssuchasroadbuilding,aswellasincreasedmilitarytrainingwouldprovetobeahugeboonforthegrowinginfluenceofMacedon.Unfortunately,Archelauswouldbeassassinatedin399B.C.,andthe

regiondescendedintochaosandanarchythatalsobledintotheruleofthesubsequentking.ThatsubsequentreignwasthatofAmyntasIII.Hewouldultimatelybeabletobring about peace and stability to the region. This led to an extended time ofprosperity and peace for the Macedonians. The Argead dynasty would rule,prettymuchcontinuously, for some400years.Thisdynastybroughtabout theexpansion and unification of the Macedonian territories, as well as regularexpansionandgainsofnew,tribalterritory.Themostwellknowleadersduringthis dynasty were Philip II and, of course, his famous son, best known asAlexandertheGreat.

MACEDONIABEFOREPHILIPIIForallintentsandpurposes,theMacedonianscanbeconsideredancienttribalGreekpeoples,buttheydidhaveadistinctanduniqueregionalculturealltheirown.TheMacedonianswereonthefringesoftheso-calledlandoftheBarbariansandtheGrecianempire.TheterritoryofMacedonbeganinafloodplainthatstandsbetweentheriversHaliacmonandAxios.Whatstartedoutasasmall,mostlytribalregionontheoutskirtsoftheGrecianempirewouldbecometherulingclassoftheempirebeforeallwassaidanddone.LikeRome,theMacedonianempirewouldstartfromverysmallandhumblerootstobecomethestuffoflegendthatwestillwonderovertothisday.Asthebordersofthisregionslowlybegantogrow,theMacedoniansfirstlookedtowardstheso-calledBarbarianlandsforconquest.Theydidthisbyeitherexpellingorassimilatingthetribalvillagesthatlivedintheirpathofconquest.Manypeoplechosetosimplyjointhegrowingempire,whereasotherslefttheirancestralhomesandbegananewelsewhere.AsMacedonwasabletoslowlygainmorepowerandinfluence,theinfluencefromAthensand“Greeceproper”wasonthedecline.ThispavedthewayforthetypeofpowervacuumthatwouldleadtothetransitionofGrecianpowerfromtheAthenianstotheMacedonians.Thoughthiswouldnotbewithoutstrugglesandstumblesalongtheway.AsthebordersofMacedonexpanded,theywereeasilyabletointegrateandsubjugatethelessorganizedlandssurroundingthem.Thisexpansionwasusedtomoreefficientlytrackandmanageso-calledMacedonianheldlands,whichwereregularlybeingaddedto.Whilethismayhavebeenpresentedundertheauspicesofincreasingefficiency,itwaswhatultimatelypavedthewayfortheriseoftheMacedoniannationasacohesivestate,asaopposedtoacollectionofdisparatetribalregions.Thisorganizationallowedforgreaterwealthandpowerintheregion.ItgavetheMacedoniansgreateraccesstoresources,traderoutes,andotherareasthatwouldbolstertheeconomyoftheregion.LandexpansiongavetheMacedoniansgreaterinfluence,butimportantly,alsogavethemaccesstolargerpopulationsfortroopsanddomesticinfrastructureendeavors.ThisgrowingpowermadeiteasierfortheMacedonianstobegintoinfringeupontraditionalGrecianlands.Overtime,theArgeaddynastycontinuedtoconsolidatepowerandlandholdingsintheAegeanandlandsofGreece,beginningtocomeintofruitionduringtheruleofPhilipII.

THEFATHEROFALEXANDERTHEGREAT

PhilipIIofMacedonwaspartoftheArgeaddynastyandwouldbecomeoneofthemostimportantmembersofthedynasty,secondonlytohisson,AlexandertheGreat.HewasthethirdsonofAmyntasIIIand,uponhiscoronationasKingofMacedonia,wouldrulefrom359BCuntilthetimeofhisassassinationin336BC.Thoughhislegacywasovershadowedbyhisson,AlexandertheGreat,itisimportanttonotejusthowimportantPhilip'srulewas.Infact,itiswhatpavedthewayforthesuccessesthatAlexanderwouldseeunderhistenure.Together,PhilipIIandAlexandertheGreatcouldbesaidtohaveprovidedthemostimportantunificationsandexpansionsoftheGrecianempire.PhilipIIwastheyoungestsonofKingAmyntasIIIandhiswife,EurydiceI.HewasheldhostageintheAthenian-controlledcityofThebesduringwhathasbeendubbedthe“Thebanhegemony”.DuringhistimeasahostageinThebes,PhilipIIwouldreceiveinvaluableeducationandtraining.HewasheldhostageinThebesforthreeyearsfrom368-365BC.ThiseducationincludedtrainingandobservationunderEpaminodas,whowasoneofthemostinfluentialandfamousmilitaryleadersofthetime.While,certainlyexileisnotanenjoyablething,whathelearnedduringthistimewouldproveinvaluableinhisfuturecareerinmilitaryandpolitics.ThisspecializedtrainingwouldservePhilipIIverywellinhislatermilitaryconquestsasKingofMacedon.WhenPhilip'sbrother,then-KingAlexanderIIwasassassinated,hisotherbrotherPerdiccasIIIrosetothethroneandwasabletobringPhilipoutofcaptivity.PerdiccasIIIwoulddieinbattleagainsttheIllyriansnotlongafterPhilip'srelease.ThishadthepotentialtoleaveapowervoidinMacedonwhichisalwaysatenuousandpotentiallychaoticsituationtobein.UponthedeathofPerdiccasIII,PhilipIIwasdesignatedasregent(essentiallyatemporaryruler)ofPerdiccasIII'syoungson,AmyntasIV.Duringthefirstfewyearsofhis“temporary”rule,PhilipIIsetaboutrevitalizing,upgrading,andstreamliningtheMacedonianmilitary.Thisincludedtheintroductionofnewweaponslikethesarissa–alongspearofwood,aswellasmoreadvancedtrainingformilitarypersonnel.Bythetimeshistroopssawbattle,theywerehighlyskilledandtrainedatfightingwiththesarissa,whichgavethemasignificantadvantageovertheirenemies.Usinghishighlytrained,incomparablyarmed,phalanxes,PhilipwasabletoregaincontroloverthelandslosttotheIllyriansduringhisbrother'sfatalbattle

againstthem.Afterthisdecisivevictory,andtheuseofafewpoliticallybeneficialmarriages(theMacedonianswerepolygamous),PhilipIItookcontrolofthecountryasKing,notamereregentofaninfantheir.Hehadprovenhimselfahighlyadeptmilitaryleaderandwithroyalblood,itwasnaturalthathewouldtakeoverafterhissuccessfulcampaigns.PhilipIIwasaverysuccessfulkingandmilitaryleader.HewouldsuccessfullybeatAthensinabattlefortheincrediblystrategiccityofAmphipolis.However,theAthenianswouldnotgoquietlyandfightinginthisregionwouldcontinueforsometwodecades.ThepowersthatbeinAthenswerenotkeentopasstheproverbialtorchofpowertotheMacedonians.However,Philipandhistroopswerehighlysuccessful.Heonlysufferedonedefeatduringthistimethatweareawareof.ThisultimatelyallowedtheMacedonianstowrenchregionalpowerawayfromAthensandothersympatheticcity-statesintheregion.

1PhilipIIofMacedonwaspartoftheArgeaddynasty.Hewasaverysuccessfulkingandmilitaryleader.HewouldsuccessfullybeatAthensinabattleforthe

incrediblystrategiccityofAmphipolis.

BATTLEOFCHAERONEA

TheBattleofChaeroneawasabattlewagedbetweenPhilipII'smenandtheAthenian-controlledGreeksin338BC.ThisbattlewasseenastheMacedoniansdecisivevictoryandusurpationofregionalpowerthathadlongbeenheldbyAthens.Infact,itwasoneofthemostdecisivelywonmilitarycampaignsoftheancientworld.Beforethisbattle,PhilipIIhadbeenabletobringaboutashortperiodoftenuouspeacetotheregion.Asnoted,itwasincrediblytenuousandmanyGreekcity-statesfeltthreatenedandoppressedbywhattheysawas“outsiderule”.InAthens,theinfluentialpolitician,Demosthenes,startedtocallonthevariouscity-statestodefyPhilip,eventuallyleadingtosanctionsagainstPhilipoverhisincursionsintotheByzantineregions.Thesesanctionsviolatedtradeagreements,whichtoPhilipwastantamounttoadeclarationofwar.Whenthisillfatedmovewasmade,PhilipbegantocoalescehistroopsandheadtowardsGreeceproper.ThisleadtotheformationofanalliancebetweenAthens,Thebes,andothercity-statesthatwerenothappywiththeruleoftheMacedonians.ThoughtheAthenscoalitionseemedtobeaformidablefoe,luckwasnottobeonthesidesoftheGreeks.Thefightingwas,atfirst,prettyevenlymatchedbetweentheGreeksandMacedonians.Itevenlookedlikeitmightendupdevolvingintoamessyandunwinnablequagmire.Hereyouhadtwopowersthatwerefairlyequalintermsofskill,sophistication,andweaponry.Thismeansthatneithersidehadanyadvantageovertheother,whichleadtoalotofgiveandtake,butnotmuchgroundgainedoneitherside.Thatis,untilPhilipandhismennearedthetownofChaeronea.Detailsandspecificssurroundingthisbattlehavebeenlosttohistory.Thenumberswereprettyevenlymatchedbutsomehow,theMacedonianswereabletogaintheupperhandanddecimatebothflanksofalliedtroops.Thebattlewassaidtobeoneofthemostdecisivevictoriesinthehistoryofancientwarfare.Thealliedforcesweresobadlydecimatedthatthewarendedratherabruptly,withtheMacedoniansastheclearvictors.Uponvictory,PhilipIIimposedasettlementuponthecity-statesofGreecewhichwasagreeduponbyallexceptSparta.Theyreallyhadnochoiceafterthecrushingdefeattheyhadbeensounexpectedlydealt.This led to formation of the League of Corinth which was, in essence, adefensivepactthatalliedallparticipantswithMacedoniaandeachother,andof

course,unitingalltheseregionsundertheleadershipofPhilipII.

2TheBattleofChaeroneawasabattlewagedbetweenPhilipII'smenandthe

Athenian-controlledGreeksin338BC.ThisbattlewasseenastheMacedoniansdecisivevictoryandusurpationofregionalpowerthathadlongbeenheldbyAthens.Thebattlewassaidtobeoneofthemostdecisivevictoriesinthehistory

ofancientwarfare.

II

THEYOUTHOFALEXANDER“Iamindebtedtomyfatherforliving,buttomyteacherforlivingwell.”

-ALEXANDERTHEGREAT

AlexanderofMacedonia,betterknownasAlexandertheGreat,wasbornonJuly20,356BC,inthePellaregionofMacedonia.HisparentswereKingPhilipIIandhiswife,Olympias.PolygamywasverycommoninMacedoninthosedays,soOlympiaswasnotPhilip'sonlywife.Shewas,however,motherandoneofthekeyfiguresinthelifeofaboywhowouldgrowuptobecomeoneofthemostwell-knownfiguresinallofantiquity.OlympiaswouldprovetobeinvaluableduringAlexander'sboyhood.Hisfather,KingPhilipII,wasawaymostofthetime,eitherconqueringlandsorconqueringtheirwomen.ThiswouldhaveaprofoundandlastingeffectonAlexanderandwouldbethesourceoftensionsbetweenfatherandsonatanumberofpointsthroughoutAlexander'slife.ThetensionsbetweentheparentsthemselveswouldonlyaddtothestrainthatAlexanderfeltwithhisfather.Duetotheantiquityofthistimeperiodandlackofdocumentation,thereisverylittleknownabouttheveryearlyyearsofAlexander'slife.AsweknowthatOlympiaswastheprimarycaregiverforherson,therehasbeenmuchspeculationthat,perhaps,sheactivelyworkedtowardsturningyoungAlexanderagainsthisfather.WeknowthatAlexanderalwaysthoughtveryhighlyofhismother,thoughhewasnotunawareofhershortcomingseither.Itshouldbenotedthat,allthetensionsbetweenfatherandsonaside,Alexanderwasknowntohaveagreatdealofrespectforhisfatherandalltheaccomplishmentsheachievedduringhislife.Weknowscantlittleaboutthistimewithanydegreeofcertainty.Thisseemingly“blank”periodhasledtoalotofidlespeculationthatis,intruth,basedonverylittleotherthanconjecture.WhatwedoknowisthatyoungAlexanderwasacuriousandhighlyintelligentchild.Hisabilitiesexceededwellbeyondmerecognitivepursuits,healsoexcelledathleticallyaswell.Itisknownthat,inadditiontobeingagreatthinkerfromayoungage,hewasalsoanadeptarcherandhorsemantoo.Duetohispositionintheroyalhouse,hewasusedtobeinginthepresenceofpowerfulandimportantpeoplefromaveryyoungage.

OneofthefavoredanecdotesaboutAlexander'searlylifeisthetaleofhishorse,Bucephalus.ThestorygoesthatAlexander'sfather,PhilipII,wasbeingofferedaprizehorse,butthepricewasrathersteep.Hisservantsclaimedthehorsewasuntrainableandthekingwaspreparedtodeclinetheofferandsendthehorseback.An8-yearoldAlexanderissaidtohaveburstin,claimingthathecouldbreakandtrainthedifficulthorse.Muchtoeveryone'ssurprise,hesucceededinhisendeavorandthehorsewasboughtforhim.BucephalasservedwithAlexanderduringmanyofhiskeybattlesbeforedyinginIndiaattheripeageof30.Education,bothtraditionalandmilitarytraining,wasanimportantpartofAlexander'slife.HisfirsttutorwasLeonidas,whowasconscriptedbyKingPhiliptoteachAlexandermath,horsemanship,andarchery.Alexanderwas,however,aratherstubbornandwillfulchildandprovedtobemorethanLeonidaswasabletomanage.Hissecondtutor,Lysimachus,faredabitbetter.UnderstandingthatAlexanderneededmorespecializededucation,Lysimachusintroducedroleplayingasateachingmechanism.ThiswasfarmoreimmersiveforyoungAlexanderandhehadbetterresultsunderLysimachus'tutelage.

ALEXANDERANDARISTOTLE

WhenAlexanderwasabout13yearsold,hewassenttostudyattheTempleoftheNymphsinthesmall,ruralenclaveofMieza.ThecitywasawayfromthehustleandbustleofPella.HewastobetaughtbynoneotherthanthefamousAristotle.Thiswasnotachancechoiceeither.AristotlehadfamilytiestothekingshipofMacedonia.HisfatherhadservedasacourtphysiciantothepreviouskingofMacedonia.AristotlehimselfhadservedforthecourtofHermias,whowouldlaterbecomeavaluableallyforKingPhilipandhisaspirationsforPersia.TheconscriptionofAristotlewouldservebothheandAlexanderverywell.AlexanderwouldreceiveaworldclasseducationandAristotlehadthesupremehonorofinfluencingafutureworldleader.FromAristotle,Alexanderreceivedawell-roundedformaleducation.Hewastaughtthe“standard”subjectsofthedaywhichincludedrhetoric,poetry,math,debate,andastronomy.ItissaidthatAlexanderwasreallytakenwiththenaturalsciencesandmedicine.HewasthoughttohaveprovidedanumberofsuccessfulcuresforrelativesandfriendsthroughouthisyearsasKing.Hewouldalsolatertakescientistssuchasbotanistsandzoologistsoncampaignwithhimsoastodocumentthefloraandfaunaoftheregion.AristotlewouldteachAlexanderawidelyvariedrangeoftopicsforanumberofyears.ItisnotentirelycertainhowlongAlexanderstudiedinMieza.Estimatesrangefromaboutthreetosevenyears.Regardless,itcannotbeoverstatedtheimpactthatAristotlehadonAlexanderasapersonandasaruler.HeinstilledinAlexanderagreatloveofbooksandlearning.ItisknownthatAlexandercarriedbookswithhimonhismilitarycampaigns.AristotleisalsoresponsibleforAlexander'sfirmgroundinginreasonedpolitics.ThisaidedAlexandergreatlywhenitcametointernationalrelationsandpoliticaldialogue.ItisknownthatAlexanderandAristotlewerequitefondofeachotherandremainedincontactvialettersafterAlexander'sascenttothethroneupontheculminationofhiseducationfromAristotle.

3Alexander(left)wassenttostudyattheTempleoftheNymphsintheenclaveofMieza.ThecitywasawayfromthehustleandbustleofPella.HewastobetaughtbynoneotherthanthefamousAristotle(right).Aristotlewouldteach

Alexanderawidelyvariedrangeoftopicsforanumberofyears.

THEFIRSTBATTLESANDFAMILYRELATIONSHIP

Alexander'sfirstmilitarybattletookplacewhenhewasstilljustateenager.Hisfather,PhilipII,wasawaybattlingwithByzantiumwhenanuprisingbytheThracianstookplacebackinMacedonia.ItwasuptoAlexandertoreignintherevoltandhetookswiftanddecisiveaction,quicklybringingtherebelliontoahalt.HeproceededtomoveinsympatheticGreekstotheareaandfoundedthecityofAlexandropolis.Shortlythereafter,hewassentbyhisfathertocrushanotherThracianrebellion,thistimeinthesouthernregionsofMacedonia.Meanwhile,PhilipsawthisasachancetobeopportunisticandthusbegantotakesmallchunksforGrecianlandforthemostpettyofreasons.Fatherandsonjoinedupin338BCandtogethertheycontinuedtomarchsouthandsubduegreaterswathsofterritory.Alexanderevenplayedapivotalroleinthebattlethatwouldcometodefinehisfather'skingship:theBattleofChaeronea.ThiswouldgodownasKingPhilip'smajorvictoryandoneofthemostdecisivelywonbattlesoftheancientworld.PhilipwouldcommandtherightwingofthemilitaryattackandAlexandertheleft.Theycametogetherandwereabletomountadecisiveandsoundvictory.Thisallowedthemtocontinueon,prettymuchunopposed,withfurtherterritorialexpansion.However,tensionsbetweenfatherandsonwouldsoonescalateagain.WhenKingPhilipIIreturnedtoPella,hemetandfellinlovewiththenieceofhisgeneralAttalus,namedCleopatraEurydice.HewentontomarryCleopatraandlosefavorwithOlympias.Alexander,whowasonlyhalfMacedonian,worriedaboutthreatstohisclaimasanheirtohisfather.IfCleopatraproducedamaleheir,hewouldbea“pure”MacedonianandAlexanderfearedthatthismightbecomeachallengetohisfuturerule.Withthisthreatuponhim,AlexanderfledMacedoniawithhismother.Toensurehersafety,hetookhertoherbrotherinDodona.HerbrotherwasKingAlexanderIofEpirusandwasabletomakesurethatshecametonoharm.AlexanderhimselfcontinuedonandtookrefugeinthelandsofIllyriathathisfatherhadbattledagainstnottoomanyyearsearlier.Mediations between father and son would culminate about six months afterAlexanderandhismother fledMacedon. It turnsout thatKingPhilip IIneverintendedtoremoveAlexanderashisintendedheir.Themediationwasoverseenbyafamilyfriend,Demaratus,andhewouldseetoitthatAlexanderwouldbereturnedtoMacedonia.

4Alexanderwassentbyhisfather,KingPhilipIIofMacedon,tocrushThracianrebellions.IllustratedisthedefeatoftheThraciansledbyAlexandertheGreat.Fatherandsonjoinedupin338BCandtogethertheycontinuedtomarchsouth

andsubduegreaterswathsofterritory.

III

ALEXANDERCOMESTOPOWER“Hewhoistobeagoodrulermusthavefirstbeenruled.”

-ARISTOTLE

ThetransferofpoweruponthedeathofakinginMacedoniadidnotgodirectlytotheoldestlivingmaleheiroftheking.InMacedonia,thekingdesignatedhisownheir.Mostoften,theheirchosenwashiseldestlivingmaleheir,butthisisnotalwaysthecase.And,justbecausethekingdesignatedsomeoneastheirheirdidnotmakethemthedefactokinguponthedeathofsaidking.Therewasaprocessthatmustbeundergoneforthepropertransferalofpower.Upondeath,thechosenheirofthedepartedkingmustbeacceptedbyacouncil,andthenhemustbeintroducedtotheAssemblybeforehewastobecoronatedandtaketheoathofofficeasthekingofMacedon.DuetoPhilip'snumerouswivesandpotentialclaimstothethrone,aswellasthefactthatAlexanderwasonlyhalf-Macedonian,hissuccessionwasnotasurebet.ThisledmanytobeconcernedaboutpotentialcounterclaimstothethroneuponthedeathofKingPhilipII.TherehavebeentimesthroughoutthehistoryofMacedoniawherethecountryhasdescendedintobriefperiodsofchaosandunrestastheresultofthedeathofakingwhohadfailedtonameasuccessor.Thisillustratesnotonlytheimportanceofnaminganheir,butalsotheclimateofuncertaintythatoftensurroundedtheproverbialchangingoftheguarduponthedeathofaking.In336BC,Cleopatra,thedaughterofOlympiasandPhilipIIandAlexander'sonlyfullsister,wastobewedtoAlexanderIofEpirus,whowasthekingoftheMolossians.Duringthefestivities,KingPhilipIIenteredthetowntheaterunguarded.Itwasduringthismomentofvulnerabilitythatoneofhisownbodyguards,PausaniasofOrestis,murderedtheKing.AfterhisfatalattackonKingPhilip,Pausaniasattemptedtoescapethetowntheater.Hewasapprehendedandkilledbytheremainingbodyguardsbeforehewasabletomakehisescape.ButthedamagewasalreadydoneandKingPhilipIIhadbeenassassinated.OneoftheinterestingtidbitsaboutthisisthatwearestilluncertainastothemotivationbehindtheassassinationofKingPhilip.Thereasonshavebeenlosttohistoryandanyproposedideasaremereconjectureas

wesimplydonotknowwhatdrovePausaniastocommitthismurder.ThoughAlexanderhadbeenprimedastheheirtothethrone,havingreceivedmilitarytraining,aswellasbattleexperience,therewasstillalotofuncertaintyastowhowouldsucceedPhilipII.AlexanderwasdeterminedthathewouldbecomethenextKingofMacedon.At19,hewasbattletestedandhighlyintelligent.HewasabletogetthesupportandbackingoftheMacedonianarmy,includinginfluentialgeneralshehadfoughtwithalongsidehisfather.ThearmynamedhimthefeudalkingofMacedon.Toensurethattherewouldbenothreatstohiskingship,thearmythenwentontoslayanypotentialheirstothethroneofMacedon.Evenhismother,whohadalwaysbeenexceedinglyfondofherson,aidedinthebloodshed.SheissaidtohavekilledPhilipandCleopatra'sdaughter.ItisalsothoughtthatitwasOlympiasherselfwhothendroveCleopatratocommitsuicide.AllthisbloodsheddidsucceedinremovinganypotentialclaimsorthreatstoAlexander'sruleandsointhatrespect,theseeffortsweresuccessful.Historyisnotalwaysprettyornicetolookatinitsstarkreality.

5In336BC,Cleopatra,thedaughterofOlympiasandPhilipIIandAlexander'sonlyfullsister,wastobewedtoAlexanderIofEpirus,whowasthekingoftheMolossians.Duringthefestivities,KingPhilipIIenteredthetowntheaterunguarded.Itwasduringthismomentofvulnerabilitythatoneofhisown

bodyguards,PausaniasofOrestis,murderedtheKing.

CONSOLIDATIONOFPOWER

ThoughAlexanderwastherecognizedandacceptedkingofMacedon,hestillhadtoassertdominanceovertheLeagueofCorinththathadbeencreatedasaresultofthemilitaryconquestsofhisfather.NotallmembersoftheLeaguewerekeentorecognizethisnewauthority.Manycity-statessawthisasanopportunityforself-governanceandofcourse,theywantedthisverymuch.Athens,stillbitteraboutbeingusurpedbyMacedonia,hopedtoregainpowerovertheLeagueafterthedeathofPhilip.Demosthenes,whowastherulerofAthensatthetime,sawthedeathofPhilipastheperfectopportunitytobandtogetherwithothercity-stateswhobalkedagainstacceptingAlexander'srule.Thisledtoanumberofindependencemovementsandrevolts.Alexanderhadreadycontroloverahighlytrainedandverylargearmy.Whenthecity-statesbegantheirmovements,Alexandersenthisforcessouthtosubduetheattemptsatrevolution.TheywereeasilyabletoovertaketheregionofThessaly.ThisforcedThessalytorecognizeandacceptAlexander'sleadershipovertheLeagueofCorinth.Afterthisdefeat,mostoftheothercity-statesfellinlinetoaccepttheirfate.TheonlyholdoutwasAthens,whostillrefusedtoacceptAlexander'sleadership.TheotherpowersfallinginlineunderAlexander'sruleallowedAlexandertocontrolthetroopsaswellasthefocusofmilitarycampaignsintheregion.WhileAthenswasaholdout,Alexander'seffortstosubduetheotherregionsgavehimdefactocontrolovertheentireregion,evenwithoutthesupportofAthens.AlexanderhadeveryintentionofturninghiswarmachinetowardsPersia,butbeforeheembarkedonwhatwouldbeahighlystoriedmilitarycampaign,hefirstwentnorthtosubduetheunrulyborderregionsofMacedonia.

IV

THECONQUESTSOFALEXANDER“Thereisnothingpermanentexceptchange.”

-HERACLITUS

Alexanderreceivedhismoniker“theGreat”asaresultofhismilitaryprowessandthestrengthofhisbattleplans.Hemayhaveruledforbutashorttime,buthemanagedtoexpandthereachandinfluenceofMacedoniansocietytoextentsthatwereneveragaintobematched.Bythetimeofhisdeathattheageof32,hehadsuccessfullyconqueredmostofthethenknownworld.Hewasjust18whenhehadhisfirsttasteofbattle,ashefoughtalongsidehisfather,KingPhilipII,intheresoundingvictorythatwastheBattleofChaeronea.ThisvictorywaswhatultimatelyallowedPhilipIItojointhevariousGreciancity-statesunderhiscontrol,knownastheLeagueofCorinth.AfterPhilipwasassassinatedandAlexanderascendedtothethrone,hehadtheoverwhelmingsupportofthemilitarybehindhim.Heboastedsome35,000infantrytroopsandover5,000cavalry.Itwaswiththismassiveforcethathebegantoconquerandtakecontrolofmostoftheknownworldatthattime.Astheysweptthroughthesenewlyconqueredlands,Alexanderandhistroopsgainedskill,experience,andknowhow,whichmadethemevenmoreformidableinbattle.HebeganintheNearEastandPersia,conqueringthefamouscityofBaalbekin334BC,andrenamingitHeliopolis.HethenwentofftobattleanddefeatDariusIIIofPersia,causingDariustoflee.Thoughhisforceswereoutnumbered,Alexanderandhismenmadesmartmovesandwereabletocausetheretreat.WithDariusontheretreat,AlexanderturnedhissightstoEgypt,which,thencontrolledbythePersians,easilyfelltohiswill.WhileinEgyptforaveryshorttime,Alexanderwasquitetakenwiththecityandfoundedwhatwouldbecomeoneofthemostimportantcitiesintheancientworld:Alexandria.AlexanderwouldstayinEgyptforjustashortwhilebeforereturningtohisconquestsinPersiaandbeyond.Histimetherewasobviouslydeeplyinfluentialtohimthough.ThelegacyhewouldleavetoEgyptandtheworldisstillfelttothisday.Afterhisretreat,DariusIIIregroupedhisforcesandheandAlexanderagainmetinbattle.Again,Alexanderandhismenweregreatlyoutnumbered,buta

shrewd,yetriskydecisionmadebyAlexanderpaidoff,resultinginanothervictory,whichagainsentDariusfleeingforhislife.Thistime,hewouldbecutdownbyoneofhisownmeninhisattemptstoretreat.AlexandercontinuedonwithhiscampaigntoconquerPersia,thentakingBactriaandeasilyoverpoweringtheScythians.AsheandhistroopstookmoreandmoreofPersia,AlexanderbegantoadoptmoreandmorePersianculturalaffectionsanddress,whichbegantomakehisgeneralsabitconcerned.Therewererumorsofapossiblemilitaryrevoltandtherewerealso,perhaps,evenplanshatchedforassassinationattemptsduringthistime.WhileconqueringPersiain327BC,AlexandermarriedtheBactriannoblewomanRoxanaandthusfirmlyestablishedhisconnectiontoandcontroloverthelands.HewasnotsatisfiedthoughandsethissightsonIndia,whichwasthefarthestreachesoftheknownworldatthattime.KingOmphisofTaxila,anIndianking,sawwhatwascomingandgavehisallegiancetoAlexanderwithoutafight.NotallIndiansweresowillingtosubmitthoughandtheMacedoniantroopssufferedgreatcasualtiesintheireffortstoputdowntherevoltsthattookplacebythehilltribescalledtheAspasioiandAssakenoi.Afterthesedifficultskirmishes,hefacedKingPorusofPaurava.Whilesuccessful,itwasnotwithoutagooddealofloss,includinginjurytoAlexanderhimself.OncetheynearedtheGanges,Alexanderwantedtosoldieron,buthistroopsrefused.Theymutiniedandrefusedtogoon.WhileAlexandertriedtoconvincehistroopstocontinuetheirconquests,theywerenottobeswayedandultimatelyhegaveinandbegantomovehistroopsbacktoPersia.HereturnedtoPersiawitheveryintentonregroupingandcontinuinghisplanofconquest,butitwasn'tmeanttobe.AlexandertheGreatdiedattheageof32inJune,323BCaftera10-daybattlewithafever.

6TheEmpireofAlexandertheGreatintheyearsof334–323BCandhisconquestcoursefromGreecetoIndiatoBabylon.Heboastedsome35,000infantrytroopsandover5,000calvary.Itwaswiththismassiveforcethathebegantoconquerandtakecontrolofmostoftheknownworldatthattime.His

reignstretchedallthewaytowardsPersia

THEBATTLEOFTHEBESOneofAlexander'sfirstmilitaryconquestsaskingofMacedonwastheBattleofThebeswhichtookplaceintheGreciancity-statein335BC.HehadmanagedtosubduemostofthelocalrebellionsthathadoccurredwithintheLeagueofCorinthaftertheassassinationofhisfather,PhilipII.However,therewerestillcity-states,suchasAthensandThebesthatrefusedtosubmittoAlexander'srule.Inanattempttoavoidbloodshed,AlexanderhadsentanumberofdelegationstoThebesinanattempttopeacefullybringthecityunderhiscontrol.Thiswastonoavail.Aftertheirrefusaltosubmit,AlexanderknewthathehadtotakeactionandthoughhedidnotwishtofightinThebes,hedidnotwanttheretobeaprecedentforrebellion.WhenanopenrevoltbrokeoutinThebes,theirfatewasprettywelldecided.Duringthissametime,whiletryingtoestablishhisdominionovertheLeagueofCorinth,hehadsuccessfullyputdownanumberofrevoltsinothercity-stateswhoattemptedtorefusehisrule.Whentherebelsrealizedthattheywouldfaceaseverefateiftheycontinuedtorefusetosubmit,mostofthecity-statesfellinlineandacceptedAlexander'srule.ThebesandAthens,however,remainedfirmholdouts.Hearrivedoutsidethecitywithoverwhelmingforce,buthistoryshowsthathewasstillwillingtotakethecitywithoutafight.HekepthistroopsontheoutskirtsofthecitywhilemakingthedemandthatPhoenixandProthytes,whoweretheringleadersoftheThebanrevolt,beturnedovertohim.Thebanswereinformedthatifthesemenwereturnedover,therewouldbenocasualties.ThebescounteredthisproposalwithdemandsthatAlexanderturnoverAntipaterandPhilotas,whomtheyfelthadcommittedcrimesagainstThebes.Alexanderrefused.Alexanderwasnothingifnotahighlyskilledmilitaryleaderandhavingmadethedecisiontolaysiegetothecity,hetookthreedaysinplanninghisattack.Thebestriedtodefenditself,butwereunabletowithstandthesiegeofAlexanderandhismen,whowereruthless.Thosewhowerenotkilledinthebattleitself,some30,000,weresoldintoslavery.Thetownwasthenrazedandburnedtotheground.

7

AlexanderhadsentanumberofdelegationstoThebesinanattempttopeacefullybringthecityunderhiscontrol.Thiswastonoavail.Thebestriedtodefenditself,butwereunabletowithstandthesiegeofAlexanderandhismen,whowereruthless.Thosewhowerenotkilledinthebattleitself,some30,000,

weresoldintoslavery.

THEEXPEDITIONOFTROYWhileAlexanderwasahighlyadeptmilitaryleader,hewasalsoathinkerandanintellectual.AsheandhistroopsbegantheircampaignacrosstheMiddleandNearEast,hemadeafewpersonalstopsalongtheway.OneofthefirstplaceshestoppedtohonorwasthecityofTroyin334BC.AlexandercametoTroybearingofferingsofarmorandaceremonialwreath,andalsotookpartincertaincustoms.ItissaidthatAlexanderthoughtthathewasdescendedfromtheHomericgods,soitisnotsurprisingthathemadeaspecialstophere.AccordingtoPlutarch,oneofthecustomshepartookinwasanointinghimselfwithoilwhilerunningnakedaroundthetombofAchilles.Itisbelievedthat,inadditiontopartakingincertainritualcustoms,healsotooktheopportunityforabriefsiteseeingtourofthisspecialland.

THECONQUESTOFEGYPTANDESTABLISHMENTOFALEXANDRIA

AtthetimeofAlexander'srisetopower,agoodportionofUpperandLowerEgyptwascontrolledbythePersians.HavingengagedinanumberofsuccessfulbattlesagainstthePersiannavyandtheircoastalencampments,AlexanderandhistroopsturnedtowardstheinfluentialandimportantregionofEgypt.Egyptwas,ofcourse,aculturalicon,evenatthattime.Alexander,whileakeenthinker,wasalsopragmaticandhighlyintelligent.HeunderstoodthestrategicandeconomicimportanceofcontrolovertheNiledelta.EgyptgaveaccesstoimportanttradeandcommunicationnetworksacrosstheMediterranean.Alexanderandhismenwereabletomakethearduous130milejourneytotheimportanttownofPelusiuminjustaweek'stime.Afterhisearlierdefeat,DariusIIIandhistroopsretreatedbacktoPersia,leavingtheirEgyptianlandsvirtuallyunprotected.ThePersiangovernorofEgypt,Mazaces,sawthefutilityofmountingadefensiveandhandedoverhisroyalcacheandsome800talentswithoutanystruggle.Alexander,whoappreciatedthecooperation,keptMazacesonasafinancialadministratoroftheregion.Withthegovernorsubdued,AlexanderandhistroopsbegantomaketheirwaytothetraditionalcapitalcityofMemphis.PassingthroughthisseeminglymagicallandofmysteryandmegalithicconstructionshadadeepandprofoundeffectonAlexanderandhistroops.Asachild,hehadbeenbroughtupwithstoriesabouttheEgyptianpantheonofthegodstoldbyhismother,Olympias.SotobeinalandsosteepedinlegendsthatimpactedAlexanderasachildgavehimadeepreverenceforEgypt.WhenhearrivedinMemphis,itwasnottoopposingforces.Forthemostpart,hewaswelcomedasaliberatorandasavior.EgypthadbeenunderPersianoccupationforsome200yearsandknowingAlexander'sreverencefortraditionalEgyptianculture,theysawhimasanopportunitytoregainthepowerandinfluenceEgypthadonceenjoyed.Wantingtofollowthetraditionalpath,AlexandermadeapilgrimagetotheTempleofAmun.Here,hewasanointedasa“sonofthegods”byahighpriestofAmun,whichispartofthetraditionforthecoronationofapharaohinEgypt.Thiswasacustomthathadbeeninpracticeforsome3,000yearsandAlexanderthoughtitimportantthathefollowtheEgyptianwaytopower.HewascrownedpharaohofEgyptonNovember14,332BC.HequicklytooktoEgyptianreligiouscustomsandtraditions.Itissaidthathe

prayedtotheEgyptianpantheon,makingofferingseachmorning.DuringhisshortstayinMemphis,AlexanderissaidtohavetakentheopportunitytolearnasmuchaboutEgyptianculture,customs,andreligionaspossible.AfterhisshortstintinMemphis,AlexanderandhistroopscontinueduptheNile.Inasmallcoastaltown,formerlyknownasRhakotis,AlexanderfoundedAlexandria,whichwouldbecomeabeaconofculture,intellectualism,andtradefortheregionformanyyearstocome.TheportcityofAlexandriawasfoundedin331BCandwouldserveasEgypt'snewcapitalallthroughthePtolemaicrule.ThecitywasdesignedtoAlexander'sspecificationsbythebuilderDinocrates.Alexandriawouldgoonetohousesomeofthegreatestthinkers,aswellassomeofthewondersoftheancientworld.Alexander,however,wouldneverseethefinishedproduct.Afterlayingoutroughplansforthecity,helefthisgeneralCleomenesinchargeasviceroytooverseethecompletionofconstruction.

8HipparchusofNicaea(190BC–120BC),afamousGreekastronomer,looking

throughatelescopeattheobservatoryofthegreatcityAlexandria,Egypt.TheportcityofAlexandriawasfoundedin331BCbyAlexandertheGreat,hewascrownedpharaohofEgyptonNovember14,332BC.

EXPEDITIONTOPERSIAANDINDIAOncehehadestablishedAlexandria,AlexanderturnedhissightsbacktoPersiaandbeyond.Havingbeensoundlydefeatedyearsearlier,DariusIIIofPersiawasdeterminedtofightAlexanderagain,butthistimeonhisowntermsandtohisownadvantage.Afterhisretreat,DariusreturnedtoPersiawherehebegantoamassahugearmy.Dariuswasabletoraiseamassivearmyofsome200,000men,thoughtherewereexaggerationsatthetimethatclaimedhehadupwardsofamillionmenathisdisposal.Thetroopsweresituatedinanareaofflatgroundthatwasideallysuitedtotheirscythe-wheeledchariots,whichwerequitefearsomeinbattle.Notonlywastheareaalreadyflat,Dariussetaboutartificiallyflatteningitfurthersoastogivehischariotsthebestpurchasepossible,makingthemtrulyfearsomefoes.Alexanderapproachedthefieldofbattlewithanestimated35,000troops.HeimmediatelysawthestrategyDariuswasattemptingtoemployandregroupedtoformulateaplanofattack.AlexandertookacalculatedriskandhadhistroopsshifttheirpositioninanefforttolureDariusandhistroopsontounevenandrockyterrain.HisriskwaswellworthitasDariustooktheproverbialbaitandonthelesseventerrain,hischariotswereadisadvantageandliability,notanadvantageastheyhadbeenonflatground.Alexandertookadvantageoftheconfusionandimbalanceandchargedthethinningbattleline.Dariuswas,yetagain,leftwithnochoicebuttoflee.AnyremainingresistancefromhistroopswaseasilyputdownupontheretreatofDariusfromthebattlefield.AlexanderandhismencontinuedontowardsBabylonasDariushotfootedoutofharm'sway.However,Dariuswouldnotbesoluckythistime.Hewasstabbedbyoneofhisownmenandleftfordead,onlytobefoundbyaMacedonianscoutwhobroughthimbacktoAlexander.ItappearsthatAlexandereitherlikedorrespectedDarius,ashegavehimapropermilitaryfuneralandburiedhimwithhisAchaemenidancestors.TherestofPersiaprettywellfellinlineuponthedeathoftheirking.TheBattleofthePersianGatewouldultimatelybethebattletheputdownanythreatsoffurtherPersianrebellions,thoughAlexanderandhistroopstookheavycasualtiesduringthisbattle.Histroopssufferedsignificantlossesdespitetheiroverallsuccessofthebattle,leavingthemwarweary.OnceitwasclearthattherewouldbenomorerevoltsfromPersia,Alexander

wasreadytotakehisforcesontotheIndiansubcontinent.Itwas,ofcourse,hisintentiontoruletheentiretyoftheknownworld.TheMacedoniansknewnotofChinaatthattime,sotothem,Indiawastheedgeoftheworld.ItwasAlexander'sfinalfrontier.HetooktheBactriannoblewoman,Roxana,ashiswife,andcontinuedonwithhistroopstowardsIndia.OncehereachedwhatisnowPakistan,Alexanderinvitedlocalleaderstowillinglysubmittohisrule,ratherthanbeingoverthrownmilitarily.Omphis,whowastherulerofagooddealofthisterritory,hadseenwhatwascomingandwasnotinterestedinabloodyskirmish.HecompliedwithAlexander'srequest,butsomeofthehilltribesrefusedtofallinline.Duringthewinterof326-327,Alexanderledhistroopsinanefforttosquelchtheuprisings.ItwasasurprisinglyfiercebattlethatleftAlexanderwoundedandmanyofhistroopsdead,butultimatelyvictorious.TherewereanumberofhardfoughtbattleswiththehilltribesthatwouldtakeahugetollonAlexander'smen,andAlexanderhimself.Thoughtheyweresuccessful,itwouldbefairtosaythatthesebattleswiththelocalshadlefthisforcesdecimatedandwearyoffurtherbattle.Alexander,however,wasreadytomoveon,sohetookhisforcesacrosstheIndusriverwherehefoughtatight,butsuccessfulbattleagainstKingPorusinwhatwouldbecalledtheBattleofHydaspes.Duringthebattle,AlexanderhadbecomeimpressedwithPorusandkepthimonasalocalrulerofthisnewlyconqueredarea.HefeltthatPorusfoughtvaliantlyandwithpoiseandgrace.Alexanderhadanabilitytorespectevenhisenemyand,ifpossible,assimilatethemintohisempiresoastoeffectivelyutilizetheirspecificskill.NextwerepowerfulempiresthatliebeyondtheGangesriver.ItwasclearthatthesetoowouldbetightbattlesthatmayevenposeathreattoAlexander'stroopsthattheymightnotbeabletoovercome.Histroopshadbeenfightingforalongtime.Theyweretired,weary,andtheymissedtheirfamilies.Becauseofthis,theyrefusedtocontinueonwithAlexander'sbattleplans.Theystartedamutinyandrefusedtogoanyfurther.Alexandertried,unsuccessfully,toconvincehistroopstocontinueoninbattleacrosstheGanges,butwithalltherecentlossesandthelengthoftimetheyhadbeenfightingvariousbattles,hismencouldnotbeconvincedandheultimatelyhadnochoicebuttoacquiesce.HeturnedhistroopssouthandbeganthetrekbacktoPersia.Alongtheway,hesubduedanumberoftribaltownsandassimilatedthemintohisalreadyhugeempire.HesplithistroopsinhalfandledonehalfbacktoBabylon.Theotherhalfwassentunderthecommandofthegeneral,Craterus,toexploretheareathatisnowsouthernIran,aswellandthePersianGulf.

9Therewereanumberofhardfoughtbattleswiththehilltribesthatwouldtakea

hugetollonAlexander'smen,andAlexanderhimself.Alexandertried,unsuccessfully,toconvincehistroopstocontinueoninbattleacrosstheGanges,

butwithalltherecentlossesandthelengthoftimetheyhadbeenfightingvariousbattles,hismencouldnotbeconvincedandheultimatelyhadnochoice

buttoacquiesce.

V

THEDEATHOFALEXANDERTHEGREAT

“Letnomanbecalledhappybeforehisdeath.Tillthen,heisnothappy,onlylucky.”-SOLON

Duetotheantiquityofthesehappenings,thereisnottotalagreementontheactualyearanddateofthedeathofAlexandertheGreat.However,mostmainstreamscholarsagreetothedateofdeathbeingsometimebetweenJune10and11intheyear323BC.Atthetimeofhisdeath,Alexanderwasonly32yearsold.HediedinthepalaceofNebuchadnezzarIIinBabylon.Hisdeathwashighlyunexpectedduetohisageandhisseeminglygoodhealth.Notonlydidhisdeathleadtoalotofpoliticalandgovernmentalturmoil,itwashighlyupsettingtothepopulaceaswell.Therearevariedreportsofthereactionacrosshisvastempire.WedoknowthatMacedonianscriedinthestreetsandsubjectsoftheAchaemenidhouseofPersiaweresaidtohaveshavedtheirheadsinsupportandmourning.AfterhistroopsledamutinynearthePakistan/Indiaborder,AlexanderandhismenreturnedtoBabylon.Upontheirreturn,Alexanderandhisgeneralsbegantoplanforthenextlegoftheirmissionofconquest.TheyhadeveryintentionofreturningtoIndiatofinishtheproverbialjob,andalsotaketheireffortsintothemainlandofAfrica.Unfortunately,thiswasnottobe.TherearesomewhospeculatethattherewereanumberofpropheciesofAlexander'simpendingdemise.Oneofthemostwellknowoftheso-calleddeathprophecieswasfromCalanus,whowasaHinduNagasadhuwho,upontherequestofAlexander,agreedtotravelbacktoPersiawiththemfromhishomeinPunjab.Themanwas,however,oldandfrail,andthetripprovedtobetootaxingforhimtohandle.HebeggedAlexandertoallowhimtocommitsuicidesoastoavoidbecominganinvalid.Aftersomeargument,Alexanderagreed.Asthemanwasburningtodeathoftheself-requestedpyre,legendhasitthathesaidtoAlexander,“WeshallmeetinBabylon”.Thoughnobodyunderstoodthistomeananythingatthetime,afterhisdeath,peoplethoughtthat

thishadbeenCalanus'spredictionofAlexander'sdeath.Ithastobesaidthattherearesomegoodreasonsforthespeculationsurroundingthecauseofdeath.Therewasalotoftensionandturmoilwithinthehighechelonsofpoweratthetime.Thearmyhadjustmutinied,itisthoughtthatAlexander'sproblemwithdrinkhadbecomeevenworse,andthesituationwasripefortheeruptionofchaos.Thishasledtoavarietyofspeculationsastothecauseofhisdeath.Somebelievehediedfromsomesortoffeverorinfectiousdiseaseliketyphoidfever,malaria,orWestNileFever.Othersbelievethathediedfromliverdiseaseasacomplicationofhisalcoholism.Stillothersbelievehewasintentionallypoisoned,perhapsbystrychnine.Themostagreeduponcauseofdeathseemstobeafeverofsomesort,manypointtotyphoidfever,asthiswasacommoncauseofdeathatthetime.Thehistoricalaccountsofhisdeathandthesymptomstheyreportedappeartobeconsistentwithwhatwouldbeexpectedofsomeonesufferingfromtyphoidfever.Thefactofthematteris,thereisnotmuchchancewewilleverknowwithanydefinitivecertainty.Evidencehasbeenlost,obscured,andevenchanged(albeit,probablyunintentionally)astimehaspassed.Therewerenofilms,photographs,andverylittlewrittenrecordthatsurvivesthatcanshedlightontheactual,detailedcircumstancessurroundinghisdeath.Aswithmuchaboutancienthistory,wemustdothebestwecantoextrapolatethelikelysequenceofeventsbasedonthecircumstantialevidenceavailabletousallthesethousandsofyearslater.Sadly,hisfirstwife,theBactriannoblewomanRoxana,waspregnantatthetimeofhisdeathandhenevergottomeethisson.Hisson,AlexanderIV,wasbornaboutamonthafterthedeathofhisfather.Thoughtheywouldnevermeet,inhisveinshecarriedroyalbloodandhewasevenhonoredwithhisfather'sname.

THEFALLOFALEXANDER'SEMPIRE

WhenAlexanderdied,hewasonly32yearsofage.Eveninantiquity,wherepeoplediedatamuchyoungerage,thiswasunexpectedandunplannedfor.Hisdeathwouldendupthrowinghisnewlyformedempireintochaos,confusion,andinfighting.Hediedbeforehewasabletocompletehisenvisionedexpansionintotherestoftheknownworld,butheleftbehindoneofthelargestempiresoftheancientworld.Whatwasquicklysalientwasthat,withoutAlexander,thisunioncouldnothold.Assoonaswordofhisdeathspread,manypolitically-motivatedPersian-Macedonianmarriagesweredissolved.ThisshowsthathissubjectsdidnotactuallysupportalloftheeffortsAlexanderundertook.ThepeopleofMacedoniabegan,inearnest,totrytofightfortheirfavorite“candidate”tosucceedAlexanderonthethrone.ThisledtoadescentintoacivilwarinMacedoniabetweenthedifferentfactionsthatwerefightingforthethrone.AnyunityinthevastGreek/PersianEmpirebegantocrumblewiththedeathofAlexander.Withcontentiousdebatesovertherightfulheirtothethrone,thealreadytenuousrelationsbetweentheempires,chaoswasprettywellimminent.TheGreekcity-statesthathadbeenunwillingorunsupportiveofAlexander'sruleovertheLeagueofCorinthbegantorebelassoonaswordofhisdeathspread.TheuprisingoftheGreciancity-statesledtowhatwascalledtheLamianWar.TheMacedoniansactuallylostthisbattleandbriefly,theGreekcity-stateswereindependent.TheyactuallyexpelledtheMacedoniansfrom“Greekproper.”Inaturnofevents,however,forceswereamassedandtheMacedonianswereableretakecontrolofthecity-statesandthewholeofGreece.TheMacedonianswouldmanagetoretaincontrolovertheregionforcloseto200yearsaftertheLamianWarandsubsequentbattles.Needlesstosay,thiswasanincrediblytumultuousperiodfortheGreekcity-states.Therewasmuchfighting,aconstantly-shiftingpowerstructure,andgeneralsocialunrestandunease.ElsewhereinPersianandtheNearEast,Alexander'sgeneralsandthoseleftinchargeofnewlyconqueredterritorybegantoinfightandhavemilitarystrugglesamongstthemselves.Thisledtoanevenmoreweakenedsenseofunityandultimatelyledtothesplittingupoftheconqueredterritoriesintofourseparateregions.Itturnedintoaviscouscycleofviolencewherebyageneralroseup,subduedsurroundinglands,ruledforawhile,andinsurgencywouldbeformedwhichwouldoverthrowsaidgeneral,installanewone,andthecyclewould

beginagain.

10ThedeathofAlexandertheGreatwouldendupthrowinghisnewlyformed

empireintochaos,confusion,andinfighting.TheGreekcity-statesthathadbeenunwillingorunsupportiveofAlexander'sruleovertheLeagueofCorinthbegantorebelassoonaswordofhisdeathspread.TheuprisingoftheGreciancity-

statesledtowhatwascalledtheLamianWar.

THEIMPORTANCEOFALEXANDERANDTHEHELLENISTIC

WORLD

Thoughtherewerealotofregionaldifferences,mostpeoplesee“Greece”asencompassingalltheGreciancity-states,aswellasMacedoniaandsurroundingregions.Weessentiallyseethemastwodifferentpartsofthesameempire.Thisisnot,however,entirelycorrect.TotheAthenians,thereweremajordifferencesbetweenthemselvesandtheMacedonians.Thedifferencesaretrueandreal,anditwouldprobablybebesttocallthisalooselyconnectedregionofcity-statesthanasingleterritory,exceptthatitcameundertheruleofasingleman.Alexanderandhisfamilybroughtaboutextensiveandlong-lastingchangetotheregion,whichwouldgoontoinfluencemostsubsequentwesterncivilizations.Alexander'sfather,PhilipII,wasthefirsttosuccessfullyunitethecity-statesunderasingleruler:himself.Alexanderwantedtotakethisunityevenfurther.ItcouldfairlybesaidthatthetimeofAlexandertheGreatwasthegreatestperiodofGreekculturalandliteralexpansionthatthecity-stateswouldeversee.RegardlessofwhatpeoplethoughtofAlexanderpersonally,thesefeatsare,tothisday,extraordinary.HeandhistroopswereabletoforevereliminatethePersianEmpire.Alexanderandhisterritorialexpansionledtothestartoftheso-calledHellenisticperiod.ThisreferstothespreadofGreekcultureandlanguageacrossthethen-knownworld.HisconquestsledtothewidespreadadherencetotheGrecianformofgovernment,language,andculturalinfluences.Alexanderwasalsoanavidcitybuilder.Witheachcityhefounded,hefurtherrootedtheGreekformofgovernanceintothelocalpoliticalmakeup.Heestablishedanumberofcitieswhichhenamedafterhimself,aswellasreorganizingexitingcitiesheovertooktofollowmoreHellenisticvaluesandgovernmentalstructure.Theregionwouldbeforeverchanged.ItisfairtosaythattheworldwasforeverchangedbythespreadofHellenisticbeliefs.Hisconquestsdidfarmorethanjustspreadcultureandmodesofgovernment.Healsoopeneduptradeandcommunicationnetworksthathadnotpreviouslyexisted.Thesenetworksmadeitpossibletoconnecttheeastandwest.Hebuilthiscitiesonimportanttradenetworksortobecomeimportantporttowns.Theyweresetuptohavehealthyeconomiesandtopromotemulticulturalism.OneofthebigtenantsofGreekcultureisanappreciationofartandknowledge.Thatmeantthat,farandwidethroughouttheempire,thesethingswerecultivatedandencouraged.Itshouldn'tbesurprisingthatAlexandriaandother

citiesfoundedbyAlexandertheGreat,foratime,servedasculturalhotspotsandintellectualcentersoftheknownworld.Thesecitieswouldbelonglivedandseeaburgeoningofart,intellect,andculturethatwouldculminateineffortssuchasthePharoslighthouseorthegreatLibraryofAlexandria.

CONCLUSIONIttrulyisamazingthelastingimpactandlegacythatAlexandertheGreatleftafterhisshorttenureasruleroftheMacedonian/Grecianempire.Hewasbornintoaroyalfamilyandbroughtupbeingtaughtbythemostworldrenownedteachersofhistime.Inadditiontobeinganincrediblyintelligentandcunningman,hewasalsophysicallyadeptandwouldgoontobeknownasoneoftheworld'sgreatestconquers.SomeofAlexander'ssuccesswasinpartduetoactionstakenbyhisfatheraswellasthetimeshelivedin.Duringhisfather'sruleofMacedon,hewasabletouniteallthecity-statesofGreeceunderhisrule.ThisbecameknownastheLeagueofCorinth.ThiswouldbethefirsttimethattheGreciancity-stateswereunitedunderoneruler.This,however,didnotlastlong.PhilipIIwasassassinatedbyoneofhisownguardsduringamomentofvulnerabilityathisdaughter'swedding.

Thisthreatenedtothrowtheregionintoabsolutechaos.Alexander,whilehavingbeenbroughtuptobetheheirtohisfather'sthrone,becameconcernedthattheremightbecounterclaimstothistitle.Takingmattersintohisownhands,hewasabletoobtaintheunwaveringsupportoftheMacedonianmilitary,whichmadehimthefeudalkingofMacedon.Afterundertakingacampaigntoslayanyrelativesthatmightposeathreattohisrule,AlexanderfollowedthetraditionalprotocolofbeingcrownedkingofMacedon.HeimmediatelysettoregainingcontrolovertheLeagueofCorinth,aswellasotherneighboringregions.Certaincity-states,suchasAthens,refusedtocapitulatetohisrule,buttheircooperationwouldultimatelynotbeneeded.OncehehadcontrolovertheLeague,hethensethissightsonPersia.Aftertwohardfought,butdecisivevictoriesonthebattlefield,AlexanderandhismendefeatedthemightyPersianarmyledbyDariusIIIthatoutnumberedthemsignificantly.AfterthefinaldecisivedefeatofDariusandthecrumblingofthePersianempire,AlexanderturnedhissightstoIndia,whichwas,atthetime,theedgeoftheknownworld.WhilehemayhavethoughtthesebattleswouldbeeasybycomparisonwithhisPersianbattles,AlexanderandhismensufferedhugecasualtiesandneardefeatsatthehandsofvarioushilltribesinwhatisnowPakistan.WhileAlexanderandhismenultimatelyprevailed,itwasnotwithoutmasslosses.This,coupledwiththesheerlengthoftimethetroopshadbeen

fighting,ledhistroopstomutinyandrefusetogoanyfurther.Theywantedtogohometotheirfamiliesandstoplosingfriendsinbattle.Seeingthathehadnootherchoice,AlexanderacquiescedandledhistroopsbacktoPersiawhereheintendedtoregroupandplanforthecontinuationofhisconquests.Thiswasnot,however,tobe.InBabylon,Alexanderdiedunexpectedlyin323BCattheageof32.Mostpeopleassumethathediedofsomesortoffever,suchastyphoidfeverorWestNile.However,eventothisday,thereissomespeculationsurroundinghisdemisethathasledtotheoriessuchasAlexanderbeingmurderedbyhisownmen.Afterhisdeath,hisoncemightyempirequicklybegantodecay.TherewerefightsoverwhowastobeheirtotheMacedonianthronethatcatapultedthecountryintocivilwar.Thevariousgeneralsandotherofficialsthatweretaskedwithmanagingandadministratingthenewlytakenterritorybegantohavescufflesandmakepowergrabs.Thisledtoratherconstantconflict,aswellastheregularchangingandshiftingofthepowerstructureoftheNearEast.AllofthesetensionswouldcontinueuntiltheRomanEmpirestartedtotakeovertheworld.

ANOTEFROMT.D.VANBASTENThankyouverymuchforreadingTheLegacyofAlexandertheGreat,Ifyouenjoyeditandfoundwhatyouwerelookingfor,pleasebesokindtotakeamomenttoleaveareviewatyourfavouriteretailersuchasAmazon.

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ABOUTTHEAUTHORT.D.vanBastenisa25-yearyoungmanlivingintheMediterraneanregiontofollowhispassionandexploretheoldhistoricalareas.Heisapassionateloverofhistory.Growingup,hehasalwayslovedtolearnabouttheancientEgyptians,Greeks,Romansandotherhistoricalevents.Withhispowerofimagination,hecouldalmostliveandseetheworldashowitusedtobe.

AftergraduatingfromtheUniversity,hebegantoseeandexploretheworld.Takingtripstovariousregionshimself,suchasEgypttodiscoverthepyramidsandfamoustombs.FollowedbyspendingmonthsinSpainandthesurroundingareas,wherehestilllives.Thisallowedhimtoseetheworldsthathelovedfirsthand.Overtheyears,hehasassembledanextraordinarycollectionofartifacts,andheisnowreadytosharethetalesthathealwayslovedwithyou.Visittheauthorpage