analysis of the exterior colour of agroindustrial buildings: a computer aided approach to landscape...

Analysis of the exterior colour of agroindustrial buildings: a computer

aided approach to landscape integration

Lorenzo Garcıa*, Julio Hernandez, Francisco Ayuga

Dpto. Expresion Grafica, Universidad de Extremadura, Calvario No 4, 06800 Merida, Spain

Received 24 December 2002; revised 30 May 2003; accepted 30 May 2003

Abstract

The visual and aesthetic aspects of any object are defined by its colour, form, line and texture, to which might be added compositional

reference elements such as scale and, in the case of three dimensional scenes, spatial character. This paper investigates one of these colour

and proposes a method for predicting the value of a building’s integration into the landscape. Based on psychological aspects, the method

uses computers to analyse and measure the pertinent attributes.

The designer can analyse visual elements in terms of the properties that define them. For example, colour, the subject of this paper, is

defined by its hue, saturation and lightness. Tables are proposed to study the relationship between buildings and their background using

computers. This paper offers a tool, based on the digital examination of scenes and on people’s integration preferences with respect to

agroindustrial buildings, which it is hoped will help project designers select appropriate colour schemes.

q 2003 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

Keywords: Colour; Design criteria; Building design; Rural areas; Computer aided design; Simulation

1. Introduction

For hundreds of years the location and design of rural

buildings depended almost exclusively on climatic con-

ditions, the requirements imposed by the work system, and

access to construction materials. Buildings were carefully

sited and oriented, resulting in a close relationship between

the building and the landscape. Forms, materials and colours

harmonised with the surroundings and frequently enhanced

them (Di Facio, 1989).

In recent decades, agriculture has undergone an

important transformation. Rural buildings have prolifer-

ated and in many cases are discordant with their

surroundings (Mennella, 1997). It is important that new

buildings be designed and sited in such a way that they

respect their surroundings (Tandy, 1979). However,

traditional construction styles and materials are not always

the most appropriate for modern agricultural needs. The

designer must bear all this in mind and develop buildings

that are the most appropriate for their function yet which

harmonise with their surroundings.

Rural problems are mainly those of development, both in

terms of economics and quality of life. The social challenge

is to provide solutions to improve both of these and to find

adequate indicators that measure them. The need to preserve

and improve the landscape is based on human appreciation

of it (Brunson and Reiter, 1996). Countryside is worthy of

being included as a factor that conditions the location and

design of buildings. For this reason, objective design guides

are needed.

The objective of this work is to offer to designers,

planners and others interested in the environment and/or

modern functional agroindustrial buildings in the country-

side, design criteria that can be easily used with computer

aided design.

2. Method

2.1. Visual elements and their importance in the perception

of a scene

Different design methods have been proposed involving

projects following the advice of specific guides (Tandy,

1979; Bell, 1995 etc.). Garcıa (1998), continued and

0301-4797/03/$ - see front matter q 2003 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

doi:10.1016/S0301-4797(03)00121-X

Journal of Environmental Management 69 (2003) 93–104

www.elsevier.com/locate/jenvman

* Corresponding author.

E-mail address: [email protected] (L. Garcıa).

http://www.elsevier.com/locate/jenvman

completed by Hernandez et al. (2001) performed a survey

using 30 photographs of buildings, a lot of them were

computer simulations (Danahy and Wright, 1988; Bishop

and Leahy, 1989, Figs. 1 and 2), shown to 150 people

drawn from different age groups, educational backgrounds

and locations. The first objective was to establish a

hierarchy of visual elements (Smardon, 1979; Espanol,

1995, Table 1) and to learn people’s preference criteria

(Kaplan and Kaplan, 1989; Bishop and Hull, 1991; Bishop,

1997). The questions posed were

1. What characteristic(s) of the group of buildings or their

construction components would have to be modified to

improve their integration into the scene in this

photograph?

Colour Texture of the materials Lines and for-

ms Scale Spatial location

2. How would you rate the integration of the building(s) in

the scene in this photograph?

Very bad Bad Acceptable Good Very good

Some 4500 answers were received. This approach was

considered sufficient for obtaining meaningful results.

The answers to the first question showed the importance

and influence of visual elements in the integration of

constructions into their environment. Fig. 3 shows the

average percentage of occasions on which the visual

element was indicated to be in need of modification. The

most important of these was colour: the object of the

present study. The colour and the location are the main

visual elements. Also others works (Bell, 1995; Espanol,

1995), although using different ways, show a very similar

conclusion.

2.2. Colour study

Colorimeters, spectrophotometers and spectroradi-

ometers provide an approximate measure of colour. These

instruments convert all colours within the range of human

perception into numbers, allowing them to be more

precisely defined. All colours are defined by three

parameters or characteristics: spectrum or hue, saturation

and lightness. For these three dimensions, numerical scaling

allows a scientific measure of any sensation of colour. This

is better than describing colours subjectively or giving them

arbitrary names such as cream beige, etc.—terms that can be

interpreted differently and cause confusion. Graphics

programmes can calculate these three values for any point

in a digital photograph, and can calculate the mean of each

Fig. 1. These photos are a sample of computer simulation. The real image is the first one.

Fig. 2. A rural nucleus showing a warehouse simulated by computer simulation. The real image is the first one. An attempt has been made to develop an

example that reproduces the outside walls and the doors. This is one way to evaluate integration into the nucleus.

L. Garcıa et al. / Journal of Environmental Management 69 (2003) 93–10494

in selected area. Such programmes are very useful in the

study of colour. This study made use of Adobe Photoshop

(Evening, 2003).

Colour has a great influence on the relationship between

buildings and their environment, and is very important when

trying to make a building appear rooted and integrated into

the terrain (Fraser, 1982; East Lindsey District Council,

1979; Scottish Environment Department, 1993). Colours

cannot be simply considered on their own. Each impression

or sensation of colour is affected by neighbouring colours

and by the overall effect of the environment. Harmony and

compatibility are particularly important. For example, with

respect to hue, harmonious colours would be those with

similar shades. There is always a luminous tendency that

relates one colour to the next—or all with each other.

Arriving at a concordance of colours is based on a

knowledge of colour ranges (Parramon, 1988).

If, within a certain range, there is a small difference in

types (colour characteristics values), there may be compa-

tible contrasts (CC). These create interest in or innovate a

scene. If the difference between types is large, poorly

compatible contrasts (PCC) may be produced. These are

very useful for signposts etc. in the urban world, but do not

help buildings integrate into their landscape.

Lightness and saturation help to accentuate these effects.

Chevreul that is cited by Parramon (1988), that is developed

a chromatic circle in which, starting out with 12 colours,

1440 tints were produced. Using this Chevreul demon-

strated that the sensation of colour depended not only on the

strength of the tints but that some colours could lose

intensity when next to others. Out of this arose the law of

simultaneous contrast, whose maximum expression is

reached in complementary colours.

Contrasts in lightness and saturation should not be

confused with those of hue. A light grey would contrast with

a dark grey because of lightness, and a sharp orange would

contrast with a ‘dirty’ orange because of saturation. In this

paper, these contrasts are studied with respect to both the

background and the building project. Chevreul set out the

idea that the properties and sensation of different colours are

accentuated or mitigated by the background in the above-

mentioned law of simultaneous contrasts.

2.3. Identification of the digital colour in a photograph

with true colour

Photography is one of the mainstays of this type of work.

To be reliable, photographic colours must be adjusted to

identify them with their true colours. The main problem of

working with colour is noticed when trying to precisely

measure it (Magill and Litton, 1986). Our appreciation of

colour is determined by the following basic factors

† The true colour

† The colour produced by the effects of light and shade

† The influence of reflected colours

† The influence of light intensity

† The colour of the atmosphere between the object and

the viewer

This study tries to measure true colour as closely as

possible. True colour is the specific colour of the object—

which always exists—but which is most evident when an

Table 1

Visual and aesthetic elements

Visual and aesthetic elements Elements Characteristics

Surface properties Colour Spectrum

Saturation

Lightness

Texture Regularity

Density

Grain size

Internal contrast

Formation elements Line Sharpness

Complexity

Orientation

Form Geometry

Complexity

Orientation

Composition elements Space Scenic composition

Scenic background

Siting of units

Scale Scenic occupation

Contrast of scales

Fig. 3. Average percentage of occasions in which the visual element was identified as requiring modification.

L. Garcıa et al. / Journal of Environmental Management 69 (2003) 93–104 95

object receives full frontal white light. When the light

changes direction from frontal to lateral, the effects of light

and shade come into play.

Identifying digital photograph colour with true colour

was performed as follows (Fig. 4a–c)

1. Measurement of true colour. The use of Munsell’s colour

chart is recommended for gathering data.

2. Conversion of the colour formulae data into coordinates

that can be introduced into computer programmes.

Transformations into HSB or Lab coordinates are very

useful.

3. Taking of the photograph, its digital exploration and its

visualisation on a monitor. The correct calibration of the

instruments is very important in these processes.

4. Manipulation of the photograph with a graphics pro-

gramme, using the tools provided, in order that the

building’s main colours, and those of the environment,

coincide with the true colours. Normally, not all

coincide, but a very close approximation can be achieved

Fig. 4. (a) This image shows the colours before identifying digital photograph colour with true colour. (b) and (c) (1) Munsell’s colour chart is used for

gathering data and obtaining true colour. (2) Conversion of the colour formulae data into coordinates that can be introduced into computer programmes. First

are transformed into Lab coordinates. (3) The conversion of the Lab coordinates into HSB coordinates by a graphics programme is instantaneous. With these

values we can adjust the colours and obtain (c), after the photographic treatment.


in the analysis area. Colour correction prohibits local

selection. All actions must affect the image as a whole.

Normally, all corrections are made using the curves

offered as tools. To achieve precision it is necessary to be

competent in the use of the programme.

2.4. Relationships between types of one characteristic

It is possible to define the relation between two existing

types of the same characteristic (Table 1). This analysis can

be carried out for all the characteristics of different elements

(Garcıa, 1998). This is important because it is possible to

compare and relate objectively representative elements of

buildings with those representatives of the countryside.

Thus the visual relationship between the building and its

setting can be established. The different relationships

between types of one characteristic are

† Visual continuity (VC). The relationship that exists

between two similar or neighbouring types in a diagram

or scale. Buildings copy some values that there are in the

surroundings and reproduce features of the natural world.

It’s value is the unity.

† Diversity. The relationship that exists between two types

when a certain gap exists between them. There is a

variation and therefore, more diversity. It could enrich

the scene.

† Contrast. The relationship that exists between two types

when a gap exists between them that is greater than a

certain amount (Table 2), i.e. so they are perceived as

being very different (Orland et al., 1994). These contrasts

can even break the scene’s unity and consequently its

compatibility, giving rise to incompatible contrasts. The

Gestaltists turned their attention to this and called these

opposing visual states ‘levelling’ and ‘sharpening’.

Sharpening is defined as an increase or exaggeration, as

used, for example, in urban signposting. This is so-called

incompatible contrast.

2.4.1. Hue

Hue, or spectrum, can vary from the warmest colours of

red to the coldest of blue. Warm colours (reds, oranges and

yellows) are dominant over colder colours (green, blue and

violet). Small amounts of warm colours in cold scenes

capture the attention of the viewer (Neufert, 1982; Espanol,

1995).

To study the hue or spectrum, the necessary information

is obtained using a programme that can identify the

variables that characterise colour—such as Photoshop. In

this programme, this parameter can vary from 0 to 3608 (Fig.

5a–c).

The existence of VC diversity, CC and PCC, is studied

for pairs of colour zones (Fig. 6). This calculation is very

simple. Once an area is selected the programme studies the

colour channel diagram. From this, the mean values for red,

green and blue are obtained. Using these values, conversion

into the parameters hue, saturation and lightness is achieved

in the ‘colour picker’ window.

Using the mean hue value ðhÞ; the diagram shown in

Table 2 is produced. Knowing the mean spectral value of the

work zone as well allows the relationship between the two to

be established. If one of these figures is negative, 360 is

added to it since the chromatic representation used is

circular.

Table 2

Hue, saturation and lightness relationships


These orientative limits (based on the results of about

1000 tests, Garcıa, 1998), which define and differentiate the

different internal relationships in hue, saturation and

lightness (see later) are not strict boundaries but diffuse

limits that serve to link the different relationships.

2.4.2. Saturation

Saturation or chroma refers to the purity of colour. It

varies from grey or dirty colour to sharp colour. When

colours of different wavelength mix, the resulting vibration

is complex and the final colour duller. On contrary, the more

similar the wavelengths, the more saturated the mixture.

Minimum saturation is obtained with colours, which give a

completely achromatic grey. Saturated colours dominate

over grey colours, those with the highest saturation values

attracting the attention of the observer more (Neufert, 1982;

Espanol, 1995). Saturation values can be between 0 and 100.

The existence of VC, diversity, CC and PCC is

studied for pairs of colour zones in such a way that,

given the mean saturation of one representative zone of

the surroundings, Table 2 can be constructed.

The category of the relationship between them is

then determined from the mean saturation value of the

other (Fig. 6).

2.4.3. Lightness

This value varies between the brightest and darkest

colours, further determining its dominance. Very bright

surfaces tend to attract the attention of the observer more

strongly than all others (Neufert, 1982; Espanol, 1995).

The available light, that depends on time-of-day, has a

fundamental influence in photography. The colours of a

scene tend to be lighter at midday and darker at dusk. In

addition, at dusk, the light that the colours reflect arrives

refracted from its source towards red and ochre, which

influences all colours reflected. Cloudy skies, which filter

light, tend to reduce clarity and lightness (similar to that

appreciated at dusk). With respect to the direction of the

incoming light, colours pale and become bright with frontal

illumination, while they turn dark and matt with oblique

illumination. Lightness values can be between 0 and 100.

The existence of VC, diversity, CC and PCC is studied

for pairs of colour zones in such a way that, given the mean

lightness of one representative zone of the surroundings,

Table 2 can be constructed (Fig. 6).

2.4.4. Observer conditions

With respect to colour and the other elements, knowledge

of the observer conditions helps to explain the circum-

stances in which a visual study was performed.

With respect to observer conditions, the colour of an

object varies with

† Distance. Colours lose lightness and become bluer with

distance, owing to the diffusion of atmospheric particles.

† Atmospheric conditions. Pollution, mist, fog and rain

increase the effect of distance. Dark skies reduce clarity

and lightness.

† Direction of incident light. Colours appear paler but

lighter with frontal illumination

† Time of day. Colours appear lighter at midday and darker

and more reddish at dawn and dusk.

Fig. 5. (a) Hue study. The photograph has been treated with programmes for

simulating the true colour as measured in the field. The buildings are of mud

construction and form the center of a rural nucleus on the Leon plateau

(Spain). Among the buildings with typically traditional topologies are more

recent constructions employing materials that do not reproduce the pre-

existing colours and topologies. (b) Perception of the scene changes when

hue differences are eliminated between the brick walls and mud elements.

(c) The similarity is seen between the warm hues of the ground and the mud

walls of the buildings. The low value for this parameter with respect to

bricks is noteworthy; attention is drawn to them.


Fig. 6. Study of some of the possibilities that could exist in the relationship between a building and its surroundings. The colour chosen as the basis for the

diagrams was that of the ground without vegetation, whose values are: H; 35; S; 30; B; 75. In this first figure, produced by hybrid infography, a case of VC is

generated. The colour of the walls offers this characteristic for hue, saturation and lightness. In the lower part, representative types of diversity and some of the

existing possible variations when modifying hue, saturation and lightness are offered.

Fig. 7. Relationships among types of a visual element.


Fig. 8. (a) Example of the colour study. (b) Hue, saturation and lightness relationships based on the road colour ðh ¼ 36; s ¼ 44; b ¼ 97Þ:


2.5. Final and global evaluation of colour for the

integration of a building with its environment

Fig. 7 shows the method to be used with the diagrams

of the elements. Bearing in mind the relationship

between the types of visual elements, when a new

building is made, it is possible to create the following

visual integration elements

(a) VC

(b) Diversity without contrasts (DWC)

(c) Diversity with contrasts

2.5.1. Visual continuity

This means there is no diversity and there are no new

contrasts in the scene. New visual impacts are not observed.

The presence of types in the elements characteristics is very

similar for the countryside and building. There is no change

in the natural aesthetics.

This approach tries not to render the project building as a

main element in the perceived scene, but rather seeks its

blending with existent buildings. In fact, to hide is a way to

integrate. The placement must hide the whole building. The

planting of trees finishes the effect. If not possible,

traditional materials and proportions must be used so as

not to create a new character for the scene. There are four

ways to achieve VC: style

1. Copy the present types of the natural elements (camou-

flage).

2. Copy the present types in traditional buildings (archi-

tectonic imitation, Fig. 5).

3. Build a natural screen that hides the project from view.

4. Select a hidden site.

2.5.2. Diversity without contrasts

In this case, when buildings are introduced, there is an

attempt to imitate the surrounding types although allowing

Fig. 8 (continued )

Fig. 9. Relationship between integration values and relationships among elements.


a certain flexibility, which will supply variety to the scene.

This is difficult since it is hard to control all the design

elements without contrasts disappearing. DWC is achieved

through the differences in those existing in the surroundings

and those of the building being small.

2.5.3. Diversity with contrasts

This occurs when the different types making up the visual

elements of the new project are different to those in

existence. Contrast is an essential tool in the control of

visual effects and, in consequence, of perception. It is very

important for the clarity of the content and the art of

communication (Langer, 1953). However, it must be

handled carefully. The main aim of a visual formulation is

expression, the transmission of ideas, information or

feelings; in this case respect for nature.

The effects of contrast on the elements can be compatible

or incompatible

(a) CC. The creation of suitable contrasts is one of the

most important aspects of scene quality. A building can

have this effect. The creation of such contrast responds

to functional or economic factors, and should include

its own innovations or peculiarities that enrich the

scene. The inclusion of new topologies usually creates

contrasts because of the fragility of the surroundings.

The value of the landscape increases when these

contrasts are compatible and form a unity in the scene.

This does not occur when an innovative touch leads to

the building opposing the natural countryside.

(b) PCC. The design guide must have three characteristics:

it must be effective, suitable and possible.

2.6. Summary table for relating the colour of the

construction with that of the environment

To study the integration of buildings into the landscape,

an analysis of all the existing colours must be undertaken

and a base area chosen. This choice should be made bearing

in mind traditional, local aesthetic tradition and the goal to

be achieved. The table that appears in the Fig. 8a is a tool

that helps in this. This table should be completed in the

following manner (Fig. 8a and b)

1. Determine the important construction elements of the

building. All those considered important but which are

not found on the form can be added in the blank spaces.

The choice of these elements will depend upon their

dominance in the scene.

2. Hue, saturation and lightness should be determined for

each.

3. Indicating which of the building’s elements will be used

to establish relationships will be the basis characteristic

tables (Table 2). Normally, this will be a component of

the general colour palette, the main face of the building

or roof. The symbol ‘A’ is available to specify them. The

remaining values will help serve to complete the study.

4. Select the elements of the environment to serve as

references, e.g. soil, rocks, vegetation, walls of neigh-

bouring buildings, etc.

5. Indicate which of these elements will serve to establish

relationships. Normally only one will be considered, e.g.

the colour of the soil, as a representative of the

permanent elements of the environment (Figs. 4–6

and 10). Other components may, however, also be

chosen for producing the final evaluation.

6. Construction of hue, saturation and lightness diagrams

after choosing the important elements of the building

and determining the values of their characteristics.

Fig. 10. The numbering of the images corresponds to that of the

questionnaire. Each shows VC, compatible contrast (CC) or poorly

compatible contrasts (PCC). The diagram relates the evaluation given for

the integration by those interviewed, as well as the percentage of those who

would alter the colour of the building.

Fig. 11. Series of illustrative images. The construction with PCC for colour

received the greatest number of comments about changing its colour.


7. VC, diversity and contrast studies are performed with

area pairs, one for the building and the other for the

landscape. The indicated elements of the building can

then be related to all those of the environment.

8. Each of the elements has four qualifiers: VC, DWC, CC

and PCC. The numbers that appear are recorded. These

help to decide upon the different qualifiers. In this way,

the parameter Vmax (maximum value) of the relation-

ships is the greater number of hue, saturation and

lightness.

9. To obtain the final evaluation, the conditions that will

lead to PCC, CC, diversity and VC must be considered.

The evaluation is obtained when the first condition is

met.

10. The chart is complemented with the observations

the designer considers opportune. Here, the conditions

in which the photographs were taken and the

possible relationships of interest between other con-

struction elements and the building can be taken into

account.

3. 3. Application and discussion

The answers to the second question posed in the

questionnaire, show that the relationships between the

different types of visual characteristic (colour hue, satur-

ation and lightness) are satisfactory for the study of

integration quality. Relevant correlations were obtained

between integration appraisal and VC, DWC, CC and

incompatible contrasts (Fig. 9).

In integrations classed as ‘Good’ or ‘Very good’, there

were no PCC. Integrations classed as ‘Acceptable’ showed

CC, DWC and VC. In these cases, the CC have the greatest

weight. However, in the integrations classed as ‘Good’ or

‘Very good’, VC was most important.

CC integrate buildings and also increase the quality of a

scene. However, not all designers have the necessary

aesthetic knowledge or ability to design things with this in

mind. Incompatible contrasts will, therefore, often arise.

Where aesthetic knowledge does not exist, and the

designer’s only help is his/her intuition, VC might be better

Fig. 12. This pair of photographs shows the importance of colour differentiation in buildings. They copy the ground types and there is VC. However, in the first

there is hardly any visual differentiation between the construction elements, making the perception of the assembly of buildings rather difficult (35% of those

questioned declared they would change the colour of the facing wall). In the second picture, this does not occur, and perception is more agreeable.


achieved by following a guide such as that proposed in this

paper. There is a greater probability that integration will be

‘Good’ or ‘Very good’ when construction elements enter

VC with the countryside (Figs. 10 and 11). Facing walls

with warm colours, with hues, saturations and lightness

close to terrain without vegetation ones, help to obtain VC.

The colour differentiation in building is also very important.

The observer is grateful for the absence of ambiguous

borders that are not perceived clearly.

Facing wall colours are the most important but the roofs

colours complete the effect. Good integrations have been

obtained when colours of roof planes are designed with very

similar hue and minor values of saturation and lightness to

that in the walls (Fig. 12). It is important to avoid roof

planes with high values of lightness. This helps to make a

building appear rooted and integrated into the terrain.

Other elements as doors, windows, etc. put the finishing

touches to the aesthetic appearance of the building but not to

its integration in countryside.

Choosing a definitive design means making an evalu-

ation of the different alternatives available and selecting the

most suitable according to the type of integration sought.

Using these rules, more rational design proposals for

buildings can be made.

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