anatomy of hydrology · • uncertainty analysis • long-term forecasting (ahead of time) • pmp...
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Anatomy of Hydrology
Water
Quantity Quality
Phase of water
Liquid Vapor Snow + Ice 4th phase
Domain
Space Time Frequency
Processes
Occurrence Distribution Movement Storage
Scale
Meso Macro MegaMicro
Place of occurrence
Land surface Unsaturated zone Saturated zone
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Historical Perspective
The Beginning Years: Development of Component Models
• Surface Runoff Modeling Rational Method (Mulvany, 1850; Imbeau, 1892)
Unit Hydrograph Method (Sherman, 1932)
Overland Flow Analysis (Keulegan, 1944; Izzard, 1944)
Unit Hydrograph Theory (Nash, 1957; Dooge, 1959)
Geomorphologic Unit Hydrograph (Rodriguez-Iturbe and Valdez, 1979)
Kinematic Wave Theory (Lighthill and Whitham, 1955)
Snow Modeling
Snow Hydrology (U.S. Army Corps of Engineers, 1956)
Kinematic Wave Theory (Colback, 1972, 1974)
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Historical Perspective (contd.) Subsurface Flow Modeling
Subsurface Flow Mechanism (Lowdermilk, 1934; Hursh, 1936; Hursh and Brater, 1944; Hoover and Hursh, 1944; Hursh, 1944; Roessel, 1950; Hewlett, 1961; Nielsen et al., 1959; Remson, et al., 1960)
Determination of Storm Runoff Amount SCS-CN Method (1956)
Theory of Infiltration Green-Ampt Model (1911)
Kostiakov Model (1932)
Horton Model (1933)
Theory of Evaporation Energy Method (Richardson, 1931; Cummings, 1935)
Combination Method (Penman, 1948)
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Historical Perspective (contd.) Determination of Abstractions
Interception (Horton, 1919)
Detention and Depression Storage (SCS, 1956)
Groundwater and Base Flow
Darcy Equation (1854)
Hydraulic Conductivity Relation (Fair and Hatch, 1933)
Well Response to Pumping (Theis, 1935)
Correlation between Ground Water and Precipitation (Jacob, 1943, 1944)
Streamflow Generation
Horton Mechanism-Rainfall Excess (Horton, 1933)
Subsurface flow mechanism (Lowdermilk, 1934; Hursh, 1934)
Saturation excess: Dune-Black Mechanism (Dunne and Black, 1970)
Variable Area concept (Betson, 1964; Hewlett and Hibbert, 1967)
Macropore and preferential flow paths (Beven and Germann, 1982)
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Historical Perspective (Contd.)• Reservoir Routing
Puls Method (USACOE, 1928)
Modified Puls Method (USBR, 1949)
• Channel Routing
Muskingum Method (McCarthy, 1934-35)
Modified Puls Method (USBR, 1949)
Diffusion wave method (Hayami, 1951; Lighthill and Whitham, 1955)
• Watershed Sediment yield
Universal Soil Loss Equation (Wischmeier and Smith, 1960)
Delivery Ratio (Dendy, 1968)
Sediment Rating Curve (Campbell and Bauder, 1940)
Sediment Unit Graph (Rendon-Herrero, 1974; Williams, 1978)
Kinematic Wave Theory (Hjelmfelt, 1975; Singh, 1983; Singh and Regl, 1983)
•
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Historical Perspective (Contd.) Sediment transport
Duboys Bed Load Equation (DuBoys, 1879)
Einstein’s Bed Load Formula (Einstein, 1950)
Schoklitsch equation (Schoklitsch, 1962)
Yalin’s Transport Capacity Equation (Yalin, 1963)
Yang’s Total Load Formula (Yang, 1972)
Solute Transport
Fick’s Law (in Jacob, 972)
Isotherm (Langmuir, 1915, 1918; Freundlich, 1926)
Advection-Dispersion Equation
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Historical Perspective (Contd.) Basin geomorphology
Law of Geometric Similarity (Strahler, 1958)
Horton-Strahler ordering scheme (Horton, 1945; Strahler, 1952)
Horton’s laws of stream numbers and lengths (Horton, 1945)
Schumm’s law of stream areas (Schumm, 1954, 1956)
Yang’s law of stream slope (Yang, 1971)
Length-area relation (Gray, 1961)
Law of basin relief (Maxwell, 1960)
Law of drainage density (Horton, 1945)
Hyposometric curve (Strahler, 1952)
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Watershed Models
Models of Hydrologic Cycle
Stanford Watershed Model (Now BASIN) (Crawford and Linsley, 1966)
Examples of Models
HSPF-IV (Bicknell et al., 1993)
USDA-HL Model (Holtan et al., 1974)
PRMS (Leavesley et al., 1983)
NWS-RFS (Burnash et al., 1973)
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Watershed Models (contd.)
SSARR (Rockwood, 1982)
SWMM (Metcalf and Eddy et al., 1971): Urban watersheds
HEC-HMS (U. S. Army Corps of Engineers, 1999)
KINEROS (Woolhiser et al, 1990)
ANSWERS (Beasley et al., 1977)
CREAMS (USDA, 1980)
EPIC (Williams, 1995)
SWRRB (Williams, 1995)
SPUR (Carlson et al., 1995)
AGNPS (Young et al., 1995)
WATFLOOD (Kouwen et al., 1993)
UBC (Quick, 1995)
SHE (Abbott et al., 1986)
TOPMODEL (Beven, 1995)
IHDM (Calver and Wood, 1995)
SHETRAN (Ewen et al., 2000)
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Watershed Models (contd.) WBNM (Boyd et al., 1979)
RORB (Laurenson and Mein, 1995)
THALES (Grayson et al., 1995)
LASCAM (Sivapalan et al., 1996)
Tank Model (Sugawara, 1975)
Xinanjiang Model (Zhao et al., 1980)
HBV Model (Bergstrom, 1976)
ARNO Model (Todini, 1988)
TOPIKAPI Model (Todini, 1995)
HYDROTEL (Fortin et al., 2001)One of the limitations of many of these models (with the exception of a few) is that
they do not invoke the power of GIS technology. After all, watershed hydrology is aspatial science and GIS technology offers a tremendous power of combininganalytical or computational component of the modelling with spatially distributednature of the science which is at the very heart of hydrology of large areas.
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Watershed Models (contd.)
WBNM (Boyd et al., 1979)
VIC-2L (Variable Infiltration Capacity – Two soil Layers) model (Wood et al., 1992; Liang et al., 1994).
ARNO model (Todini, 1996)
SWAT (Soil and Water Assessment Tool) model (Arnold et al., 1998; 1999; Arnold and Fohrer, 2005),
Macro-PDM (Arnell, 1999),
TOPKAPI (topographic kinematic approximations and integration) model (Liu and Todini, 2002), and
BTOP model (Takeuchi et al., 2007)
SWAM (Mukhopadhyay and Dutta, 2010)
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Evolution of Hydrologic Models: Stanford Watershed Model (Donigian, 2002)
STANFORD WATERSHED MODEL
To Stream
Actual ET
Potential ET
Precipitation
Temperature
Radiation
Wind,Dewpoint
Snowmelt
Interception
Storage
Lower Zone
Storage
Groundwater
Storage
InterflowUpper Zone
Storage
Overland Flow
Deep or Inactive
Groundwater
CEPSC*
BASETP*
AGWETP*
DEEPFR*
LZSN*
INFILT*
INTFW*UZSN*
AGWRC*
NSUR*SLSUR*LSUR*
IRC*
Delayed Infiltration
Direct
Infiltration
PERC
1 ET
2 ET
3 ET
4 ET
5 ET
LZETP*
* Parameters
Output
Process
Input
Storage
ET - Evapotranspiration
n Order taken to
meet ET demand
Decision
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Evolution in Mechanistic Modeling: Stanford Watershed Model (Donigian, 2002)
1960
1965
1970
1975
1980
1985
1990
1995
2000
MODEL SCIENCECOMPUTER
TECHNOLOGY
MODELS &
SUPPORT TOOLS
WETLANDS
SEDIMENT
& NUTRIENTS
FOREST N
WATERSHED
HYDROLOGY
WATERSHED
WATER QUALITY
NEEDS &
RESEARCH
DEPOSITION
LEGISLATION
CWA
TMDLs
FWPCA
PL 92-500
DIGITAL
COMPUTER
PERSONAL
COMPUTER
RELATIONAL
DBs
WINDOWS 95
MINI-
COMPUTER
EXPERT SYSTEMS,
DSS & GIS
WATER
QUALITY ACT
EPA CREATED
BASINS 1.0
STANFORD
WATERSHED
MODEL
BASINS 2.0,GenScn,
HSPFParm, WDMUtil, WInHSPF
BASINS 3.0, HSPF 12.0
HSPF 8.0
HSPF 5.0, CREAMS
HSPEXP
PTR,
ARM,
NPS
ANNIE/WDM
HSP, SWMM
HSPX (WQ),
HSPX UTILITY
EPA
WATERSHED
APPROACH
CWA AMENDs
SS WQ MODELS
SEDIMENT
TRANSPORT
1st GIS/WATER
RESOURCES CONF
SW/GW
INTERACTION
3.0 GHz
1.0 GHz
200 MHz
120 MHz
5 MHz
20 MHz
40 MHz
80 MHz
0.2 MHz
WINDOWS XP
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Watershed Models1. Singh, V.P., editor, Computer Models of Watershed Hydrology, Water Resources
Publications, Littleton, Colorado, 1130 pp., 1995.
2. Singh, V.P. and Frevert, D.K., editors, Mathematical Modeling of Small Watershed Hydrology and Applications. Water Resources Publications, Littleton, Colorado, 950 pp., 2002.
3. Singh, V.P. and Woolhiser, D. A., Mathematical Modeling of Watershed Hydrology. Journal of Hydrologic Engineering, ASCE, Vol. 7, No. 4, pp. 270-292, 2002
4. Singh, V.P., and Frevert, D.K., editors, Mathematical Modeling of Large Watershed Hydrology. Water Resources Publications, Littleton, Colorado, 891 pp., 2002.
5. Singh, V.P. and Frevert, D.K., Watershed Modeling. Proceedings, World Water & Environmental Resources Congress 2003, ASCE, June 23-26, Philadelphia, 2003.
6. Singh, V.P. and Frevert, D.K., editors, Watershed Models. CRC Press, Boca Raton, Florida, 2006.
5. Singh, V.P., Frevert, D.K., Rieker, J.D., Leverson, V., Meyer, S., and Meyer, S., The Hydrologic Modeling Inventory-A Cooperative Research Effort. Journal of Irrigation and Drainage Engineering, ASCE, Vol. 132, No. 2, pp. 98-103, 2006.
7. Singh, V.P., Hydrologic Modeling: Progress and Future Directions. Geoscience Letters, Vol.5, No. 15, pp. 5-15, 2018
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Recent Advances
Hydrologic Data Needs Hydrometeorologic
Topographic
Geomorphologic
Pedologic
Land Use
Lithologic
Hydraulic
Hydrologic Data Acquisition
Remote Sensing
Satellite Technology
Radar Technology
Digital Terrain and Elevation Models
Chemical Tracers
Data Processing and Management Geographical Information Systems (GIS)
Data Base Management Systems (DBMS)
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Storm Movement
Spatial Variability
Temporal Variability
Rainfall Field Description
Rainfall Forecasting
Precipitation Variability
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Variability in Watershed Characteristics
Spatial Variability of Hydraulic Roughness Effect on Runoff Dynamics and Hydrograph
Formation of Shocks
Spatial Variability of Infiltration Hydraulic Conductivity
Steady Infiltration
Mean Infiltration
Effect on Runoff Hydrograph
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Scaling and Variability
. Spatial Scaling. Spatial Heterogeneity in Watershed Characteristics
. Spatial Variability in Processes
. Physical Spatial Size . Representative Elementary Area
. Hydrologic Response Units
. Computational Grid Size
. Temporal Scaling. Time Interval of Observations
. Computational Grid Size
. Temporal Variability of Processes
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Model Calibration Parameter Estimation Algorithm
Objective Function
Optimization Algorithm
Termination Criteria
Calibration Data
Handling Data Errors
Determination of Data Needs-quantity and Information-richness
Representation of Uncertainty of Calibrated Model
Artificial Neural Networks
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Linking Hydrologic Models Geochemistry
Environmental Biology
Environmental Chemistry
Earth Sciences
Meteorology
Climatology
Oceanography
Social Sciences
Economics
Decision Making
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Emerging Tools
Tools for Hydrologic Modeling, Water Resources System Analysis and Decision Making
• Mechanistic models
• Data mining models
• Uncertainty analysis
• Entropy theory
• Risk analysis
• Multivariate stochastic analysis (copula theory)
• Intelligent systems (ANN, Fuzzy, etc.)
• Optimization algorithms
• Decision support systems
• GIS
• Data collection and mining
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Hydrologic Modeling
Challenges• Hydrologic
• More data at finer spatial resolutions
• Regional scale models
• Uncertainty analysis
• Long-term forecasting (ahead of time)
• PMP and PMF
• Integration with biogeochemnical models
• Integration with climate models as well as with ecosystems models: Climate change and global warming
• Coupling for decision making issues (social, political, economic, environmental, etc.)
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Model Calibration Parameter Estimation Algorithm
Objective Function
Optimization Algorithm
Termination Criteria
Calibration Data
Handling Data Errors
Determination of Data Needs-quantity and Information-richness
Representation of Uncertainty of Calibrated Model
Artificial Neural Networks
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Grand Challenges
Life’s Security
Water Security
Food security
Energy security
Environmental security
Ecological security
Health security
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Environmental Sustainability• Sustainability of environment• Sustainability of our way of life• Sustainability of society/human civilization• Constraints
• Population rise
• Demographic changes
• Climate change
• Land use change
• Urbanization
• Rising standard of living
• Rising human expectations
• Rising energy demand
• Food security
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Problems in Development of River Basin Scale Hydrologic Models
The greatest impediment is the availability of high quality data on hydrometeorology, land use and land cover, soil types and their hydrologic characteristics, climatic variables, topography, and stream flows.
The impediments are present to various degrees in various regions.
For example, if one wants to develop a hydrologic model of any river basin in the United States most of the data that are required can be obtained (free and open access)
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Problems in Development of River Basin Scale Hydrologic Models (contd.)
High quality means high spatial and temporal resolutions and with high reliability.
Reliability means data that can be verified for their accuracy from field and station data, which, in turn, again leads to the question of availability, open and free access to the data.
Some countries pose severe limitations to the dissemination of such information which has caused great hindrance to the development of reliable hydrologic models of large watersheds.
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Prospects for Development of River Basin Scale Hydrologic Models (contd.) The impediments are being gradually removed with
the development and refinement of globally gridded data sets.
Such data sets are expected to evolve further in the future providing opportunities for researchers in various fields to investigate various issues related to water availability, water management, climate change, etc.
Such investigations will either support or challenge the various posits given in various agency and governmental reports whose peer-review process can sometimes be questioned
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Hydrologic Modeling
Challenges
• User friendly modeling
• Model choices and credibility
• Scoping out hydrology
Where do We Go from Here?
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Future Outlook
Increasing Societal Demand for Models
Increasing Emphasis on Linking Models to Environmental and Eco-systems models
Emphasis on User-friendliness
Incorporation of Information Technology, Computer-based Design, Artificial Intelligence, and Space Technology
Model Uncertainty and Reliability
Model Competitiveness
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Reexamination/Reflection
Water-Energy-Food Security System
Partnership among academia, government sector, NGOs, and private sector
Educational System
Train the trainers
Teach the teachers
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Where are we headed as a society? Development to management
Paradigm shift
Scientific and technological progress Social progress: Value system Changes in global demographic landscape Human nature
Conflicts and wars Competition Convergence or divergence
Integration of engineering, technology, socio-economic-political science
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SUMMATION
Taking stock of current situation Recognition of social and cultural constraints Taking account of looming global changes Re-examination and re-evaluation of our social values
and value systems Future can be bright or dark-all in our hands