Analytic process: 4 stagesAnalytic process: 4 stages ‘‘Giving a voice’Giving a voice’Stage 1: applies specifically to interview Stage 1: applies specifically to interview

data, retell story with eye to empathy & data, retell story with eye to empathy & empowerment.empowerment.

Generation of categoriesGeneration of categories

Thematic analyses Thematic analyses

Discourse analysisDiscourse analysis

Stage 4: Discourse AnalysisStage 4: Discourse Analysis

Discourses = sets of statements which Discourses = sets of statements which construct an object construct an object (any category of thing (any category of thing or person that is spoken about by an interviewee)or person that is spoken about by an interviewee)

Variability; construction; functionVariability; construction; function- how language changes, how it how language changes, how it

works, how it is put together.works, how it is put together.

Definition (Ruth Wodak )Definition (Ruth Wodak )(Greek v) Ana-lyein ‘deconstruct’(Greek v) Ana-lyein ‘deconstruct’(Latin v) Discurrere ‘running back & forth’(Latin v) Discurrere ‘running back & forth’

DA penetrated many disciplines, distinct DA penetrated many disciplines, distinct meanings in each of these: meanings in each of these: from a social science methodology to the label for from a social science methodology to the label for

a whole field, a subdiscipline of linguistics, a a whole field, a subdiscipline of linguistics, a critical paradigm…critical paradigm…

A particular uptake of the ideas within A particular uptake of the ideas within psychology, mostly DP in social psychology.psychology, mostly DP in social psychology.

Discursive Psychology Discursive Psychology The set of social constructionist approaches within The set of social constructionist approaches within

social psychology mainly (Potter, Wetherall, social psychology mainly (Potter, Wetherall, Billig) Billig)

share views on language and subjectivityshare views on language and subjectivity also the very important aim of ‘carrying out also the very important aim of ‘carrying out

critical researchcritical research‘‘to investigate and analyse power relations in society to investigate and analyse power relations in society

and to formulate normative practices from which a and to formulate normative practices from which a critique of such social relations can be made with an critique of such social relations can be made with an eye on the possibilities for social change’ (Philips & eye on the possibilities for social change’ (Philips & Jorgensen).Jorgensen).

No single definition of DA as a research method - can be No single definition of DA as a research method - can be characterized as a way of approaching and thinking about a characterized as a way of approaching and thinking about a problem. problem. 

a manner of questioning the basic assumptions of research a manner of questioning the basic assumptions of research methods, enables access to the ontological and methods, enables access to the ontological and epistemological assumptions behind a project, a statement, a epistemological assumptions behind a project, a statement, a method of research. method of research. 

Every text is conditioned and inscribes itself within a given Every text is conditioned and inscribes itself within a given discourse, thus the term Discourse Analysis. discourse, thus the term Discourse Analysis. 

Will not provide absolute answers to a specific problem, but Will not provide absolute answers to a specific problem, but enable us to understand the conditions behind a specific enable us to understand the conditions behind a specific "problem" and make us realize that the essence of that "problem" and make us realize that the essence of that "problem", and its resolution, lie in its assumptions; the very "problem", and its resolution, lie in its assumptions; the very assumptions that enable the existence of that "problem".assumptions that enable the existence of that "problem".

No longer a marginal perspective, for No longer a marginal perspective, for an increasing number of academics an increasing number of academics discourse analysis is the main way of discourse analysis is the main way of doing social psychological research doing social psychological research (LSE, Cambridge, Loughborough).(LSE, Cambridge, Loughborough).

Also a proliferation of forms of Also a proliferation of forms of discourse analysis - from CA to post-discourse analysis - from CA to post-structural and Foucauldian thinking.structural and Foucauldian thinking.

11stst focus – language & what it does on focus – language & what it does on the worldthe world

Then divides into various traditionsThen divides into various traditions Analyst must go beyond the data itself Analyst must go beyond the data itself

– interpret by appeal to a theory – interpret by appeal to a theory (about society, power, culture…)(about society, power, culture…)

How does speaker’s choice of words How does speaker’s choice of words ‘construct’ a social object?‘construct’ a social object?

2 basic DA principles2 basic DA principles1.1. One of language’s functions is to do One of language’s functions is to do

things at the societal level (above things at the societal level (above interpersonal)interpersonal)

It is constitutive (e.g., the law)It is constitutive (e.g., the law)

It promotes someone’s or some It promotes someone’s or some group’s interests.group’s interests.

2.2. People use discourse practices to do these things.People use discourse practices to do these things.

To investigate a social phenomenon, find identifiable To investigate a social phenomenon, find identifiable set of things that go together…set of things that go together…

particular words, phrases, terms of reference, particular words, phrases, terms of reference, metaphors, rhetorical styles … which together metaphors, rhetorical styles … which together construct the social object, e.g., ‘science’ construct the social object, e.g., ‘science’ ‘homosexuality’, ‘muslim’.‘homosexuality’, ‘muslim’.

Constructed by discourse’s choice of description & Constructed by discourse’s choice of description & associations it explicity makesassociations it explicity makes

Muslim vs Islamic; fundamentalist vs devout; …Muslim vs Islamic; fundamentalist vs devout; …

Method: some examplesMethod: some examples Linguistic features: choice of Linguistic features: choice of

grammatical form is a discursive grammatical form is a discursive practice (Kress)practice (Kress)

Identification of repetoires: a more or Identification of repetoires: a more or less coherent way of describing less coherent way of describing something – scientists empiricism & something – scientists empiricism & contingency (Gilbert & Mulkay 1990)contingency (Gilbert & Mulkay 1990)

Sensitivity to context (Potter & Sensitivity to context (Potter & Wetherell) - see what things people say Wetherell) - see what things people say mean in context, contradictions etc.mean in context, contradictions etc.

Antaki, Billig, Edwards & Antaki, Billig, Edwards & Potter 2006Potter 2006

Identify things that might Identify things that might superficially give the appearance of superficially give the appearance of conducting discourse analysis but do conducting discourse analysis but do not in fact do so.not in fact do so.

Burman - list of ‘mistakes and Burman - list of ‘mistakes and errors’ actually highlight with errors’ actually highlight with particular clarity ideological as well particular clarity ideological as well as conceptual and methodological as conceptual and methodological features of the discipline. features of the discipline.

6 non-analyses.6 non-analyses.

1. Under-analysis through summary 1. Under-analysis through summary 2. Under–analysis through taking sides2. Under–analysis through taking sides3. Under-analysis through over quotation 3. Under-analysis through over quotation

or through isolated quotation. or through isolated quotation. 4. Circular identification of discourses 4. Circular identification of discourses

and mental constructs and mental constructs 5. False survey5. False survey6. Analysis that consists in simply 6. Analysis that consists in simply

spotting features. spotting features.

Burman (commenting on Burman (commenting on Antaki et al. )Antaki et al. )

ElaboratesElaborates Under-analysis occurs when the analysis Under-analysis occurs when the analysis

substitutes detailed examination of the text for substitutes detailed examination of the text for the adoption of a theorized position.the adoption of a theorized position.

A way out of circular reasoning would be to A way out of circular reasoning would be to elaborate the analysis or categories to relate to elaborate the analysis or categories to relate to structures outside the detail of the text, e.g., via structures outside the detail of the text, e.g., via analyses of institutional practices and systemic analyses of institutional practices and systemic patternings. patternings.

Proper analyses should also include consulting Proper analyses should also include consulting theoretical analyses of a historical and cultural theoretical analyses of a historical and cultural kind that inform how such conversational moves kind that inform how such conversational moves come to be possible and how they function. come to be possible and how they function.

Don’t stop at what they say, ask why? Don’t stop at what they say, ask why?

3 further points to add to 3 further points to add to Antaki’s 6:Antaki’s 6:

Under-analysis through Under-analysis through decontextualisationdecontextualisation

Under-analysis through uncontested Under-analysis through uncontested readingsreadings

Under-analysis through not having a Under-analysis through not having a questionquestion

DA is a form of action rather than of reflectionDA is a form of action rather than of reflection

Not only does doing discourse analysis mean Not only does doing discourse analysis mean doing analysis BUT discourse analysis means doing analysis BUT discourse analysis means analyzing discourse. analyzing discourse.

Must have a theory of discourse (or text or Must have a theory of discourse (or text or transcript) as well as of analysis to do transcript) as well as of analysis to do discourse analysis - and this also includes discourse analysis - and this also includes having an analysis of the technologies of one’s having an analysis of the technologies of one’s own analysis.own analysis.

van Dijk (1997)van Dijk (1997)An analysis of discourse is a scholarly analysis An analysis of discourse is a scholarly analysis

only when it is based on more or less only when it is based on more or less explicit concerns, methods or theories. explicit concerns, methods or theories. Merely making “common sense” comments Merely making “common sense” comments on a piece of text or talk will seldom suffice on a piece of text or talk will seldom suffice in such a case. Indeed, the whole point in such a case. Indeed, the whole point should be to provide insights into structure, should be to provide insights into structure, strategies or other properties of discourse strategies or other properties of discourse that could not readily be given by naïve that could not readily be given by naïve recipients. (p. 1)recipients. (p. 1)

Levels of Levels of (discourse)analysis?(discourse)analysis?

Where to draw the boundaries? Or Where to draw the boundaries? Or what should be included? The what should be included? The linguistic, social, political, historical, linguistic, social, political, historical, material, institutional … ?material, institutional … ?

What is discursive and what counts What is discursive and what counts as extra-discursive? (Willig’s paper as extra-discursive? (Willig’s paper on critical realism in DA) on critical realism in DA)

What is context?What is context?

Step by stepStep by step Read through the data a number of times Read through the data a number of times

until you become familiar with it. What leaps until you become familiar with it. What leaps out as you read through the transcript? out as you read through the transcript? Think about what is ‘going on’ in the talk; Think about what is ‘going on’ in the talk; what sort of ‘business’ are the what sort of ‘business’ are the speakers/writers involved in (e.g. blaming, speakers/writers involved in (e.g. blaming, justifying, describing, etc)? justifying, describing, etc)?

Ask yourself ‘why this word, why now?’ (Try Ask yourself ‘why this word, why now?’ (Try mentally replacing words with others to see mentally replacing words with others to see how the construction changes; such as ‘this how the construction changes; such as ‘this young girl’ to ‘this young woman’). Is the young girl’ to ‘this young woman’). Is the narrative structure of the text important? narrative structure of the text important? How does the constructed meaning of the How does the constructed meaning of the talk/text change as the words change?talk/text change as the words change?

Look for ‘discursive devices’ such as 3-part lists, Look for ‘discursive devices’ such as 3-part lists, extreme case formulations, etc. What are these extreme case formulations, etc. What are these ‘doing’? What psychological business are they ‘doing’? What psychological business are they attending to?attending to?

Start to think about possible themes or research Start to think about possible themes or research questions that you could use to focus your questions that you could use to focus your analysis. These can be very simple, such as ‘how analysis. These can be very simple, such as ‘how are categories used to manage identity?’ or ‘how are categories used to manage identity?’ or ‘how are issues of blame and accountability dealt with are issues of blame and accountability dealt with in the text?’in the text?’

Note down anything at all that interests you – Note down anything at all that interests you – work on your intuitive hunches - and list your work on your intuitive hunches - and list your ideas down the margins of the transcript.ideas down the margins of the transcript.

Once you’ve gone through the Once you’ve gone through the transcript in this way, do it again! transcript in this way, do it again! Then start to make more detailed Then start to make more detailed notes, relating to your theme or notes, relating to your theme or research question. research question.

If writing up the analysis, this is If writing up the analysis, this is where you will need to draw on links where you will need to draw on links to other discursive work on identity to other discursive work on identity to help support your analysis. to help support your analysis.

Discursive strategiesDiscursive strategies What they may What they may be doingbe doing

Extreme case formulations Extreme case formulations Using words like ‘very’ or ‘the worst’ strengthen an Using words like ‘very’ or ‘the worst’ strengthen an

argument or account. Can also be treated ironically.argument or account. Can also be treated ironically. Emotion categoriesEmotion categories

Not referring to underlying emotional states, but as a Not referring to underlying emotional states, but as a resource for holding others accountable, and useful for resource for holding others accountable, and useful for setting up rhetorical contrasts (e.g. versus ‘rational’).setting up rhetorical contrasts (e.g. versus ‘rational’).

‘‘Active voicing’Active voicing’ This is when speakers report the words of others as if This is when speakers report the words of others as if

they were spoken directly. Used to add authenticity and they were spoken directly. Used to add authenticity and credibility.credibility.

Script formulationsScript formulations Formulating an action as routine or usual – does ‘being Formulating an action as routine or usual – does ‘being

normal’.normal’.

Assessments & second assessments: Assessments & second assessments: These are usually organised in preference terms (i.e. agree These are usually organised in preference terms (i.e. agree

with someone as preferable for smooth interaction). with someone as preferable for smooth interaction). Affect displaysAffect displays

E.g. sighing, crying, sniffing – often these are organised E.g. sighing, crying, sniffing – often these are organised alongside talk; not separate to interaction.alongside talk; not separate to interaction.

Pronoun use and footingPronoun use and footing Using ‘I’, ‘we’, ‘you’, etc. Used to distance or align oneself Using ‘I’, ‘we’, ‘you’, etc. Used to distance or align oneself

with others.with others. Detail in narrative/generic vaguenessDetail in narrative/generic vagueness

Often used to make accounts more plausible. Vagueness Often used to make accounts more plausible. Vagueness can be used as a distancing tool (i.e. ‘this is not my story...’)can be used as a distancing tool (i.e. ‘this is not my story...’)

3-part lists3-part lists These are common in much talk and esp. in political These are common in much talk and esp. in political

speeches – adds credibility and authenticity.speeches – adds credibility and authenticity.

Sample ‘analysis’ section Sample ‘analysis’ section of reportof report

The following is an example of how you might begin to write The following is an example of how you might begin to write up and structure the ‘analysis’ section of a DA report up and structure the ‘analysis’ section of a DA report (often call this ‘analysis’ rather than ‘findings’ or ‘results’ because (often call this ‘analysis’ rather than ‘findings’ or ‘results’ because

the latter two suggest a more objective, quantitative style stance the latter two suggest a more objective, quantitative style stance on the data). on the data).

The important thing to note is that author should properly The important thing to note is that author should properly contextualize, present and report on the data, and that it contextualize, present and report on the data, and that it should go beyond merely re-describing what someone else should go beyond merely re-describing what someone else has said.has said.

Analysis Analysis The analysis of the Panorama interview revealed three The analysis of the Panorama interview revealed three

themes: the construction of a ‘normal’ identity, the themes: the construction of a ‘normal’ identity, the negotiation of blame, and the construction of ‘others’. ….negotiation of blame, and the construction of ‘others’. ….

Constructing a ‘normal’ identity

One of the main ways in which identity was constructed within the interview One of the main ways in which identity was constructed within the interview was that of Diana as being an ordinary, ‘normal’ person. In extract 1 was that of Diana as being an ordinary, ‘normal’ person. In extract 1 below, Diana is talking about her self-harming behaviour during her below, Diana is talking about her self-harming behaviour during her depression.depression.

Extract 1Extract 1Bashir:Bashir: it was suggested that it was around this time it was suggested that it was around this time things became so difficult that you actually things became so difficult that you actually tried to injure yourselftried to injure yourselfDiana:Diana: mmmmmmBashir:Bashir: is that trueis that trueDiana:Diana: mmm when no one listens to you or you feel mmm when no one listens to you or you feel

no one’s listening to you all sorts of things no one’s listening to you all sorts of things start to happen for instance you have so start to happen for instance you have so much pain inside yourself that you try and much pain inside yourself that you try and hurt yourself on the outside cos you want hurt yourself on the outside cos you want help but it’s the wrong kind of help you’re help but it’s the wrong kind of help you’re asking forasking for

Admitting to self-harming would be problematic Admitting to self-harming would be problematic for Diana as a member of the royal family. She for Diana as a member of the royal family. She doesn’t directly answer the question (line 5) but doesn’t directly answer the question (line 5) but answers using the generic ‘you’; this allows her answers using the generic ‘you’; this allows her to maintain a rhetorical distance from what she to maintain a rhetorical distance from what she has said (i.e. it may or may not apply to her) has said (i.e. it may or may not apply to her) and enables her to identify with the audience. and enables her to identify with the audience.

Talking in this way also constructs her as a Talking in this way also constructs her as a normal person with normal feelings and normal person with normal feelings and emotions. She could be emotions. She could be anyoneanyone; there is nothing ; there is nothing about her role as Princess that might have about her role as Princess that might have caused her to self-harm…caused her to self-harm…

Chapter in WilligChapter in Willig Willig et al. 2007 Theory & Willig et al. 2007 Theory &

Psychology paper for Critical Psychology paper for Critical Discourse Analysis Discourse Analysis

Wetherell, M. et a. (2001) (Eds.). Wetherell, M. et a. (2001) (Eds.). Discourse Theory & Practice. SageDiscourse Theory & Practice. Sage