© 2009 Tara Balakrishnan & Maya Balakrishnan1-1: Human Origins in Africa

1970’s: archeologist Mary Leakey found prehistoric footprints like that of modern humans in Tanzania (East Africa)o made by australopithecines (type of hominid- walks upright)

In Ethiopia, complete skeleton of adult female hominid “Lucy” from 3.5 million yrs ago Early hominids had opposable thumbs and walking upright helped travel distances and carry things Invention of tools, mastery over fire, development of languages all occurred during the Stone Age Earlier and longer part of Stone Age called Paleolithic Age (2,500,000-8000BCE)

o Oldest stone chopping tools date back to this era; during the Ice Ageo Religious beliefs centered around nature; believed in afterlive

Neolithic Age (8000-3000BCE/ dates vary in places) o People learned to polish stone tools, make pottery, grow crops, raise animals

Before australopithecines vanished, new hominids (Homo habilis) appeared in East Africao Used lava rock tools to cut meat and crack open bones = made survival easier

1.6 million yrs ago, before Homo habilis left, Homo erectus appearedo more intelligent and adaptable than Homo habilis; used intelligence to develop technology; skillful hunters with

sophisticated tools; first hominids to migrate to India, China, SE Asia, EUo developed beginning of spoken language; first to use fire

Homo erectus evolved to Homo sapienso Had larger brains

Neanderthals in SW Asia and Europe survived for 170,000 yrs and vanished 30,000 yrs agoo Religious beliefs; shelters

Cro-Magnons emerge 40,000-8,000 BCE: identical to modern humanso N. Africa -> Europe, Asia; made tools with specialized uses; planned hunts; spoken language = cooperation

Cave paintings by primitive people: European and Asian show hunting and daily activities; American and Australian more symbolic = sympathetic magic

1-2: Humans Try to Control Nature 40,000 yrs ago, Cro-Magnons same as modern man Paleolithic era, mostly nomads= hunter-gatherers; crafted crude tools i.e. sharpened sticks to aid hunting/gathering Made artistic creations: jewelry, sculptures, cave paintings Neolithic Revolution: 10,000 yrs ago, = agricultural revolution (climate change was key reason) Early farming methods: slash-and-burn, domestication of animals Took place in Fertile Crescent (NE Iraq/Mesopotamia) Farming develops independently in Africa, China, Central America…

o Catal Huyuk and Jarmo important agri. sites for studying Neolithic Age Permanent settlements created, benefits= surplus food, specialized workers Disadvantages= floods/fire/drought/disease destroy village; invasion by neighbors

1-3: Civilization Villages become cities:

© 2009 Tara Balakrishnan & Maya Balakrishnano Economic changes: more cultivation->elaborate irrigation systems built; food surplus=specialization; wheel and sail

improved tradeo Social: social classes formed; religion more organized->worshipped gods with power over nature

Civilization characteristics: 1. Advanced cities 2. Specialized workers 3. Complex institutions 4. Record keeping 5. Advanced technology 6. Art and Architecture

Sumer (Ur in bold): Advanced cities: center of trade for larger area; large population

o Defined social classes: rulers/ priests on top; trade w. bartering Spec. workers: artisans; merchants; scribes; soldiers; teachers; metalworkers; priests; gov. officials; peasants Complex inst.: formal gov. with laws; priests with religious/political power; education system (for scribes) Record keeping: cuneiform tablets with business transactions, hist. events, customs, traditions; calendar Adv. Tech: ox-drawn plows; irrigation systems; pottery eating supplies; bronze weapons; body armor

o Roads, pottery Art and Architecture: ziggurat(massive pyramid temple), temples, temple gates, storage for grain

2-1: Mesopotamia

Mesopotamia = “land between the rivers”- Tigris and Euphrateso Environmental challenge; unpredictable flooding; no natural barriers; limited natural resourceso Solutions: irrigation ditches; city walls; traded worked materials for raw materials

Sumerians had city-states each with own gov. (Uruk, Kish, Lagaash, Umma, Ur)o Each had own ziggurato Rulers (military leaders) and priests share control: priests mostly (demanded crop taxes)

Military leaders had dynasties; shift from priests to military rulers Cultural diffusion: new ideas spread to other cities Sumerians = polytheistic (see English)

o No joy after death- afterworld is bad placeo Women priests, women had many rights: landholding, read, write, scribes

Technology: invented wheel, sail, plow, first to use bronze, arithmetic, geometry, base 60 number system, modern time units come from it

Architectural innovations: arches, columns, ramps, pyramid ziggurat First to develop system of writing (cuneiform) on tablets: written with pointy triangular tipped reeds 3000-2000 BCE, Sumer city-states constantly at war with each other and could no longer ward of attacks of people of

surrounding hills/deserts Sumer never recovered from attacks and succeeding rulers adopted Sumerian culture to their own needs c. 2350 BCE, conqueror Sargon with army from Akkad (city-state N. of Sumer) defeated Sumer

o Akkadians already had adopted most of Sumerian culture; Sargon’s conquests spread the culture further beyond Tigris-Euphrates Valley

By taking control of N. and S. Mesopotamia, Sargon created 1st empireo At peak, Akkadian Empire controlled Mediterranean Coast in the west to Iran (today) in the easto Lasted only 200 yrs before decline

c. 2000 BCE, nomadic warriors (Amorites) invaded Mesopotamia and overwhelmed Sumerians established capital at Babylon along Euphrates River Babylonian Empire reached peak during reign of Hammurabi (1792-1750 BCE)

o Hammurabi’s Code of laws: first single, uniform code of laws written down in stone all over empireo 282 specific laws many related to property issues; protected women and children from unfair treatment

© 2009 Tara Balakrishnan & Maya Balakrishnano diff. punishment for diff. social classes; principle of retaliation (eye for an eye…)o gov. responsible for society’s actions

2 centuries after Hammurabi’s reign, Babylonian empire fell to Kassites2-3: Pyramids on the Nile

Egypt united into single kingdom early on Nile flows N.: civilization arose along fertile Nile banks Nile flooded regularly: necessary for life; deserts as natural barriers River travel common- ended at 1st cataract (rapids)

winds blow upstream (N to S) so you can travel by sailboat upriver and down 5000 BCE farming villages with own rituals, god, ruler 3200 BCE- 2 separate kingdoms: lower and upper Egypt eventually united (most likely) by King Narmer

Old Kingdom: in Mesopotamia, kings represent gods; in Egypt, kings=gods=pharaohs

o Theocracy: pharaoh @ center of religion and gov.o Pharaoh had eternal life force (ka): pyramids to protect pharaoh in afterlife

Didn’t use wheel Early Egyptians polytheistic: Re (sun god), Osiris (dead), Isis (mother/wife goddess) Believed in an afterlife where you would be judged Mummification of elites led to advanced medical techniques King, queen, royals at top of soc. Pyramid

o Priests, wealthy landowners, gov. officials, army commanders Peasants and laborers- slavery came later Egyptians not locked into social class- couple move up esp. if know to read/write

o Women had many of the same rights as men Innovations:

o Scribes developed flexible writing system = hieroglyphics (pics changed from representing ideas to letters) Wrote on papyrus reeds

o Developed calendar for planting w/ 365 days in a yearo Arithmetic for taxeso Geometry for pyramid buildingo Medicine for healing bones, surgery, check heart rate…

Decline of Old Kingdom o Strong pharaohs regained control during Middle Kingdom (2040-1640 BCE)o Hyksos from Palestine invaded and ruled Egypt (1630-1523 BCE) o New Kingdom – Egypt rose again

3.1 The Indo-Europeanso Group of Nomadic ppl from Steppes dry grass landso Primarily pastoral (herded)o Tamed horses and rose light 2 wheeled chariotso Lived in tribes that spoke forms of indo-european languages-

o ancestor of many modern languageso Nomads migrated in all directions (1700-1200 BCE)o By 2000 BCE the Hittites occupied Anatolia (Turkey)o High rocky plateau rich in minerals timber agricultureo Separate Hittite city states formed empire in 1650

o Capital Hattusaso Adopted Akkadian (to speak w/ foreigners) after conquering Akkadian Babylono Hittites dominated SW Asia- 450 yrs (occupied Babylon and fought w/ Assyria)

o Signed treaty w/ Assyrians to help each other

© 2009 Tara Balakrishnan & Maya Balakrishnano Excelled in war technology- chariots, iron weapons, armoro Fell in 1190 BC as part of a great wave of invasions from N. (capital burned)

3-3 Seafaring Traderso Minoans: powerful sea traders in the eastern Mediterranean o Exported goods, art and culture (incl. architecture, burial customs, religious rituals): major influence on Greeceo Minoans seem to be peacefulo Named after King Minos who owned a minotaur which he kept in a labyrinth o Women held a higher rank than in most neighboring landso Great Mother Earth Goddess ruler of gods of Crete (Minoan island); many priestesseso Sacrificed mostly animals but also a couple humanso Mysterious end: giant quakes in 1500’s BCEs- rebuilt palace twice, then volcano; never quite recovered

Phoenicianso After Minoan decline, most powerful traderso Never united into country; only city-states(e.x. Sidon and Tyre); cities were great trading centerso Remarkable shipbuilders and sea-farers: went around Africa and Asiao Produced famous and expensive red-purple dye, papyrus, built colonies along N. African coast and S. Europe coasto Greatest Phoenician colony=Carthage in N. Africao Developed phonetic writing system with letters (word alphabet from 1st 2 Phoenician letters)

o Introduced writing system to trading partnerso Eastern cities were captured by the Assyrians then Phoenicians came under control of the Babylonians and Persians

3-4 The Origins of Judaismo Phoenicians lived in a region later called Palestine along with Philistines o Canaan- ancient home of the Hebrews (Jews) in this area. Land promised by God to the Hebrew pplo Ancient Palestine’s location = cultural crossroads of ancient world. o God choose Abraham to be father of Jews, he was a shepherd in Ur, Mesopotamia and was ordered by god to move w/

ppl to Canaan in 1800 BCEo Descendants of Abe move to Egypt in 1600 BCE b/c of drought and famine. Given places of honor at first in Egyptian

kingdom but later forced into slavery. Flee Egypt btw 1300-1200 BCE during the EXODUS remembered each yr. during Passover.

o Torah says that Moses (all Jew male babies were supposed to be killed @ this time but his mom hid him and he was adopted by an Egyptian princess) led Hebrews out of slavery

o Jews traveled across of Sinai Peninsula and Moses went to top of Mt. Sinai to pray. Yahweh (God) spoke to him and gave him the 10 commandments- they formed a new covenant = god protected Hebrews who protected his commandments.

o Hebrews return to Canaan after death of Moses + changed from Nomads to settled ppl. o Loosely organized into 12 self-governing tribes, they would unite in times of emergency and god would send

them a judge (1 was a woman) o Women only raised childreno 10 commanded resembled Hammurabi’s code but punishments softened by god’s mercy.

o Ethical Monotheism: emphasis on right conduct and worship of 1 god. o Hebrews after settlement in Canaan/Palestine expanded north and south. o Tribe of Judah (last tribe left of original 12)- Hebrews came to be Jews and the religion Judaism o 1000 BCE Hebrews united under Kings (Kingdom of Israel)

o Saul: chosen for driving out a Philistine invasion, but became greedy/jealouso David: son-in-law of Saul, very popular, united tribes, Jerusalem = capital, established dynastyo Solomon: son of David, most powerful Hebrew King, built trading empire w/ Hiram- King of Tyre (Phoenician

city), beautified Jerusalem w/ great temple After death- revolt in N. part of kingdom Israel becomes Israel in N. and Judah in S. (sometimes friends sometimes enemies)

Both began paying tribute to Assyria to ensure peace w/ them 725 BCE Assyrians seize Samaria- capital of Israel, and Israel falls to Assyrians Assyrians lose power to Neo-Babylonians Nebuchadnezzar- gets Syria and Palestine and Israel and seizes Judah (destroys Solomon’s

temple- many survivors exiled to Babylon) Persian King Cyrus conquers Babylon and lets exiles return to Judah/ rebuild temple

4.1 Egyptian and Nubian Empireso After prosperity of Middle Kingdom Egypt loses control- Hyksos take over and Hebrews settle there during this time

© 2009 Tara Balakrishnan & Maya Balakrishnano Egyptians resent Jews but Hyksos want themo 1600 BCE Pharaohs kick out Hyksos and restore power. Hebrews enslaved until Exodus

o Nubian Kingdom of Kush emerges as a powero Pharaohs of New Kingdom 1500-1000 BCE built the biggest/powerfulest/wealthiest empire than beforeo Hatshepsut- queen Pharaoh encouraged trade rather than war

o Stepson, Thutmose very warlike: invaded Palestine, Syria, and part of Nubiao Egyptians and Hittites fight over Palestine but Pharaoh Ramses II made peace treaty w/ Hittites for 1 centuryo Build many royal tombs temples and palaces in the valley of kings. o Ramses II carved giant statues in red sandstone cliffs. o Decline: attacked by “sea-ppls” tribes of Palestine rebel against Egyptian overlords, Libyan raids in west

o Egypt never regains previous power- break apart and fello 950-730 BCE Libyan Pharaohs rule Egypt- adopted Egyptian culture

o Kingdom of Kush esp. capital Napata becomes center of cultural spread o w/ Egypt decline Kush regains independence/power and sought to capture Libyan Egypt

o Kush King Piyanki overthrew Libyan dynasty and united entire Nile Valley. o Then Assyrians conquer Egypt and Kushites retreat south to Meroë which became active in Trade b/c of large amt of

natural resources then after 4 centuries begins to decline after Aksum kindom in N. takes over trade. 4.2 Assyrian Empire

o 850 BCE Assyria acquires large empire w/ advanced military supplies- greatest military power in S.W. asia for a timeo glorified military everything (strengths, weapons, technology, strategy)o by 650 BCE Assyria defeats Syria, Palestine, and Babylonia (not yet neo), had local governors report to a central

authority= model of gov. o governors brought in tribute and taxes

o King Sennacherib (who burnt Babylon) also established capital at Nineveh along Tigris River. Nineveh had 1 of ancient world’s largest libraries (King Ashurbanipal’s) incl. Epic of Gilgamesh.

o After Ashurbanipal’s death Nineveh fell to Medes and Chaldeans and others who burned the city but many tablets survived

o Assyrians fallo Then Chaldeans make Babylon their capital and King Nebuchadnezzar restores city with hanging gardens of Babylon, 7

tiered ziggurat, and astronomers, and wall around city. 3-3 Persian Empire

Cyrus, Persian king began to conquer (but showed mercy and honored local customs)o grandson Darius brought stability to empire and conquered into Afghanistan and India and to Egypt and Anatolia in the

Westo Darius divided empire into 20 provinces to govern it

Brilliant administrator but didn’t show same respect for local cultureo Installed governor called satrap to rule locally and appointed military leaders, tax collectors, and spies to check on stuffo Royal Road ran across empireo Borrowed coins from the Lydianso Conquered by Alexander the Great o After Alexander’s death (Early) split into 3 empires:

Seleucid (largest), Parthian, and Sassanido Religion of Zoroastrianism founded by Zoroaster

Teaches that the earth is a battleground with a great struggle between spirit of good and evil Each person takes part in this struggle and is judged in death by how well they do Monotheistic: Ahura Mazda

o After Muslim conquest of Persia, Zoroastrianism declined- some took it to India

© 2009 Tara Balakrishnan & Maya Balakrishnan