an online leadership development course for nurse educators by
TRANSCRIPT
An Online Leadership Development Course for Nurse Educators
by
Brenda J. Stutsky [email protected]
A combination course design document and instructor’s guide submitted in partial fulfillment of the requirements
for the course DCTE 847 Project in Learning Theory and Computer Applications
Graduate School of Computer and Information Sciences Nova Southeastern University
December 2, 2007
Table of Contents
List of Tables iv List of Figures v Introduction 1 Sections 1. Section One: Design Document 2
Instructional Design Model 2
Instructional Problems 3 Background and Problem 3 Needs Assessment 4 Performance Assessment 8 Learner Characteristics 10 Learner Analysis 10 Contextual Analysis 12 Task Analysis 14 Instructional Objectives 18 Course Goal 19 Objective One 19 Objective Two 19 Objective Three 19 Objective Four 20 Objective Five 20 Objective Six 20 Classification of Instructional Objectives 20 Content Sequencing 21 Instructional Strategies 23 Objective One 25 Objective Two 25 Objective Three 26 Objective Four 27 Objective Five 27 Objective Six 28
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Designing the Message 29
2. Section Two: Instructor Manual 32 Development of Instruction and Evaluation 32 Leadership Development for Nurse Educators: Competencies of Leadership Instructor’s Guide 33 Overview 33 Course Description 33 Target Audience 33 Constructivism 34 Role of the Instructor as Facilitator 35 Role of the Coach (Optional) 37 Instructor Resources 37 Online Learning Interface 38 Computer System Requirements for Instructors and Learners 41 Create Readiness 42 Form Groups 43 Main Instructional Strategy: Storytelling 44 Course Outline 45
3. Section Three: Summary 53 Reference List 54
iii
List of Tables
1. Generative Strategy-Content Matrix 24 2. Instructional-Design Theory 29 3. Overview of Weeks Two to Eleven 47 4. Overview of Weeks Twelve to Thirteen 51
iv
List of Figures Figures 1. Modified Flow-Chart of Mager and Pipe’s Human Performance Model 9 2. WRHA Nursing Leadership Development Framework 15 3. Elements within the Component of Business of Health Care 15 4. Elements within the Competencies of Leadership Component 15 5. Elements within the Use of Self Component 16 6. Elements within the Profession of Nursing Component 16 7. Flow of Information Conceptualized in Information-Processing Theory 22 8. Overview of the Wiki Environment 40
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1
Introduction
Imagine that you are a nursing director employed by a hospital, and your Chief
Nursing Officer approaches you with a concern. She indicates that administrators in the
hospital are having increasing difficulty filling vacant nursing leadership positions. The
Chief Nursing Officer asks you to consider what approaches might be used to address her
concern. After some consideration, you realize that leadership development needs to start
very early in a nurse’s career, and that the development of a leadership course or program
that focuses on fostering a leadership mindset in our new generation of nurses just might
be the solution to the concern.
The situation described above is actually quite close to reality, and in this paper, the
author will outline the development of an online leadership development course for nurse
educators using an instructional design approach. Strong consideration will be given to
incorporating various teaching-learning strategies and design approaches that will meet
the needs of learners with differing learning styles and preferences. This paper is
separated into three main sections: (a) Design Document, (b) Instructor’s Guide, and (c)
Summary. The Design Document section contains the first seven elements of the
instructional design model outlined by Morrison, Ross, and Kemp (2004), while the
second section, namely, the Instructor’s Guide, contains the last two elements. By
working through each element in the instructional design process, a proposed course
entitled, Leadership Development for Nurse Educators: Competencies of Leadership is
presented.
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Section One: Design Document
Instructional Design Model
Morrison et al. (2004) outline an instructional design model that includes nine
elements: (a) instructional problems, (b) learner characteristics, (c) task analysis, (d)
instructional objectives, (e) content sequencing, (f) instructional strategies, (g) designing
the message, (h) development of instruction, and (i) evaluation. Two other encompassing
features of the model include feedback and management. Morrison et al. note that their
instructional design model is flexible and does not have a specific starting point;
therefore, instructional designers or educators can determine the order in which to
address the various elements.
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Instructional Problems
Background and Problem
There is growing concern regarding the impending retirement of baby-boomers who
are in leadership positions as nurse managers in clinical practice settings (Redman, 2006;
Sherman, 2005; Sherman & Bishop, 2007), or nurse educators in educational settings
(Bartfay & Howse, 2007; Redman). Recruiting nurses into nursing leadership positions is
a significant challenge (Sherman), and leadership succession planning, a key business
strategy, is needed to ensure that strong pools of well-prepared leaders are available to fill
positions (Redman), for strong leadership is needed at every level of the healthcare
system hierarchy (Canadian Health Services Research Foundation, 2006; Lewis &
Farrell, 2005).
A proactive approach to the recruitment, development, and mentoring of future nurse
leaders is needed (Sherman & Bishop, 2007), and nurse educators, who fulfill the roles of
teacher, supervisor, support person, and role model (Conway & Elwin, 2007) are in a
prime position to foster the development of a leadership mindset within nurses, act as
talent scouts to seek out potential nurse leaders, and promote nursing leadership as a
career track (Sherman & Bishop). The Council on Collegiate Education for Nursing
(2002) also identifies that leadership competencies are a key component of the nurse
educator role. The problem is that nurse educators may not have developed the necessary
leadership competencies themselves to foster a leadership mindset within nurses, or carry
out the role of leadership talent scout.
4
It is important for nurse educators to take advantage of professional development
opportunities, particularly in leadership development, so that they themselves can
enhance their own leadership skills, and in turn promote the development of future nurse
leaders through their roles as teacher, supervisor, support person, and role model. The
notion of offering nursing leadership development opportunities in an online format is
supported by Barker (2004) and Lewis and Farrell (2005). Lewis and Farrell propose that
a distance education model, which focuses on collaboration and learning, rather than
presentation of knowledge, may be beneficial for leadership development. Interestingly,
Lewis and Farrell recommend that a network of educational leaders be formed for
exchanging information, resources, and strategies, for the purpose of pooling resources in
order to develop a distance education program for nursing leadership. Learning activities
in the leadership program could focus on convergent and divergent thinking, decision
making, problem solving, collective action, and group processes. An online environment,
however, is not without challenges, for Barker indicates that educators as well as learners
struggle with the paradigm shift from traditional teaching to learning that is engaging,
deep, long lasting, and achieved in a collaborative online format. The challenge will be to
develop an online professional development course that meets the needs of the nurse
educators who will be enrolled in the course.
Needs Assessment
As outlined in the Background and Problem section, the problem is that nurse
educators may not have developed the necessary leadership competencies themselves to
foster a leadership mindset within nurses, or carry out the role of leadership talent scout.
This problem needs to be confirmed through a needs assessment that includes the
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following steps: planning, data collection, data analysis, and compiling a final report
(Morrison et al., 2004). Morrison et al. note, “If the designer fails to identify the problem
properly, then the intervention may address only the symptoms, with no resultant change
in the target audience’s performance” (p. 32).
Planning
Defining the target audience is the first step of the planning process (Morrison et al.,
2004). The target audience is all nurse educators employed by the University of Manitoba
(U of M), Faculty of Nursing, who have clinical teaching responsibilities. There are
approximately 90 nurse educators in the target audience, and they are hired into term
positions for the purpose of leading groups of students enrolled in hospital or community-
based clinical nursing practice courses.
The next step in the planning process is determining whether data are required for
each of the six categories of needs including normative, comparative, felt, expressed,
anticipated or future, and critical incident needs (Morrison et al., 2004). Collection of
normative data would not be feasible, as a national standard for nursing leadership
competencies for nurse educators does not exist. The collection of comparative need data
is a possibility by comparing a representative sample of nurse educators from the target
audience with a similar sample of nurses within another educational institution. Felt need
data collection is also a possibility, as most nurse educators should be able to verbalize
the gap between their current performance and their desired performance in relationship
to leadership competencies. The number of nurse educators wanting to attend leadership
conferences, workshops, and community and university courses on leadership, is an
example of an expressed need that could be collected by an instructional designer.
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Anticipated or future needs data in terms of the role of the nurse educator in identifying
and developing future nursing leaders could be collected. Finally, all critical incidents
involving patient care are documented. An instructional designer could contact the
various quality departments for a list of critical incidents and try to determine those
incidents that may be leadership related; however, it may be very difficult to obtain this
type of data. Realistically, the instructional designer in this situation would collect felt,
expressed, and anticipated or future needs data.
In the next stage of the planning process, the instructional designer determines who
will participate in the data collection phase (Morrison et al., 2004). A purposive sample
of a variety of nurse educators and other stakeholders would be desirable and could
include: nurse educators from the target audience; U of M nursing faculty in part-time,
full-time, sessional, and tenured positions; nursing administrators at the U of M; nursing
directors, nursing managers, nurse educators, advanced practice nurses, clinical resource
nurses, and clinical staff nurses employed in hospital or community settings within the
catchment area of the U of M; and students enrolled in all years and all programs offered
by the U of M Faculty of Nursing.
Determining the data collection method is the last step in the planning phase
(Morrison et al., 2004). A combination of small group interviews and a questionnaire
distributed and returned via the regional hospital, community, and university internal
mail system, could be used to collect data. The questionnaire to be developed would
focus on the identification of current and future leadership competencies necessary for
nurse educators with clinical teaching responsibilities.
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Data Collection
Morrison et al. (2004) indicate that sample size is an important consideration in the
needs assessment process. Gay, Mills, and Airasian (2006) note that for experimental
studies, a minimum of 30 participants are required in each group. Although this needs
assessment would not be considered an experimental study, given the various individuals
identified to be included in the purposive sample, a group of approximately 32
participants seems reasonable. Four small group interviews, consisting of eight
participants, could be held at rotating sites within the region. The instructional designer
could determine after meeting with the four groups, if data collected was becoming
repetitious. If new points continued to be raised, then the need for additional small group
interviews would be assessed.
Scheduling interviews is a consideration for the instructional designer during the data
collection stage (Morrison et al., 2004). The four group interviews would be held on four
separate days. A maximum interview time of one hour would promote the attendance of
nurses who are unable to leave their clinical practice sites for any longer period of time.
Data Analysis
The third stage in the needs assessment process is data analysis (Morrison et al.,
2004). The software program, namely, Statistical Package for the Social Sciences
(SPSS), would be used to analyze questionnaire data and rank order responses to
questions. Qualitative data obtained via small group interviews would be grouped into
themes and prioritized.
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Compiling a Final Report
In the last stage of needs assessment, a final report is produced that includes the
purpose of the assessment, the process, the results, and the recommendations appropriate
to the problem (Morrison et al., 2004). Without actually conducting a needs assessment,
it would be inappropriate to predict the results; however, one would expect that the
findings in regards to leadership competencies would be similar to those published by
researchers and authors, and that leadership development in the form of a professional
development course would be suggested as an appropriate strategy to enhance the
leadership competencies of nurse educators. Given that the computer literacy level in the
nursing population is questionable (Ali et al., 2005; Doutrich, Hoeksel, Wykoff, &
Thiele, 2005; McDowell & Ma, 2007; McNeil et al., 2003; Wilbright et al., 2006), it is
uncertain whether participants would identify the Internet as an appropriate method of
delivery for the professional development course.
Performance Assessment
To confirm that a professional development program is an appropriate intervention
for leadership development, an instructional designer may use Mager and Pipe’s (1984)
flowchart (see Figure 1). Following Mager and Pipe’s flowchart, the instructional
designer begins with the problem, namely, that nurse educators may not have developed
the necessary leadership competencies themselves to foster a leadership mindset within
nurses, or carry out the role of leadership talent scout. Following the flowchart, the next
step is to determine if the performance discrepancy is important. Deciding that the
discrepancy is indeed important, the next question to answer is whether the performance
discrepancy is a skill deficiency. If the performance discrepancy is not a skill deficiency,
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there are a variety of questions to be asked and actions to be taken that are not all outlined
in Figure 1. In the situation being described, it is determined that the performance
discrepancy is a result of a skill deficiency that nurse educators are not used to doing;
therefore, formal training is an appropriate option for the instructional designer to pursue.
Figure 1. Modified flow-chart of Mager and Pipe’s human performance model.
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Learner Characteristics
Learner Analysis
Through observation and experience in working directly with nurse educators since
1991, the author is able to identify general learner characteristics of the target audience.
The nurse educators work part-time in contract non-union positions for the U of M,
Faculty of Nursing; however, the majority of nurse educators also hold an additional
position in either in a hospital or community practice setting as a clinical staff nurse in a
variety of nursing specialties. The nurse educator positions are considered entry-level
positions, and nurses generally apply for and obtain the positions to gain teaching
experience in hopes of obtaining full-time or part-time employment as a nurse educator
within a hospital, community college, or university setting. Some of the nurse educators
will be newly hired, and others may have been employed as contract nurse educators
facilitating student clinical experiences for several years.
Most of nurse educators will have been educated in Canada at a baccalaureate level
in nursing, with a minority having obtained their master’s degree in nursing. A small
number may have obtained a degree in another field prior to entering nursing. Given the
shortage of nurse educators, compromises have been made in regards to hiring criteria in
order to fill vacant nurse educator positions (Bartfay & Howse, 2007); therefore, a small
number of nurse educators will have only obtained a diploma in nursing. The majority of
nurse educators will have had only one leadership course in their undergraduate
education, and the majority will not have pursued any professional development courses
in leadership, given their preference for nursing education as opposed to nursing
administration as a career path. The leadership skill level of the target audience will vary;
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however, it is expected that most of the nurse educators are at an advanced beginner or
competent level in terms of leadership competencies (i.e., second to third level on a five-
point scale).
The nurse educators are predominantly female, consistent with the general registered
nurse population in Canada where 94.4% of the nurses are female (Canadian Nurses
Association [CNA], 2006). They are primarily Caucasian, English speaking, and born in
Canada. A very small number of nurse educators may potentially have a hidden learning
disability.
It is expected that nurse educators in the target audience have a mixture of
personalities, learning styles, field dependencies, and right versus left-hemispheric
dominant learning preferences. The nurse educators will have above average intelligence
quotient (IQ) scores, and generally have a higher-level locus of control when in
professional nursing situations. The anxiety level of the nurse educators will vary
according to the situation; however, state-trait anxiety scores would be in the normal
range in day-to-day professional nursing situations.
In 2005, the average age of a Canadian registered nurse was 44.7 years of age, an
increase of 1.4 years since the Year 2000 (CNA, 2006), while in the previous year, the
number of nurse educators in the 45-64 years of age category significantly exceeded the
number of nurses in the same age category in the total nursing workforce (CNA &
Canadian Association of Schools of Nursing [CASN], 2006a). In a 2004 survey of
Canadian Schools of Nursing, CNA and CASN (2006b) found that in a sample of 3,171
nurse educators, 1,976 (62%) were over the age of 45, and 1,383 (44%) were over the age
of 50. As indicated, the nurse educator positions are entry-level positions; therefore, the
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average age of nurse educators in the target audience is probably 10 to 15 years younger
than the average Canadian nurse.
The characteristics of adult learners, as outlined in Morrison et al. (2004), adequately
describe the target audience. The nurse educators are independent and self-directed in
determining their leadership needs and goals. Generally, the motivational level of the
nurse educators towards developing their own leadership competencies will be high. The
nurse educators will welcome a systematically structured leadership course that is
relevant to their current positions, and identify the advantages of participating in such a
course. The nurse educators will prefer a facilitator to guide their learning as opposed to
an authoritarian leader. The nurse educators will have a broad range of work experiences
that can be shared with their peers. With extremely busy work schedules, family
commitments, and out-of-work activities, time is precious for the target audience, and a
major factor to consider when designing the course.
The computer literacy level of the nurse educators will vary from a novice to expert
level; however, given that the nurse educators are younger than the average Canadian
nurse, it is expected that they have a home computer, and have the basic computer skills
to participate in an online course.
Contextual Analysis
“Analysis of the instructional context provides rich data for designing real-world
examples and scenarios” (Tessmer & Richey, as cited in Morrison et al., 2004, p. 65).
Orienting, instructional, and transfer are three types of context analyzed by an
instructional designer (Morrison et al., 2004). The learner is the focus of orienting
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context, the physical environment and training schedule is the focus of instructional
context, and the opportunities for knowledge transfer is the focus of transfer context.
To determine orienting context, the instructional designer could conduct interviews
with the nurse educators to determine their goals for wanting to enroll in the leadership
development course, and whether the nurse educator perceives leadership development as
important to his or her position. It is expected that for the most part, the nurse educators
will participate online from the comfort of their own homes; therefore, factors that are
normally considered in an analysis of instructional context in a traditional face-to-face
environment, such as lighting, noise, seating, etc. are not applicable. Nurse educators do
have access to computers at the U of M and in the clinical areas; however, these locations
would not be preferred locations for reflection and online participation. The course will
be accessible 24 hours per day to accommodate a wide variety of schedules and needs.
All of the nurse educators work in an environment in which they are expected to
demonstrate their leadership skills on a daily basis; therefore, transfer context
opportunities should be readily available during every clinical shift with students.
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Task Analysis
With the assistance of subject-matter experts, instructional designers can complete a
task analysis in a variety of ways including topic analysis, procedural analysis, or by
using the critical incident method (Morrison et al., 2004). Topic analysis was selected as
the method of task analysis to determine the facts, concepts, principles and rules,
procedures, and interpersonal skills and attitudes necessary for an online leadership
development course for nurse educators. Work previously completed by a group of five
nurse leaders, including the author of this paper, forms the basis of the topic analysis.
Over the past three years, a group of five subject-matter experts from the Winnipeg
Regional Health Authority (WRHA) developed a nursing leadership framework and
accompanying website for nurses at all levels within the WRHA. The WRHA Nursing
Leadership Development framework (WRHA, 2007) consists of four components,
namely, Business of Health Care, Competencies of Leadership, Use of Self, and
Profession of Nursing (see Figure 2). Each of the components is made up of a variety of
elements (see Figures 3, 4, 5, 6). Behaviors, on a novice to expert scale, are identified for
each of the elements, and there are just over 300 behaviors in the framework. Threads
that are interwoven throughout the framework include critical thinking, change
management, professionalism in nursing, accountability, novice to expert, learn not
blame, and complexity science. Finally, educational strategies, mainly in the form of
suggested readings, are included for each element.
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Figure 2. WRHA Nursing Leadership Development framework.
Figure 3. Elements within the component of business of health care.
Figure 4. Elements within the competencies of leadership component.
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Figure 5. Elements within the use of self component.
Figure 6. Elements within the profession of nursing component.
A comprehensive nursing leadership development program would include courses on
each of the four main components and accompanying elements. For the purpose of this
assignment, the focus will be on the development of the Competencies of Leadership
component and associated elements. Elements within the Competencies of Leadership
component are from the leadership work of Kouzes and Posner (2002).
Since 1982, Kouzes and Posner (2003) have asked thousands of individuals to tell
their stories of their personal best leadership experience. Kouzes and Posner found that
when leaders are at their personal best, they engage in the five practices of exemplary
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leadership: (a) Model the Way, (b) Inspire a Shared Vision, (c) Challenge the Process, (d)
Enable Others to Act, and (e) Encourage the Heart. Associated with each of the five
practices are 10 commitments of leadership: (a) find your voice by clarifying your
personal values; (b) set the example by aligning actions with shared values; (c) envision
the future by imagining exciting and enabling possibilities; (d) enlist others in a common
vision by appealing to shared aspirations; (e) search for opportunities by seeking
innovative ways to change, grow, and improve; (f) experiment and take risks by
constantly generating small wins and learning from mistakes; (g) foster collaboration by
promoting cooperative goals and building trust; (h) strengthen others by sharing power
and discretion; (i) recognize contributions by showing appreciation for individual
excellence; and (j) celebrate the values and victories by creating a spirit of community.
The above five practices and 10 commitments of exemplary leadership form the main
content areas for the online leadership development course for nurse educators.
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Instructional Objectives
Grounded in behaviorism, instructional objectives are designed to “…express in
behavioral terms the instructional outcomes we desire students to achieve. In fact,
behaviorists would argue the only evidence we have of learning comes from the students’
behavior; they can do something after instruction that they could not do before” (Driscoll,
2005, p. 58). Interestingly, there is the thought that instructional objectives actually
destroy the essence and holistic perspective of learning, and have a deleterious effect on
incidental learning (Driscoll). This view is especially true if one adheres to a
constructivist viewpoint where learners are encouraged to identify their own learning
goals (Driscoll). Regardless of whether objectives are of value to the learner, Driscoll
notes that instructional objectives are useful to instructional designers when developing a
course, and are an important element in most instructional design models such as the one
presented by Morrison et al. (2004).
There are several formats for writing objectives (Driscoll). Reilly and Oermann
(1990), for example, classify objectives as either specific or general. Specific objectives
include four elements: (a) description of the learner, (b) description of the type of
behavior expected, (c) description of the conditions under which the learner demonstrates
competence, and (d) a statement of an acceptable standard of performance. General
objectives include three elements: (a) description of the learner, (b) a statement of the
kind of behavior the learner will exhibit to demonstrate competence has been attained,
and (d) a statement of the kind of content to which behavior relates. (Reilly & Oermann,
1990). The objectives for the online leadership development course for nurse educators,
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developed from a constructivist perspective, include the elements of learner, behavior,
condition, and content, and will be used to guide the instructional designer in the
development of the course.
Terminal objectives or overall course goals are used to describe the overall learning
outcome, while enabling or supporting objectives describe the activities that need to be
learned in order to achieve the goal (Morrison et al., 2004). In the online leadership
development course for nurse educators, there is one course goal and six enabling
objectives.
Course Goal
Nurse educators will foster a leadership mindset in baccalaureate nursing students.
Objective One
Given background information and an example of how leaders Model the Way, nurse
educators will critique their own performance and provide an example of how they
Model the Way with nursing students.
Objective Two
Given background information and an example of how leaders Inspire a Shared
Vision, nurse educators will assess their own behaviors and provide an example of how
they Inspire a Shared Vision with nursing students.
Objective Three
Given background information and an example of how leaders Challenge the
Process, nurse educators will judge their own performance and provide an example of
how they Challenge the Process with nursing students.
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Objective Four
Given background information and an example of how leaders Enable Others to Act,
nurse educators will evaluate their own behaviors and provide an example of how they
Enable Others to Act in clinical teaching situations.
Objective Five
Given background information and an example of how leaders Encourage the Heart,
nurse educators will evaluate their own behaviors and provide an example of how they
Encourage the Heart when working with nursing students.
Objective Six
Given a clinical situation involving nursing students, nurse educators act consistently
using the five practices of exemplary leadership.
Classification of Instructional Objectives
Bloom’s taxonomy of cognitive outcomes provides a framework in which to classify
cognitive objectives (Driscoll, 2005). The levels include knowledge, comprehension,
application, analysis, synthesis, and evaluation. The first five instructional objectives
outlined are all classified at the highest level of the taxonomy, namely, evaluation.
Krathwohl, Bloom, and Masia (as cited in Driscoll, 2005) developed a taxonomy of
affective outcomes that includes five levels, namely, receiving, responding, valuing,
organization, and characterization by value. The sixth objective, is an affective
instructional objective, and is categorized at the highest level, namely, characterization by
value.
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Content Sequencing
Content may be sequenced through either conceptual sequencing or theoretical
elaboration sequencing (Morrison et al., 2004). Conceptual sequencing refers to the
arrangement of concepts based on superordinate, coordinate, and subordinate
relationships. Kouzes and Posner (2003) suggest conceptual sequencing when examining
the five practices of exemplary leadership, starting with Model the Way, then Inspire a
Shared Vision, Challenge the Process, Enable Other to Act, and Encourage the Heart.
There is allowance, however, to deviate from the sequence if one wishes to focus on a
particular exemplary practice first. The same is true for the 10 commitments of leadership
where two commitments are associated with each exemplary practice.
Elaboration theory focuses on moving from simple to complex tasks (Morrison et al.,
2004). Similar in concept, is that of scaffolding, in which instructors provide guidance to
learners and “…bridge the gap between their current skill levels and a desired skill level”
(Driscoll, 2005, p. 258). As learners are able to complete tasks without assistance, then
the guidance is withdrawn (Greenfield, as cited in Driscoll). Although it is important to
make connections among ideas, and summarize discussions before moving forward
(Garrison, 2006), it may also be important to present the big picture or concepts to
learners first, and then sequence material in order to promote meaningful learning
(Ausubel, as cited in Moseley et al., 2005; Bolliger, 2006; Roberts, 2002). Given the
content that forms the basis for the course, and what is known in regards to elaboration
theory and scaffolding, a nurse educator would need to be familiar with the meaning of
the five practices and ten commitments of exemplary leadership before being able to
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generate examples of how they demonstrate the five exemplary practices with nursing
students.
When sequencing content, the instructional designer must also consider how
information is coded into memory. Driscoll (2005) notes that constructivists do not
adhere to one model of memory; therefore, it is important to draw from the work of
cognitive theorists and information-processing theory. Information processing models
can be traced back to the work of Atkinson and Shiffrin (as cited in Driscoll), who
conceptualized three stages of memory including sensory memory, working memory, and
long-term memory, along with processes that assist with the transfer of information from
one stage to another (see Figure 7).
Figure 7. Flow of information conceptualized in information-processing theory.
Based on information-processing theory, elaboration theory, scaffolding, and
conceptual sequencing, the content in the online leadership development course will be
sequenced accordingly. The sequencing of content for the online leadership development
course for nurse educators is presented in Section Two of this paper.
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Instructional Strategies
Gagne classified learning into five categories including verbal information,
intellectual skills, cognitive strategies, attitudes, and motor skills (Driscoll, 2005). Gagne
hypothesized that each different learning category requires different types of instruction.
The component display theory, an instructional-design theory, evolved from an attempt
by Merrill to clarify the work of Gagne (Merrill, 1983). The component display theory is
based on the same assumptions as Gagne, namely, different categories of outcomes
require different types of instruction, and outcome categories can be illustrated in a
performance-content matrix (Merrill).
The importance of the performance-content matrix is that an instructional designer
can use the matrix to classify each of the objectives developed for an instructional session
into one of the cells based on the appropriate content and performance categories
(Morrison et al., 2004). Prescriptions can then be designed for each of the objectives that
allow for a flexible approach to developing instructional strategies. According to
Morrison et al., a prescription has two parts including the initial presentation and the
generative strategy. In the initial presentation, content from the task analysis is structured
in such a manner that learning is facilitated. The generative strategy is then used to
increase the depth of processing the information. Stutsky (2006a) previously organized
the generative strategies presented by Morrison et al. into a generative strategy-content
matrix (see Table 1). The matrix will be used to determine the generative strategies for
each instructional objective. It must be noted that the terms generative strategy and
instructional strategy are essentially interchangeable. Morrison et al. note that well-
24
designed instructional strategies prompt learners to make connections between what they
already know and new information that they need to know, and this learning process is
referred to as generative learning, hence, the term generative strategy.
Table 1. Generative Strategy-Content Matrix Generative Strategy
Content
Recall: useful for learning facts and lists
Integration: transform information into an easy form to remember
Organizational: identify how new ideas relate to existing ideas
Elaboration: add ideas to new information
Fact: statement associating one item with another
• Repetition • Rehearsal-practice • Review • Mnemonics • Covertly
rehearsing by simply repeating the fact mentally
• Overtly practice writing the fact
• Answering questions related to the fact
Concept: category to group ideas or things
• Same as Fact • Generate new examples
• Generate non-examples
• Practice determining new instances are examples or non-examples
• Analysis of key ideas
• Categorization of the concept
• Cognitive mapping • Identify critical
attributes
• Generation of a mental image of the concept
• Sentence elaborations
Principles and Rules: statement expressing a relationship between concepts
• Same as Fact • Paraphrase the principles
• Generate examples
• Complete a table categorizing and integrating rules
• Ask the relationship between principles
• Identify key components of the principle
• Compare the principles to similar principles
• Generate the rule • Identify the visual
difference • Develop a decision
tree
• Develop a diagram that explains the principle
• Develop an argument
• Add more information to the content
• Predict the effect • Explain what
happened Procedure: sequence of steps performed to complete a task
• Same as Fact • List the steps • Describe the
steps • Paraphrase the
procedure • Practice the
procedure • Generate
questions about the procedure
• Develop a mental image of the procedure
• Elaborate on the steps: connecting cures, decisions to each step
Interpersonal Skills: development of communication skills and Attitudes: beliefs and associated behaviors
• Same as Fact • Paraphrase the discussion
• Visualize the scenario
• Develop an image
• Mental rehearsal • Identify key
behaviors
• Overt practice: role play
• Imagine a reaction
25
Objective One
Given background information and an example of how leaders Model the Way, nurse
educators will critique their own performance and provide an example of how they
Model the Way with nursing students.
Classification
The objective is classified as a concept. The concept-elaboration cell is determined to
be the best fit within the generative strategy-content matrix.
Initial Presentation
Content to be presented includes:
an overview of the first exemplary practice: Model the Way, and
the two associated leadership commitments: Find Your Voice and Set the
Example.
Generative/Instructional Strategy
Generation of a mental image of the concept is selected as the generative/
instructional strategy.
Objective Two
Given background information and an example of how leaders Inspire a Shared
Vision, nurse educators will assess their own behaviors and provide an example of how
they Inspire a Shared Vision with nursing students.
Classification
The objective is classified as a concept. The concept-elaboration cell is determined to
be the best fit within the generative strategy-content matrix.
26
Initial Presentation
Content to be presented includes:
an overview of the second exemplary practice: Inspire a Shared Vision, and
the two associated leadership commitments: Envision the Future and Enlist
Others.
Generative/Instructional Strategy
Generation of a mental image of the concept is selected as the generative/
instructional strategy.
Objective Three
Given background information and an example of how leaders Challenge the
Process, nurse educators will judge their own performance and provide an example of
how they Challenge the Process with nursing students.
Classification
The objective is classified as a concept. The concept-elaboration cell is determined to
be the best fit within the generative strategy-content matrix.
Initial Presentation
Content to be presented includes:
an overview of the third exemplary practice: Challenge the Process, and
the two associated leadership commitments: Search for Opportunities and
Experiment and Take Risks.
Generative/Instructional Strategy
Generation of a mental image of the concept is selected as the generative/
instructional strategy.
27
Objective Four
Given background information and an example of how leaders Enable Others to Act,
nurse educators will evaluate their own behaviors and provide an example of how they
Enable Others to Act in clinical teaching situations.
Classification
The objective is classified as a concept. The concept-elaboration cell is determined to
be the best fit within the generative strategy-content matrix.
Initial Presentation
Content to be presented includes:
an overview of the fourth exemplary practice: Enable Others to Act, and
the two associated leadership commitments: Foster Collaboration and Strengthen
Others.
Generative/Instructional Strategy
Generation of a mental image of the concept is selected as the generative/
instructional strategy.
Objective Five
Given background information and an example of how leaders Encourage the Heart,
nurse educators will evaluate their own behaviors and provide an example of how they
Encourage the Heart when working with nursing students.
Classification
The objective is classified as a concept. The concept-elaboration cell is determined to
be the best fit within the generative strategy-content matrix.
28
Initial Presentation
Content to be presented includes:
an overview of the fifth exemplary practice: Encourage the Heart, and
the two associated leadership commitments: Recognize Contributions and
Celebrate the Values and Victories.
Generative/Instructional Strategy
Generation of a mental image of the concept is selected as the generative/
instructional strategy.
Objective Six
Given a clinical situation involving nursing students, nurse educators act consistently
using the five practices of exemplary leadership.
Classification
The objective is classified as interpersonal skills and attitudes. The interpersonal
skills and attitudes-elaboration cell is determined to be the best fit within the generative
strategy-content matrix.
Initial Presentation
No additional content will be presented by the instructor, as nurse educators will
synthesize ideas and strategies for each of the five exemplary leadership practices.
Generative/Instructional Strategy
Overt practice is selected as the generative/instructional strategy.
29
Designing the Message
Morrison et al. (2004) indicate that instructional-design theories are based on
learning theories, and “describe the most effective way of designing the instruction to
achieve an objective” (p. 14). Based on a review of the literature, Stutsky (2006b)
previously developed the Instructional-Design Theory for Online Nursing Leadership
Learning Communities (ITONLLC) (see Table 2). Although the ITONLLC has never
been tested, it is based on constructivism, and can be used as a foundation for the
development of the online leadership development course for nurse educators. The
ITONLLC will form the underlying framework for the next section of this paper.
Table 2. Instructional-Design Theory Instructional-Design Theory for Online Nursing Leadership Learning Communities Goal To foster leadership development through facilitated online communication,
relationship building, collective construction and support of knowledge development, and reflection. An instructional-design theory primarily intended for nurses.
Values Some of the values upon which this theory is based include the following: • a culture of learning as a collective effort with sharing of knowledge
(Bielaczyc & Collins, 1999); • rich social context as conditions for learning (Ali, Hodson-Carlton, &
Ryan, 2004; Bolliger, 2006; Cooperstein & Kocevar-Weidinger, 2004; Nelson, 1999);
• cultivating supportive, respectful relationships among participants (Nelson);
• creating an environment that supports knowledge development and integration (Registered Nurses’ Association of Ontario [RNAO], 2006);
• self-directed learning (Hannafin, Land, & Oliver, 1999) • divergent critical thinking, multiple perspectives, and reflection (Hannafin
et al.; Kozlowski, 2004; Lee, 2006; Maag & Fonteyn, 2005; Nelson; Pethtel, 2005; Ryan, Hodson-Carlton, Ali, 2005);
• personal experience (Trotter, 2006); • providing tools and resources to aid learning efforts (Hannafin et al.); • knowledge translation and application of learning to nursing practice
(Billings et al., 2006; Jeffries, 2005; Kozlowski, 2004).
30
Table 2 (continued). Instructional-Design Theory Methods Process Activities 1. Create Readiness (Nelson). • Provide an overview of the process and roles (Nelson). • Confirm member expectations (Snyder, 2002). • Set ground rules for how communication takes place (Stone-
McCown & McCormick, 1999). • Provide instruction and practice in group process skills (Nelson). 2. Form Groups (Nelson). • Form small homogeneous groups in terms of level of professional
nursing responsibilities (Ready, 2002). • Establish relationships and trust (Diekelmann & Mendias, 2005;
Lock, 2006; RNAO; Snyder). • Encourage groups to establish operational guidelines (Nelson). 3. Select an Appropriate Problem (Jonassen, 1999). • The problem should be interesting, relevant, and engaging to foster
participant ownership (Jonassen). • The problem should be authentic and professionally relevant
(Jonassen). 4. Provide Related Cases or Stories (Jonassen; Ready) • Effective cases or stories are context-specific, level appropriate,
presented by respected role models, and have drama and high learning value (Ready).
5. Engage in the Trumpet Process (Stone-McCown & McCormick) to Dialogue About Cases or Stories
The Trumpet Process includes the following steps for participants to take:
a. Share experiences to provide a common reference point for discussion.
b. Inventory responses: What was unique? What was common? c. Recognize patterns of unique behavior. d. Own your patterns and understand how each serves you. e. Consider the consequences of each pattern including benefits and
costs. f. Allow alternative patterns, and explore options. g. Evaluate the alternatives. h. Choose the best one for each situation. 6. Synthesize and Reflect (Nelson). • Identify learning gains (Nelson). 7. Provide Closure (Nelson). • Formalize group adjournment through a closure activity (Nelson).
31
Table 2 (continued). Instructional-Design Theory Supportive Activities 1. Provide a Coach (Ready). • An advisor, specializing in leadership, who assists the facilitator
(Ready). • Acts as a resource and tutor (Nelson) to the facilitator. 2. Provide an Online Facilitator (Diekelmann & Mendias). • Creates a supportive presence, and attends to and facilitates
participants’ knowing and connecting with one another (Ali et al., 2004; Diekelmann & Mendias).
• Acts as a resource and tutor (Nelson) to the participants. • Formulates questions to focus participants on important aspects of
content and learning processes (Nelson). 3. Provide Just-In-Time Learner-Selectable Information (Jonassen). • Utilize the Internet as an extension of the learning community
boundaries (Snyder). • Select relevant information, organize the information for
participants, and integrate information (Mayer, 1999) into a nursing leadership website.
• In the nursing leadership website, provide both static and dynamic relevant and easily accessible resources (Hannafin et al.; Jonassen).
32
Section Two: Instructor’s Guide
Development of Instruction and Evaluation
The development of instruction element of the instructional-design process correlates
to the development of an instructor’s guide that outlines details needed to deliver a course
(Morrison et al., 2004). The last two elements in the instructional-design process, namely
development of instruction and evaluation, are combined into an Instructor’s Guide that
is incorporated into the body of this paper as opposed to an appendix. An instructor
wanting to deliver the online leadership development course for nurse educators, which is
entitled, Leadership Development for Nurse Educators: Competencies of Leadership,
would use the Instructor’s Guide to steer the process and would refer to the Design
Document (i.e., Section One of this paper), for further additional details if required.
33
Leadership Development for Nurse Educators: Competencies of Leadership
Instructor’s Guide
Overview
The Competencies of Leadership course is one of four professional development
courses in the Leadership Development for Nurse Educators series. Other courses in the
series include Business of Health Care, Use of Self, and Profession of Nursing. Courses
in the series can be taken in any order.
Course Description
This course explores the five practices and 10 commitments of exemplary leadership
as outlined by well-known leadership authors and researchers James M. Kouzes and
Barry Z. Posner. Guided by a facilitator, learners will have the opportunity to examine
their own leadership competencies, transfer their learning from theory to practice, and
share their experiences in an online learning environment.
Target Audience
The course is designed especially for nurse educators who facilitate the clinical
experiences of undergraduate nursing students. Hereinafter, nurse educators in the target
audience will be referred to as the learner.
Adaptability to Other Populations
With modifications, the course could be adapted to serve the needs of leaders or
nurse educators employed in settings other than an undergraduate nursing program.
34
Constructivism
The underlying learning theory for the course is constructivism. Constructivism is
emerging as the preferred learning approach for creating an online learning community,
and an approach used in the field of instructional design and technology that has gained
acceptance and is highly valued by educators (Bolliger, 2006; Lee, 2006). Numerous
authors (Ali, Hodson-Carlton, & Ryan, 2004; Almala, 2005; Bolliger; Cooperstein &
Kocevar-Weidinger, 2004; Driscoll, 2005; Lee) have written about constructivism and
describe a constructivist learning environment as a complex, situated, and realistic
learning environment used to engage learners in a sense-making process where learners
investigate, discover, explore, build new learning on prior knowledge, and construct their
own meaning to concepts. The conditions for learning are a social context where learners
are viewed as autonomous, independent, self-motivating, engaging, and interactive
individuals. Constructivist learning outcomes focus on reasoning, critical thinking,
understanding and use of knowledge, self-regulation, and mindful reflection (Driscoll,
2005).
Stutsky’s (2006b) Instructional-Design Theory for Online Nursing Leadership
Learning Communities (ITONLLC), as outlined in the Design Document, will be used to
structure the curriculum for the course. Based on constructivism, the ITONLLC outlines
process activities and supportive activities. Process activities include the following:
create readiness, form groups, select an appropriate problem, provide related cases or
stories, engage in the Trumpet Process to dialogue about cases or stories, synthesize and
reflect, and provide closure. Supportive activities include: provide an online facilitator,
provide a coach, and provide just-in time learner-selectable information.
35
Role of the Instructor as Facilitator
Teaching presence or facilitation is a critical and unifying element in an online
learning environment, and it is the role of the instructor or facilitator to provide the
teaching presence necessary to structure, shape, and support a meaningful learning
experience (Garrison, 2006). A facilitator fulfills numerous roles in an online learning
environment including being responsible for establishing trust and a level of comfort
within the learning community (Garrison), creating a supportive presence and attending
to and facilitating participants’ knowing and connecting with one another (Ali et al.,
2004; Diekelmann & Mendias, 2005), and nurturing relationships to promote self-
organization and empowerment (Palloff & Pratt, 2005). Based on a constructivist
perspective, the facilitator needs to be able to provide a realistic learning environment
that challenges the learners while at the same time supporting and encouraging learners to
reflect on processes (Driscoll, 2005).
Group cohesion that goes beyond polite dialogue is important in sustaining a
community, and the facilitator needs to build and maintain group cohesion through
collaborative activities (Garrison, 2006). Group cohesion and social interaction, however,
is not indicative of cognitive presence or engagement (Garrison & Cleveland-Innes,
2005), and it is the role of the facilitator to facilitate cognitive presence by scaffolding
discussions (Waltonen-Moore, Stuart, Newton, Oswald, & Varonis, 2006), making
connections among ideas, and summarizing discussions (Garrison). The teaching
presence that a facilitator provides in an online learning environment can be powerful in
triggering discussion and facilitating a deep approach to learning where students embrace
concepts and search for meaning in the material (Garrison & Cleveland-Innes). As
36
cognitive activities become more challenging, the facilitator needs to keep discussions
focused, identify issues needing clarification, and move the discussion forward
(Garrison). With any interactions, there is a potential for conflict, and Palloff and Pratt
(2005) and Garrison note that the facilitator needs to be comfortable in an environment
that has a reasonable degree of chaos and conflict, and intervene when necessary to keep
the anxiety levels of the learners at a manageable level.
By fulfilling these numerous roles, the facilitator is attending to a variety of learners’
needs. For example, extraverted students tend to prefer collaborative learning approaches
and often become “…dependent on the hustle and bustle of the external world for
suggestions about how to proceed” (Perry & Ball, 2004, p. 13). The introverted students
who “…need to shut out the external distractions in order to prepare their ideas,”
(DiTiberio, as Perry & Ball, p. 13) may feel more uncomfortable, but do have time in an
asynchronous environment to prepare their responses in private. Students with a
preference for feeling over thinking, as measured by the Myers-Briggs Type Indicator
(MBTI) (Hammer, 2004), tend to be right-hemispheric dominant learners, prefer holistic
learning, and base their decision making on values and subjective evaluations; therefore,
a more social environment would be beneficial (Hammer; Perry & Ball). Thinkers, who
are more closely related to left-hemispheric dominant learners and tend to base their
decisions on logic and cause and effect (Hammer; Perry & Ball), may also benefit from
objective ideas that are generated from the facilitator moving the discussion from a social
presence to a cognitive presence. Students with diverging or accommodating learning
styles, as measured by the Kolb Learning Style Inventory (Kolb, 2005), will thrive in a
social environment in which ideas can be generated from interacting with people, and
37
will challenge convergers and assimilators to become more balanced in their approach to
learning (Kolb).
Role of the Coach (Optional)
Instructors who facilitate this course may benefit from having a coach who acts as a
guide, a tutor, and a leadership resource to the instructor (Nelson, 1999; Ready, 2002). If
needed, the coach may assist the instructor in scaffolding discussions (Ausubel, as cited
in Moseley et al., 2005; Chen, 2007; Cooperstein & Kocevar-Weidinger, 2004; Hannafin
et al., 1999; Waltonen-Moore et al., 2006) by providing suggestions to the instructor. The
coach may also be able to provide suggestions for dealing with different learning styles
and preferences among group members. The coach may be a colleague, an administrator
within your department, or an external consultant that is hired on a contract basis.
Instructor Resources
Required resources include two textbooks, one document, and administrator access
to the online Leadership Practices Inventory (LPI), an assessment tool developed by
Kouzes and Posner to measure competency in the five exemplary leadership practices
(John Wiley & Sons, 2007):
Kouzes, J. M., & Posner, B. Z. (2002). The Leadership Challenge (3rd ed.). San Francisco: Jossey-Bass.
Kouzes, J. M., & Posner, B. Z. (2003). The Leadership Challenge Workbook. San
Francisco: Jossey-Bass. John Wiley & Sons, Inc. (2007). Leadership practices inventory (LPI) online 3.0: A
leadership challenge resource. Retrieved November 1, 2007, from http://www.lpionline.com/lpi/
Winnipeg Regional Health Authority. (n.d.). Nursing leadership development
framework. Retrieved November 1, 2007 from http://www.hsc.mb.ca/leadership/folders/Framework/Overview/Framework%20Components,%20Elements,%20and%20Behaviours.pdf
38
Online Learning Interface Overview
The online learning interface to be used for the course is that of a wiki. Beldarrain
(2006) claims that a constructivist learning environment that meets the needs of the 21st
century learner can be fostered using online collaborative tools and versatile social
software available through a wiki. A wiki is a collection of webpages that are
interconnected and organized as required and collectively authored with users being able
to add content and edit the content of other users (Beldarrain, 2006; Best, 2006; Bold,
2006; Duffy & Bruns, 2006). A wiki does not follow a predetermined taxonomic
hierarchical structure such as one would observe in a blog, and can be thought of as a
spatial structure that is infinitely expandable, self-organizing, and self-regulating (Best;
Duffy & Bruns). Wikis are easily navigated, users do not need to know hypertext markup
language (HTML) programming, and files can be managed and categorized (Duffy &
Bruns). Every page of a wiki has an edit button and a history page that tracks edits and
allows users to revert to previous versions of a page (Beldarrain; Duffy & Bruns;
Richardson, 2006). A key feature of a wiki environment is that it allows for group
collaboration and information sharing (Best; Bold; Duffy & Bruns; Richardson). Bold
indicates that the main advantage of a wiki is that changes can be made to documents
through live edit, via a browser window on the Internet, as opposed to collaborating on a
document via a course management system that requires saving and uploading
documents.
39
Organization
McAllister and Moyle (2006) designed a web-based course to prepare Australian
clinical educators for their role in assisting nursing students to gain confidence and
develop clinical skills. The course was designed around the concept of a village, with a
community hall for congregating, a classroom cottage containing course related
information, an art gallery cottage where participants were asked to post images
reflective of a community, and a craft shop with an animated image of a patchwork quilt
that grew as participants added their wisdom in regards to clinical teaching. Participants
in the course focused on two main tasks, namely, reflecting on learning theories and the
practice of clinical education, and reporting on a clinical teaching strategy that they had
used or intended to use in the clinical area.
A concept similar to that presented by McAllister and Moyle (2006) will be used for
this course, with the metaphor being a university (see Figure 8). There will be an
auditorium for large group interaction, classrooms for smaller group interaction, a
bulletin board for general course information including the syllabus and interactive
tutorials, a lounge for social conversation, a suggestion box for learners to provide
ongoing evaluative feedback regarding the course or any other general suggestions, and a
library separated into two areas including a reserve section containing an overview of
material related to the five practices and 10 commitments of exemplary leadership, and a
resource section containing a wide variety of resources posted by the instructor and the
learners. The resource section of the library will allow for Just-In-Time Learner-
Selectable Information as outlined in the ITONLLC.
40
CLASSROOM
CLASSROOM
AUDITORIUM(Large Group Interaction)
CLASSROOMS:Number Depends
on Total Class Size
(Small Group Interaction)
BULLETIN BOARD
(General Course Information,
Syllabus, Tutorials)
LOUNGE(Social
Conversation)
LIBRARY
LIBRARY RESERVE(Content
Overviews for Objectives)
LIBRARY RESOURCE(Instructor &
Learner Posted)
SUGGESTION BOX
(Ongoing Course Evaluation)
Figure 8. Overview of the wiki environment.
Learner Considerations
Given the learner characteristics outlined in the Design Document, specifically, that
the learners have multiple demands on their time, computer literacy ranges from novice
to expert, and the course is a non-credit voluntary professional development course, it is
important that the online learning interface minimizes cognitive load, allows for effective
human-computer interaction in terms of navigation and ease of use, and allows for
effective information-processing. Keeping the wiki interface organized into discrete
sections, and housing all required resources within one area, should decrease cognitive
overload, and decrease the disorientation that field dependent learners sometimes
experience in an online learning environment (Alomyan, 2004). Cognitive load and
disorientation will also be minimized by containing external links to the library resource
section, allowing for documents to be easily downloaded and printed, and highlighting
content and wiki sections with appropriate headings, bullets, fonts, colors, and visual cues
41
where appropriate (Alomyan, 2004; Chang & Ley, 2006; Gilbert, Morton, & Rowley,
2007; Oh & Lim, 2005; Mayer, 1999). Incorporating an ever-expanding resource section
into the wiki caters to the needs of field independent learners who thrive in environments
in which they have the freedom to choose their own learning paths (Alomyan).
Information-processing will be enhanced for all types of learners through chunking
material appropriately within the various sections of the wiki (Driscoll, 2005; Renkl &
Atkinson, as cited in Tempelman-Kluit, 2006; Roberts, 2002). The facilitator will
continually monitoring the wiki and synthesize and organize information as needed to
prevent the wiki from becoming unwieldy.
Computer System Requirements for Instructors and Learners IBM Compatible Computer
Processor Pentium II 266 MHz processor or faster Operating System Windows 95/98/ME/NT/2000/XP Memory 64 MB of RAM Disk Space 20 MB of free disk space Connection 28.8 kbps Internet connection Internet Browser Internet Explorer 4.0 OR Netscape 4.7 Software Microsoft Word, Adobe Acrobat Reader, Macromedia Flash
Player, and an Email program Macintosh
Processor G3 233 MHz Operating System OS 9.0/9.1/9.2, OSX 10.1, 10.2 Memory OS9: 64 MB RAM OR OSX: 128 MB RAM Disk Space 20 MB of free disk space Connection 28.8 kbps Internet connection* Internet Browser Internet Explorer 4.0 OR Netscape 4.7 Software Microsoft Word, Adobe Acrobat Reader, Macromedia Flash
Player, and an Email program
42
Create Readiness
Prior to the course going live, the instructor will need to consider the process
activities within the Create Readiness section of the ITONLLC. Having course
information available in advance is important (Mupinga, Nora, & Yaw, 2006) to decrease
learner anxiety and assist learners in preparing for the course. Given that it is a non-credit
voluntary course and the learners have multiple demands on their time, it is also
important to keep pre-course preparation to a minimum. The pre-course package, to be
provided to learners at least one month prior to the start of the course, needs to include a
hard-copy course syllabus, a multimedia compact disc tutorial, and instructions for
completing the online Leadership Practices Inventory (LPI). All pre-course package
materials will need to be uploaded to the bulletin board section of the wiki.
Included in the course syllabus is instructor contact information, the course goal,
course description, an overview of the role of the facilitator and the role of the learner
including group process skills, computer system requirements, instructional objectives,
learning activities and methods, and general ground rules for communication. The
multimedia interactive compact disc tutorial, to be developed via Adobe Captivate
software, will cater to the needs of both auditory and visual learners, outline all of the
features of the wiki, provide general instructions for navigating, posting and editing text,
and uploading and downloading documents. The tutorial will include a section devoted to
group process skills within a wiki environment.
In order for each learner to get a baseline measurement of their own perception of
their leadership abilities, learners will complete the online LPI at least two weeks prior to
the start of the course. The LPI measures leadership competencies in the five exemplary
43
practices of leadership including Model the Way, Inspire a Shared Vision, Challenge the
Process, Enable Others to Act, and Encourage the Heart. To get a better picture of each
learner’s leadership competencies, learners will have the option of requesting that
colleagues and supervisors also assess the learner’s leadership competencies. An online
report of the LPI will be generated and returned via email to the learner at least one week
prior to the start of the course.
Approximately one month prior to the beginning of each university term, a meeting
is held with all of the nurse educators who will be facilitating clinical experiences. This
meeting is an opportune time to meet all of the learners who will be participating in the
course, allow those nurse educators who have not enrolled in the course the opportunity
to do so, hand-out the pre-course package, outline the process for completing the LPI,
and present a short five to ten minute introductory voiced Microsoft PowerPoint
presentation. The PowerPoint presentation includes a general overview of the course, the
benefits to the learners in terms of their own leadership development, and the skills that
they will acquire to eventually act as a talent scouts seeking out potential nurse leaders,
promoting nursing leadership as a career track, and generally fostering the development
of a leadership mindset within the students enrolled in the undergraduate nursing
program.
Form Groups
As outlined in the ITONLLC, small groups need to be formed in terms of level of
professional nursing responsibilities, and in this course, professional responsibility refers
to the clinical practice setting. For example, those nurse educators who facilitate nursing
practice in a community setting would benefit from being in the same group, similarly,
44
those who facilitate clinical practice in a hospital setting would benefit from being in the
same group. Rutherfoord (2006), however, found that the strongest teams were those that
were heterogeneous in terms of MBTI results; therefore, one would think that a group
that is heterogeneous in terms of leadership strengths would also be beneficial. Therefore,
small homogeneous groups of a maximum of seven learners will be formed based on
professional responsibility; however, there will be a heterogeneous mixture of learners
within the small groups in terms of LPI results. Learners will discover which group they
are assigned to on the first day of the course.
Main Instructional Strategy: Storytelling
Consistent with constructivism, storytelling has been used as a teaching-learning
strategy for leadership development in the business community (Ready, 2002), for the
development of a community healthcare management course (Schwartz & Abbott, 2007),
in the diagnosing health problems with medical students (D’Alessandro, Lewis, and
D’Alessandro, 2004), and in a graduate level nurse educator practicum (Cangelosi &
Whitt, 2006). Stories are told for different purposes such as sparking action,
communicating who you are, transmitting values, fostering collaboration, sharing
knowledge, and leading people into the future (Denning, 2006). The content of a story
and the manner in which a story is told varies according to the objective to be achieved;
however, it is important to remember that a story is told for a purpose and not an end in
itself (Denning). Effective stories are context-specific, have drama and high learning
value, and are framed at an appropriate level so learners can visualize themselves in the
story and reflect on appropriate actions (Ready, 2002).
45
When examining the learning outcomes of constructivism, namely, reasoning,
critical thinking, understanding and use of knowledge, self-regulation, and mindful
reflection (Driscoll, 2005), it becomes evident that through the effective use of
storytelling, guided by a facilitator, these learning outcomes can be achieved. Storytelling
will challenge learners with differing learning styles and preferences. For example, it is
proposed that the underlying artistic abilities of right-hemispheric dominant learners will
be of benefit in generating the stories, while the left-hemispheric dominant learners will
prefer analyzing the stories. Learners with a preference for feeling over thinking will be
better able to add a human perspective to their stories; however, the thinkers will be
better at finding patterns within the stories. Learners with a diverging learning style
should excel in delivering the stories, and convergers, similar to the thinkers, will thrive
when analyzing the stories.
Course Outline
Course Length and Segmenting
The course is 14 weeks in duration, covering the length of time the nurse educators
facilitate clinical practice (i.e., 13 weeks), plus one additional week prior to the start of
their contract term. The course is segmented according to the objectives. Tempelman-
Kluit (2006) notes that segmenting allows for time between learning tasks so that the
learner is able to process information prior to proceeding to the next learning task.
Segmenting can reduce cognitive load or allow the learner to manage the load more
efficiently (Bruning, Schraw, Norby, & Ronning, as cited in Tempelman-Kluit, 2006).
46
Week One
As outlined in the ITONCCL, it is important to begin to establish relationships and
trust after the groups are formed. In preparation, the instructor needs to develop and
videotape a short Welcome to the Course message that will be posted in the auditorium
section of the wiki, along with the written text of the videotaped message. The written
text is not only a backup in the even that there is a technical problem with viewing the
video, but it provides another medium for learning. Included in the video will be
instructions for the first week of class that will focus on each student posting, within their
small groups, a short story about themselves that lets other group members know who
they are, at which healthcare site they are facilitating clinical practice, something
interesting about themselves, and their learning goal(s) for the course. In the video, the
small groups will also be encouraged, but not required, to establish operational guidelines
as outlined in the ITONLLC. The use of a video will not only add to the social aspect of
the course, but learners will make use of both visual and verbal processing channels that
allows learners to create meaning that leads to schema connections and enhanced long-
term memory utilization (Mayer, as cited in Tempelman-Kluit, 2006).
Weeks Two to Eleven
Outlined in Table 3 is a compilation of instructional objectives, pre-course
preparatory instructor activities, the main instructional strategy for the objective, and the
process activities as outlined in the ITONLLC. The information in Table 3 is based on
information presented in the Design Document. Essentially, the same instructional
strategy and process activities will be used for the first five objectives of the course.
Instructors will use the required resources to develop the content overviews for each of
47
the objectives. Content overviews for each section will be no longer than two computer
screens in length to try to prevent cognitive overload. Content overviews for all
objectives will be posted in the reserve section of the library prior to the start of the
course. Learners will be prompted by the facilitator to review the related content
overviews at the beginning of each block of weeks.
Table 3. Overview of Weeks Two to Eleven Objective One
Given background information and an example of how leaders Model the Way, nurse educators will critique their own performance and provide an example of how they Model the Way with nursing students.
Instructor Pre-Course Preparation
Content to be developed and posted in the bulletin board section includes an overview of Model the Way, and the two associated leadership commitments: Find Your Voice and Set the Example.
Instructional Strategy
Generation of a mental image of the concept: Storytelling will be used by the instructor to provide the initial example and by the learners when they provide an example of how they Model the Way with nursing students.
Week 2-3
Process Activities*
• Select an appropriate problem • Provide a related story • Engage in the trumpet process to dialogue about the
story • Synthesize and reflect
Objective Two
Given background information and an example of how leaders Inspire a Shared Vision, nurse educators will assess their own behaviors and provide an example of how they Inspire a Shared Vision with nursing students.
Instructor Pre-Course Preparation
Content to be developed and posted in the bulletin board section includes an overview of Inspire a Shared Vision, and the two associated leadership commitments: Envision the Future and Enlist Others.
Instructional Strategy
Generation of a mental image of the concept: Storytelling will be used by the instructor to provide the initial example and by the learners when they provide an example of how they Inspire a Shared Vision with nursing students.
Week 4-5
Process Activities*
Same as Week 2-3 Objective One.
48
Table 3 (continued). Overview of Weeks Two to Eleven
Objective Three
Given background information and an example of how leaders Challenge the Process, nurse educators will judge their own performance and provide an example of how they Challenge the Process with nursing students.
Instructor Pre-Course Preparation
Content to be developed and posted in the bulletin board section includes an overview of Challenge the Process, and the two associated leadership commitments: Search for Opportunities and Experiment and Take Risks.
Instructional Strategy
Generation of a mental image of the concept: Storytelling will be used by the instructor to provide the initial example and by the learners when they provide an example of how they Challenge the Process with nursing students.
Week 6-7
Process Activities*
Same as Week 2-3 Objective One.
Objective Four
Given background information and an example of how leaders Enable Others to Act, nurse educators will evaluate their own behaviors and provide an example of how they Enable Others to Act in clinical teaching situations.
Instructor Pre-Course Preparation
Content to be developed and posted in the bulletin board section includes an overview Enable Others to Act, and the two associated leadership commitments: Foster Collaboration and Strengthen Others.
Instructional Strategy
Generation of a mental image of the concept: Storytelling will be used by the instructor to provide the initial example and by the learners when they provide an example of how they Enable Others to Act with nursing students.
Week 8-9
Process Activities*
Same as Week 2-3 Objective One.
49
Table 3 (continued). Overview of Weeks Two to Eleven
Objective Five
Given background information and an example of how leaders Encourage the Heart, nurse educators will evaluate their own behaviors and provide an example of how they Encourage the Heart when working with nursing students.
Instructor Pre-Course Preparation
Content to be developed and posted in the bulletin board section includes an overview Encourage the Heart, and the two associated leadership commitments: Recognize Contributions and Celebrate the Values and Victories.
Week 10-11
Instructional Strategy
Generation of a mental image of the concept: Storytelling will be used by the instructor to provide the initial example and by the learners when they provide an example of how they Encourage the Heart with nursing students.
Process Activities*
Same as Week 2-3 Objective One.
The storytelling process, based on the ITONLLC, involves four main stages: (a)
select an appropriate problem, (b) provide the story, (c) engage in the Trumpet Process to
dialogue about the story, and (d) synthesize and reflect. For each objective and
accompanying block of weeks, the instructor will first post an appropriate problem
pertaining to the objective in the auditorium section of the wiki. The problem will be a
maximum of two sentences. Next, the instructor will generate one example of a story that
pertains to the problem. The provision of an example will not only be of benefit to field
dependent learners in organizing their thoughts (Mupinga et al., 2006), but will guide all
learners in the process. Given that there could be seven learners in each group, it will be
important for time management and cognitive overload to keep the stories concise and
limit the length of the story to a maximum of one computer screen.
Learners will then work within their small groups, each generating and posting a
story in their own classroom. All stories should be posted by the end of the first week of
the two-week block to allow time to engage in the Trumpet Process during the second
50
week. During the second week, the Trumpet Process, as outlined in the ITONLLC, will
be used as a guideline to collectively analyze the stories of all learners in the group and
generate one comprehensive summary per group of stories for a particular objective. The
same problem originally posted in the auditorium will be posted in each classroom with a
list of accompanying questions. It will be important for the instructor to continue to
scaffold the discussion as the learners work through the questions. The questions include
the following: (a) What was unique about the stories? (b) What were some common
themes in the stories? (c) What patterns of leadership behaviors do you recognize in the
stories? (d) What leadership behaviors were of benefit in dealing with the problem? (e)
What leadership behaviors could be changed to better deal with the problem? (f) Are
there any other leadership behaviors that may be of benefit in dealing with the problem
that were not identified in the story? (g) What overall leadership behaviors are important
for dealing with this problem?
Wang, Moore, Wedman, and Shyu (2003) describe how capturing the collective
knowledge of the community in the form of an electronic case library of stories can be
beneficial to community members so that they can apply the lessons learned from
preserved stories to current and future situations. The course instructor will ensure that
the learners have continued access, after the course is completed, to an online resource
section similar to the one within the library that will contain the stories shared during the
course, related summaries that were generated, and a continuing growing list of
resources.
51
Week Twelve to Thirteen
The twelfth and thirteenth weeks of the course are devoted to general sharing of
leadership stories of the learners’ choice in any one of the five practices of exemplary
leadership (see Table 4). The learners will reflect on their leadership development since
the start of the course, and post their own stories in the classrooms. The learners will have
the option of analyzing the story themselves, posting the story without an analysis, or
incorporating an analysis into the story.
Table 4. Overview of Weeks Twelve to Thirteen Objective Six
Given a clinical situation involving nursing students, nurse educators act consistently using the five practices of exemplary leadership.
Instructor Pre-Course Preparation
None.
Instructional Strategy
Overt practice and storytelling.
Week 12-13
Process Activities
Provide a related story.
During Week 12, the learners will again be asked to complete the online LPI, with
optional input from colleagues or supervisors. The instructor will email LPI reports back
to the learners by Week 14.
Week Fourteen
The final week of the course is dedicated to the last two process activities in the
ITONLLC, namely, Synthesize and Reflect, and Provide Closure. The instructor will be
responsible for synthesizing total group learning and observations, and reflecting on
changes seen in LPI reports. As learners were encouraged to post ongoing evaluative
course feedback to the suggestion box, the instructor will encourage learners to make any
final course comments in the suggestion box.
52
In terms of learner evaluation, and consistent with a constructivist perspective, the
focus of evaluation will not be specifically on whether a learner did or did not achieve the
objectives of the course, for the instructional objectives were essentially used to facilitate
the instructional design process as opposed to determining participant learning. In the
first week, learners were asked to include their learning goals in their first story about
themselves. In the final week, learners will be asked to refer back to their initial story and
identify whether they achieved their own learning goals for the course, and share their
findings in the auditorium.
53
Section Three: Summary
Outlined in this paper is an online leadership development course for nurse
educators that was developed using Morrison et al.’s (2004) instructional design model to
guide the process. Grounded in constructivism, the course entitled, Leadership
Development for Nurse Educators: Competencies of Leadership, is one course proposed
to be offered in a series of four courses designed to not only develop the leadership
competencies of nurse educators, but to ultimately facilitate nurse educators transferring
their own learning to those students that they teach, and fostering a leadership mindset in
our new generation of nurses. Through a constructivist learning approach, and adhering
to design principles that take into consideration the differing learning styles and
preferences of participants enrolled in the course, it is hoped that nurse educators will
achieve their own learning outcomes that focus on reasoning, critical thinking,
understanding and use of knowledge, self-regulation, and mindful reflection. It is also
hoped that a lasting community of learning will be established in which nurse educators
can continue to share their learning resources and continue to development their
leadership competencies beyond the end of the course.
54
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