Lithology and Mineral Resources, Vol. 37, No. 5, 2002, pp. 442-446. From Litologiya i Poleuiye Iskopaemye, No. 5, 2002, pp. 509-515.Original English Text Copyright © 2002 by Berthault.

Analysis of Main Principles of Stratigraphy on the Basisof Experimental Data1

G. Berthault28 Boulevard Thiers, 78250 Meulan, France

Received February 18, 2000

Abstract—Stratigraphy, the basis of geological dating, was founded in the 17th century on the three well-known principles assumed by Nicolas Stenon: superposition, continuity, and original horizontality. Successiveobservations and experiments show that Stenon's stratigraphic model was not in line with experimental data,because it had "overlooked" the major variable factor of sedimentology: the current and its chronologicaleffects.

Experiments were performed simulating the forma-tion of sediment layers generated at variable currentvelocities from inequigranular particles. Results of theexperiments showed that Stenon's stratigraphy can beapplied only in the particular case of deposition at a nilcurrent velocity. Modeling of sedimentation processand interrelation in sedimentology, stratigraphy andgeological dating allows paleohydraulic conditions tobe considered as the new approach to geological dating.

INTRODUCTION

Stenon was the founder of stratigraphy. It was in1667 that he introduced in his work Canis Calchariaethe postulate: layers of sub-soil are "strata" of ancientsuccessive "sediments." From this partial interpreta-tion, Stenon drew three initial principles of stratigraphyformulated in 1669 in his work Prodromus (Ellen-berger, 1975).

(1) Principle of superpositionAt the time when one of the highest stratum formed,

the stratum underneath it had already acquired a solidconsistence. At the time when any stratum formed, thesuperincumbent material was entirely fluid. Therefore,at the time when the lowest stratum formed, none of thesuperior strata existed.

(2) Principle of continuityStrata owe their existence to sediments in a fluid. At

the time when any stratum formed, either it was circum-scribed on its sides by another solid body, or else it ranround the globe of the Earth.

(3) Principle of original horizontalityAt the time when any stratum formed, its lower sur-

face, as also the surfaces of its sides, corresponded withthe surfaces of the subjacent body, and lateral bodies,but its upper surface was (then) parallel to the horizon,as far as it was possible.

This article was submitted by the author in English.

The sedimentological model corresponding to thesethree principles is, therefore, the following. In a fluidcovering the Earth, except for emerged land, a precipi-tate deposits strata after strata, covering all the sub-merged Earth. After the deposition of each stratum, thesedimentation is interrupted for the time it takes for thestratum to acquire a solid consistence. The stratumbeing contained between two parallel planes indicatesthat the sedimentation rate of the precipitate is uniformaround the submerged Earth.

Stenon's assertion relies solely upon observation ofstratified rocks and the superposition of strata, indepen-dently of data from the sedimentological process. Thisprocess is composed of three phases: erosion, transport,and deposition of sediments, the liquid current beingthe vector of transport. Stenon's stratigraphy only tookaccount the third phase of sedimentology, i.e., the dep-osition, assuming implicitly a nil velocity of current.

PROBLEMS OF STENON'S STRATIGRAPHY

This model based upon a postulate, which takes intoaccount only one particular case of sedimentation,namely the absence of current, implying succession oftime on a global scale, according to the verticalsequence of strata, is not in accordance with experi-mental and field investigations.

The first part of the definition of the principle ofsuperposition is as follows: At the time when one of thehighest stratum formed, the stratum underneath it hadalready acquired a solid consistence. A stratumbetween 50 cm and 1 m is considered thick. Conse-quently, submarine drillings should encounter solidstrata in the stratified oceanic sediments after a fewmeters.

The results of seafloor drilling showed that the firstsemiconsolidated sediments appeared at a depth of about400-800 m. However, certain chert beds (siliceous beds)were found in sediments at a depth of 135 m near the

0024-4902/02/3705-0442$27.00 © 2002 MAIK "Nauka/Interperiodica"

ANALYSIS OF MAIN PRINCIPLES OF STRATIGRAPHY 443

oceanic transform fault zones (Logvinenko, 1980).Therefore, Stenon's definition concerning successivehardening, which spans over the total duration of depo-sition, is not supported by sedimentological observa-tions mentioned above.

No sedimentary layer extends around the Earth.Seismic readings and submarine coring demonstratethat the strata in oceanic deposits are not always hori-zontal and the sedimentation rate in oceans is not uni-form on a global scale of the Earth.

In the first part of the definition of the principle ofcontinuity, Stenon affirms that strata owe their exist-ence to sediments in a fluid.

Stenon says nothing about the influence of fluid onsediments. Thus, the relative stratigraphic chronologyresulting from his principles did not take it into accountthis influence (the two later principles of paleontologi-cal identity and uniformitarianism changed nothing inthis respect). Currents exist in present-day oceans thaterode, transport, and deposit sediments, as was shownby Strakhov in 1957. Geologists have attributedchanges in the orientation of stratification and erosionsurfaces in sedimentary rocks to marine transgressionsand regressions. This is the object of study in sequencestratigraphy today. Diagrams in sequence stratigraphy,however, give no indication of the current velocity ofthese transgressions and regressions, except for varia-tions in the level of oceans. Detrital sedimentary rocksalone (resulting from mechanical desegregation) wouldhave required a minimum current to transport the parti-cles from where they were eroded to their sedimenta-tion site.

Charles Lyell added a principle of uniformitarian-ism, giving as an example layers deposited in freshwater in Auvergne. Observing that the layers were lessthan 1 mm thick, he considered that each layer was laiddown annually. At this rate, the 230-m-thick depositwould have taken hundreds of thousands of years toform. As will be shown below, these layers (laminae) donot always correspond to annual deposits and may begenerated in a much less time interval than the moderngeological time-scale indicates.

MAJOR STAGES OF THE LABORATORYRESEARCH

Two principal stages of the scientific program arereflected in the following lines of research: lamination(Fig. 1) and stratification (Figs. 2, 3).

(1) LaminationThe following abstract of my paper (Berthault,

1986) provided the basis of research on the depositionof inequigranular sediments in water (with and withouta current):

Sedimentation experiments were conducted in stillwater with a continuous supply of inequigranular mate-rial. A deposit is obtained, giving the illusion of succes-sive beds or laminae. These laminae are the result of a

Fig. 1. Lamination resulting from sediment flowing intowater.

spontaneous periodic and continuous grading process,which takes place immediately, following the deposi-tion of the inequigranular mixture. The thickness oflaminae appears to be independent of the sedimentationrate but increases with extreme differences in particlesize in the mixture. Where a horizontal current isinvolved, thin laminated layers developing laterally inthe direction of the current are observed.

The second series were performed at the MarseillesInstitute of Fluid Mechanics.

The experiments demonstrate that continuous depo-sition of inequigranular sediments in still water givesrise to laminae, which disappear progressively as theheight of the fall of particles into water (and apparentlytheir size) increases. Laminae follow the slope of theupper part of the deposit. In running water, manyclosely related (even superposed) types of laminationappear in the deposit (Berthault, 1988).

(2) StratificationExperiments in stratification were conducted in the

Fort Collins hydraulics laboratory of Colorado StateUniversity with professor of hydraulics and sedimen-tology Pierre Julien.

It was necessary to operate with water in a recircu-lating flume traversed by a current laden with sediment.As Hjulstrom (1935) and his successors had defined thecritical sedimentation rate for each particle size, thecurrent velocity should be varied. By modulating thecurrent velocity, a superposition of segregated particlescould be obtained.

The flume experiment showed that in the presenceof a variable current, stratified superposed beds pro-

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444 BERTHAULT

Fig. 2. Typical longitudinal view of deposition (flow fromright to left).

grade simultaneously in the direction of the current. Onthe strata scale the obtained result, is consistent with thefacies-scale Golovkinskii-Inostrantsev-Walther's law(Walther, 1894; Middleton, 1973; Romanovskii, 1988),according to which the extension of facies of a specificsequence is the same in both lateral and vertical direc-tions.

The report of the experiment entitled Experiments inStratification of Heterogeneous Sand Mixtures waspublished in (Julien etal., 1993).

This experimental study examines the possible strat-ification of heterogeneous sand mixtures under contin-

Maxima permissible velocities or nonerosive for noncohe-sive grounds, in m/s (selon Lischtvan-Lebediev)

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uous (nonperiodic and noninterrupted) sedimentation.Three primary aspects of stratification are considered:lamination, graded beds, and joints.

(a) Experiments on segregation of eleven heteroge-neous mixtures of sand-sized quartz, limestone and coaldemonstrate that through lateral motion, fine particlesfall between interstices of the rolling coarse particles.Coarse particles gradually roll on top of fine particlesand microscale sorting is obtained. Microscale segrega-tion similar to lamination is observed on plane surfaces,as well as under continuous settling in columns filledwith air or water.

(b) The formation of graded beds is examined in alaboratory flume under steady flow and a continuoussupply of heterogeneous particles. Under steady uni-form flow and plane bed with sediment motion, coarseparticles of the mixture roll on a laminated bed ofmostly fine particles. In nonuniform flow, the velocitydecrease caused by tail-gate induces the formation of astratum of coarse particles propagating in the down-stream direction. On top of this cross-stratified bed, fineparticles settle through the moving bed layer of rollingcoarse particles and form an almost horizontally lami-nated topset stratum of finer particles. A thick stratumof coarse particles thus progresses downstreambetween two strata of laminated fine particles, continu-ously prograding upward and downstream.

(c) Laboratory experiments on the desiccation ofnatural sands also show preferential fracturing (orjoints) of crusty deposits at the interface between strataof coarse and fine particles.

Rather than successive sedimentary layers, theseexperiments demonstrate that stratification under a con-tinuous supply of heterogeneous sandy mixtures resultsfrom segregation for lamination, nonuniform flow forgraded beds (Fig. 4), and desiccation for joints (Fig. 5).Superposed strata are not, therefore, necessarily identi-cal to successive sedimentary layers.

LITHOLOGY AND MINERAL RESOURCES Vol. 37 No. 5 2002

ANALYSIS OF MAIN PRINCIPLES OF STRATIGRAPHY 445

Fig. 4. Typical cross section of deposit. Fig. 5. Horizontal fracturing of the Bijon Creek sand.

Fig. 6. Lamination parallel to a slope of 15°

Our flume experiments demonstrated that Stenon'sassumption (strata are ancient successive sediments)and his principle of superposition can only apply in theabsence of a current (nil transport velocity). Moreover,the experiments reported in my second paper to theAcademy of Sciences, as well as experiments con-ducted by P. Julien and presented as video Fundamen-tal Experiments on Stratification at several sedimento-logical congresses, clearly show that up to the limit ofthe angle of repose (30° to 40° for the sands), the lami-nation of sediments is parallel to the slope (Fig. 6). Theprinciple of horizontality does not apply in this case. Itshould not, therefore, be concluded that the dip of stratanecessarily implies tectonic movements subsequent tothe horizontal deposition of strata.

(3) Paleohydraulic conditionsAnalysis of the main principles of stratigraphy on

the basis of experimental data is necessary to determinethe hydraulic conditions that existed when the sedi-ments, which have become rocks, were deposited.

In this respect, the relation between hydraulic con-ditions and configuration of deposits (submarine rip-ples and dunes and horizontal beds) of contemporarydeposits have been the object, especially recently, ofwell-known observations and experimentation. Rubinand McCulloch (1980) reported data on the San Fran-cisco Bay environment (Fig. 7), while Southard andBoguchwal (1990) presented results of flume experi-

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ments. Meanwhile, Hjulstrom and his successors (Hjul-strom, 1935; Lebedev, 1959; Neill, 1968; Levi, 1981;Maizels, 1983; Van Rijn, 1984; Maza, Flores, 1997)determined a minimum velocity of erosion and sedi-mentation for each particle size at a given depth (table).These relations can be applied particularly to detritalrocks, such as sandstone, the first stage of a transgres-sive marine sequence resulting from erosion, transport,and sedimentation driven by an initially erosive power-ful current in shallow water. The competence, i.e., thepaleovelocity of current below which particles of a

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given size are deposited, and the corresponding capac-ity of sedimentary transport of the current can be deter-mined based on the above data. These two criteriadetermine the time required for sequence deposition.

When the transgression reached its maximum depthand correlatively the velocity of current tended towardzero, the finest particles transported initially by thetransgressive current precipitated as a result of retarda-tion and eventual flocculation. It is, therefore, possibleto appreciate the time the particles took to fall and,based on the capacity, to evaluate the time taken for thesediment to precipitate. Such data would, of course,only be minimum, but it would nevertheless give accessto knowledge of the genesis of sedimentation.

CONCLUSIONS

The dating principles determined in the 17th centuryby Stenon, an anatomy professor of Copenhagen Uni-versity (Molyavko et al., 1985), upon which the geo-logical time-scale is founded should be re-examinedand supplemented.

The most probable way of determining the genesisof sedimentary rocks is, first, to identify cycles of trans-gressive-regressive sequences by sequence stratigra-phy. The results of our flume experiments are relevantin this connection. They show that in the presence of acurrent, strata in a sequence are not successive. Changeof orientation in stratification, or erosion surfacesbetween facies of the same sequence, or between super-posed sequences can result from a variation in thevelocity of an uninterrupted current. Bed plane partingsseparating facies or sequences can result from desicca-tion following the withdrawal of water.

Having established the sequences of cycles, theirpaleohydraulic conditions must be determined. Thesewould be minimum conditions, because it is possiblethat certain cycles, resulting from tectonic processes,attained an amplitude beyond anything comparabletoday.

Knowledge of paleohydraulic conditions shouldhelp to determine better the paleoecological zones(depth and site) of the species which, as with the sedi-ments, were dragged along by the currents. It mightalso provide a better explanation of the layering of fos-sil zones in the sediments of sedimentary basins.

By calling into question the principles and methods,upon which geological dates are founded, and in pro-posing the new approach of paleohydraulogy, I hope toopen a dialogue with specialists in the disciplines con-cerned, who are able to appreciate the implications, andpropose a geological chronology in conformity withexperimental observation.

REFERENCESBerthault, G., Sedimentation of a Inequigranular Mixture.Experimental Lamination in Still and Running Water, C.R.Acad. Sc., 1988, vol. 306, Serie II, pp. 717-724.Berthault, G., Sedimentologie: Experiences sur la laminationdes sediments par granoclassement periodique posterieur audepot. Contribution a 1'explication de la lamination dansnombre de sediments et de roches sedimentaires., C.R. Acad.Sc., 1986, vol. 303, Ser., 2, no. 17, pp. 1569-1574.Ellenberger, E, Histoire de la Geologic, vol. 1: Technique etdocumentation, Lavoisier, 1975, pp. 232-315.Fundamental Experiments in Stratification, Videotape Cas-sette (in English), 1993.Hjulstrom, E, The Morphological Activity of Rivers as Illus-trated by River Fyris, Bull. Geol. Inst., Uppsala, 1935, no. 25,pp. 89-122.Mien, P.Y., Lan, Y., and Berthault, G., Experiments on Strat-ification of Heterogeneous Sand Mixtures, Bull. Soc. Geol.France, 1993, vol. 164, no. 5, pp. 649-660.Lebedev, V.V., Gidrologiya i gidravlika v mostovom dorozh-nom stroitel'stve (Hydrology and Hydraulics in Bridge andRoad Building), Leningrad: Gidrometeoizdat, 1959.Levi, Bed-Load Transport—Theory and Practice, WaterResources Publ., Michigan, 1981, pp. 303-355.Logvinenko, N.V., Morskaya geologiya (Marine Geology),Leningrad: Nedra, 1980.Maizels, J., Paleovelocity and Paleodischarge, Determina-tion for Coarse Gravel Deposits, John Wiley & Sons, 1983.Maza, J.A., Garcia Flores, M., Velocidades medias para elinicio del movimiento de particulas, V Congreso Nacional deHydraulica, Guadalajara, 1997, pp. 70-88.Middleton, G.V., Johannes Walter's Law of the Correlationof Facies, Bull. Geol. Soc. Am., 1973, vol. 84, pp. 979-988.Molyavko, G.I., Franchuk, V.P., and Kulichenko, V.G.,Geologi i geografy. Bibliograficheskii spravochnik (Geolo-gists and Geographers: Handbook on Bibliography), Kiev:Nauk. Dumka, 1985.Neill, C.R., Note on Initial Movement of Coarse UniformMaterial, /. Hydr. Res. IAHR, 1968, vol. 6, no. 2, pp. 157-184.Romanovskii, S.I., To the Problem of the Hystory of Discov-ery and Authorship of Main Facies Law, VIET, 1988, no. 4,pp. 87-94.Rubin, D.M. and McCulloch, D.S., Single and SuperposedBed Forms: A Synthesis of San Francisco Bay and FlumeObservations, /. Sediment. Petrol., 1980, no. 26, pp. 207-231.Southard, J. and Boguchwal, J.A., Bed Configuration inSteady Unidirectional Waterflows, part 2: Synthesis of FlumeData, J. Sediment. Petrol., 1990., no. 60(5), pp. 658-679.Spravochnik po litologii (Handbook on Lithology), Vasso-evich, N.B., Librovich, V.L., Logvinenko, N.V., and March-enko, V.I., Eds., Moscow: Nedra, 1983.Strakhov, N.M., Theoretical Lithology and Its Problems, hv.Akad. Nauk SSSR, Ser. Geol., 1957, no. 11, pp. 15-31.Van Rijn, L.C., Suspended Load, J. Hydraulic Eng. ASCE,1984, vol. 10, no. 11, pp. 1613-1641.Van Rijn, L.C., Sediment Transport: Bed-Load Transport,Part I, J. Hydraulic Eng. ASCE, 1984, vol. 10, no. 11,pp. 1431-1456.Walther, J., Einleitung in die Geologie und Historische Wis-senschaft, Jena: Verlag von Gustav Fisher, 1894.

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