Important Hindu Religious Important Hindu Religious SymbolsSymbols

Om or AumOm or AumMade of three Sanskrit letters: Made of three Sanskrit letters:

AaAa, , AuAu, and , and MaMa When combined, they make the When combined, they make the

sound of AUM or Om—the most sound of AUM or Om—the most important symbol in Hinduism.important symbol in Hinduism.

This symbol actually represents This symbol actually represents Brahman or the absolute.Brahman or the absolute.

SwastikaSwastikaSecond in importance only to the OMSecond in importance only to the OM

It is not a letter or syllable but a It is not a letter or syllable but a pictorial picture character in the shape pictorial picture character in the shape of a cross which, when branches are of a cross which, when branches are bent at right angles and facing in a bent at right angles and facing in a clockwise direction,represents the clockwise direction,represents the eternal nature of the Brahman.eternal nature of the Brahman.

PurnakumbhaPurnakumbha (Earthen Pot) (Earthen Pot)

Full of water and with fresh mango Full of water and with fresh mango leaves and a coconut atop it—leaves and a coconut atop it—generally placed as the chief deity generally placed as the chief deity or by the side of the deityor by the side of the deity

The pot symbolizes mother earth—The pot symbolizes mother earth—the water-giver of life—the leaves the water-giver of life—the leaves life, and the coconut divine life, and the coconut divine consciousness.consciousness.

The LotusThe Lotus

The holiest of flowers for the HinduThe holiest of flowers for the Hindu The lotus is representative of the The lotus is representative of the

true soul of an individual—also a true soul of an individual—also a symbol of creation.symbol of creation.

I. Generalizations of Indian ReligionI. Generalizations of Indian ReligionA. It is complex and indefinable—no

creeds

1. Indian religion is given to a functional definition of religion

and emphasizes evolutionary change

2. Hinduism can be considered more of a league of religions,

than a single religion

3. It seems not to want any boundary around it.

B. It is a highly inclusive religious system.B. It is a highly inclusive religious system.1. May believe anything or nothing1. May believe anything or nothing2. Room for all types of souls2. Room for all types of souls

C. It is a system of rationalism and esoteric C. It is a system of rationalism and esoteric wisdom.wisdom.

1. One must go to the wisdom of the 1. One must go to the wisdom of the ages, a metaphysical view of history.ages, a metaphysical view of history.

2. Ultimately all is question of 2. Ultimately all is question of knowledge.knowledge.

3. Sin is delusion, maya is sin or 3. Sin is delusion, maya is sin or delusion.delusion.

D. By Tradition it is ethnic-centeredD. By Tradition it is ethnic-centered

1. To be Indian is to be Hindu1. To be Indian is to be Hindu

2. It is a nationalistic religion2. It is a nationalistic religion

E. Spirit of Indian PhilosophyE. Spirit of Indian Philosophy1. Chief mark is its concentration upon 1. Chief mark is its concentration upon the spiritual.the spiritual.2. Intimate relationship of philosophy and 2. Intimate relationship of philosophy and life, practical applications of philosophy to life, practical applications of philosophy to life: Truth must be lived.life: Truth must be lived.3. Has introspective attitude and 3. Has introspective attitude and introspective approach to reality.introspective approach to reality.4. Most philosophies idealistic4. Most philosophies idealistic5. Requires extensive use of reason, but 5. Requires extensive use of reason, but intuition is accepted as the only method intuition is accepted as the only method through which ultimate truth can be through which ultimate truth can be knownknown6. Stresses Sruti, or acceptance of 6. Stresses Sruti, or acceptance of authorityauthority

II. Strands of Indian ReligionII. Strands of Indian Religion

A.Understanding the development of literature helps to understand the historical development.

1.Each piece of writing over-shadows another piece.

2.Each culture is produced by its religious literature.

3.The oldest document represents mixture of thought of the invading Aryans.

BB. Word . Word darsana, darsana, usually translated usually translated “philosophy”, in Sanskrit means “seeing” “philosophy”, in Sanskrit means “seeing” or “experiencing”—all systems follow in or “experiencing”—all systems follow in two main divisions:two main divisions:

1. 1. astikaastika—the orthodox—the orthodox

2. nastika—Buddhism and Jainism, 2. nastika—Buddhism and Jainism, which reject the authority of the which reject the authority of the VedasVedas

C. Divisions of Hindu thought through its C. Divisions of Hindu thought through its literatureliterature

1. Vedic period—2500-600 BCE1. Vedic period—2500-600 BCE

2. Epic period—600 BCE-200 CE, also 2. Epic period—600 BCE-200 CE, also the beginning the beginning of the rival schools; of the rival schools;

development of development of bhaktibhakti, , GitaGita, , beginning beginning of 6 darsanasof 6 darsanas

3. Sutra period—200 CE—systematic 3. Sutra period—200 CE—systematic treatises of the various schools treatises of the various schools

were writtenwere written

4. Scholastic period--?-1700 CE, 4. Scholastic period--?-1700 CE, commentators on the Sutrascommentators on the Sutras

a Rishi

D. Historical Development of Indian ThoughtD. Historical Development of Indian Thought

1. Brahmanism-Vedic period—2500-500 1. Brahmanism-Vedic period—2500-500 BCEBCE

a. Pre-Aryan—2500-1500 BCEa. Pre-Aryan—2500-1500 BCE

(1) Earliest religious thought (1) Earliest religious thought is deduced from is deduced from archaeological evidence archaeological evidence through seals, figurines and through seals, figurines and other such artifacts.other such artifacts.

(2) Pre-Aryan or Dravidian culture is (2) Pre-Aryan or Dravidian culture is known through ruins of two cities, known through ruins of two cities, Harappa and Mohenjodaro, which Harappa and Mohenjodaro, which seemed preoccupied with fertility seemed preoccupied with fertility symbols (figurines of pregnant females, symbols (figurines of pregnant females, stone phallic symbols) which seem to stone phallic symbols) which seem to suggest worship of the Mother suggest worship of the Mother Goddess and the worship of a divinity Goddess and the worship of a divinity similar to Shiva; usually associated with similar to Shiva; usually associated with a bull often represented as a a bull often represented as a phallic phallic symbol. Some seals point to religious symbol. Some seals point to religious motifs found in Mesopotamia, such as motifs found in Mesopotamia, such as the Gilgamesh legend.the Gilgamesh legend.

b. Aryanism—1500-500 BCEb. Aryanism—1500-500 BCE

Harrappan Artifacts

Priest-King

Male Head

Mohenjodaro Great Bath

Mohenjodaro Street

The Indo-Aryans The Indo-Aryans (Europeans)(Europeans)

I. Early HistoryI. Early HistoryA. Around 2000 BCE a series of A. Around 2000 BCE a series of migrations began from the area north of migrations began from the area north of the Black Seathe Black SeaB. The settlers eventually covering most B. The settlers eventually covering most of Europe, the Northern part of the Near of Europe, the Northern part of the Near East and the Indian sub –continentEast and the Indian sub –continentC. The study of this migration beginning C. The study of this migration beginning with a study of the Indo-Aryan languageswith a study of the Indo-Aryan languages—from the ancient Sanskrit to languages —from the ancient Sanskrit to languages of modern Europeof modern Europe

D. Early Indo-European mythologyD. Early Indo-European mythology

1. According to some scholars these early 1. According to some scholars these early people would reject the more popular sky-people would reject the more popular sky-

god god in favor of a tripartite division of divine in favor of a tripartite division of divine power—which would in power—which would in turn reflect the social turn reflect the social structures of the peoplestructures of the people

a. A magical-legal functiona. A magical-legal function

b. A warrior functionb. A warrior function

c. The various functions surrounding c. The various functions surrounding fecundityfecundity

2. This tripartite division would lead to 2. This tripartite division would lead to an emphasis of three main deitiesan emphasis of three main deities

a. There seems to be a tendency a. There seems to be a tendency to divide the function between to divide the function between

two two deitiesdeities(1) One deity would be (1) One deity would be threatening and indifferent threatening and indifferent

to to the fate of humanitythe fate of humanity(2) One deity would be (2) One deity would be concerned with the proper concerned with the proper ordering of human life ordering of human life and societyand society

b. The warrior deity is one of b. The warrior deity is one of ambiguityambiguity

(1) As a warrior he must be great in (1) As a warrior he must be great in battle in order to protect society and battle in order to protect society and the cosmosthe cosmos(2) But as a result of his victory his (2) But as a result of his victory his rage may be turned on creation itself rage may be turned on creation itself and must be placated by sacrifice and and must be placated by sacrifice and ritualritual

3. The theme is found in the mythologies 3. The theme is found in the mythologies of the Indo-Aryans with some variationsof the Indo-Aryans with some variations

Vedic Gods andVedic Gods andGoddessesGoddesses

Earliest evidence for Indo-Earliest evidence for Indo-Aryan mythology comes Aryan mythology comes from the Rig-Veda, written from the Rig-Veda, written at the end of the 2at the end of the 2ndnd century century BCE by the Aryans who BCE by the Aryans who “invaded” northern India“invaded” northern India

IndraIndra

I. He is lord of the I. He is lord of the heavens; the most heavens; the most popular and popular and powerful of the powerful of the Vedic deitiesVedic deities

II. He rides a white II. He rides a white elephant called elephant called Airavata and has Airavata and has the power to the power to control lighteningcontrol lightening

IV. He had many IV. He had many battles with demons; battles with demons; the most famous was the most famous was the slaying of the slaying of VrtasuraVrtasura

A. He killed the A. He killed the demon of the demon of the

dark skies (clouds) dark skies (clouds) with his weapon with his weapon (lightening)(lightening)

B. He released B. He released the cows the cows

(waters) (waters) that were that were held in held in captivity by captivity by the the demondemon

V. Prone to drinking soma which caused V. Prone to drinking soma which caused him to lose control of himselfhim to lose control of himself

VI. He is more like a king of the earth than VI. He is more like a king of the earth than the heavensthe heavens

VII. In the Kena Upanishad we read that VII. In the Kena Upanishad we read that he was the only god to have gone nearest he was the only god to have gone nearest to Brahman and was to know Him as to Brahman and was to know Him as Brahman—this gave him the right to Brahman—this gave him the right to become the rulers of heavensbecome the rulers of heavens

VIII.VIII. He is usually He is usually shown with four shown with four arms and riding on arms and riding on a white elephanta white elephant

IX. He is IX. He is sometimes shown sometimes shown with his wife, with his wife, SachideviSachidevi

X. With the X. With the emergence of emergence of devotional Saivism devotional Saivism and Bhagavatism and Bhagavatism his importance his importance declineddeclined

XI. Some scholars believe that he XI. Some scholars believe that he prefigures Krishnaprefigures Krishna

VarunaVarunaI. There are signs that I. There are signs that he is an omniscient, he is an omniscient, omnipresent, omnipresent, omnipotent, and omnipotent, and compassionate Godcompassionate God

II. He is also a II. He is also a precursor of Brahmanprecursor of Brahman

III. He is the ruler of III. He is the ruler of the world order (rita)the world order (rita)

Rama & VarunaRama & Varuna

IV. He is the supreme God who IV. He is the supreme God who controls justicecontrols justice

V. He has innumerable spies (rays of V. He has innumerable spies (rays of light)—thus he knows what goes on light)—thus he knows what goes on all over the worldall over the world

VI. He lost much of his importance VI. He lost much of his importance as Indra became more prominent—as Indra became more prominent—he was relegated to the position of a he was relegated to the position of a dikpala or ruler of a quarter (western dikpala or ruler of a quarter (western hemisphere) and lord of the oceans hemisphere) and lord of the oceans and watersand waters

VII. He is usually depicted as the VII. He is usually depicted as the rider of a chariot drawn by seven rider of a chariot drawn by seven swans and has four hands and an swans and has four hands and an umbrella over his head—suggesting umbrella over his head—suggesting his lordship over aquatic lifehis lordship over aquatic life

AgniAgni

I. The chosen Priest, God, I. The chosen Priest, God, minister of sacrifice, the minister of sacrifice, the hortar, who lavishes wealth hortar, who lavishes wealth and dispels the darknessand dispels the darknessII. He is appointed by Manu II. He is appointed by Manu as the priestas the priestIII. Often invoked along with III. Often invoked along with Indra, with whom he shares Indra, with whom he shares the passion for soma drinkthe passion for soma drink

IV. Agni was the earliest Angiras, a IV. Agni was the earliest Angiras, a SeerSeer

V. Aryans were aware of his V. Aryans were aware of his destructive ability, as he sets the destructive ability, as he sets the forests aflameforests aflame

VI. In images, he is depicted with VI. In images, he is depicted with two heads, long flowing hair, a pot two heads, long flowing hair, a pot belly, six eyes, seven hands, four belly, six eyes, seven hands, four horns, and three legs.horns, and three legs.

VII. His seven hands represent the VII. His seven hands represent the seven flames and the three legs seven flames and the three legs represent the three worlds which he represent the three worlds which he reigns; the pot belly denotes his love reigns; the pot belly denotes his love for rich oily foodfor rich oily food

VIII. His vehicle is the RamVIII. His vehicle is the Ram

IX. As the fire god, Agni he consumes IX. As the fire god, Agni he consumes the sacrifice and, as priest, presents it the sacrifice and, as priest, presents it to the gods aboveto the gods aboveX. He is also the element that binds X. He is also the element that binds together the three worlds, in heaven together the three worlds, in heaven he is born over again as the sun, in the he is born over again as the sun, in the atmosphere he is kindled by the atmosphere he is kindled by the waters, on earth he is kindled by the waters, on earth he is kindled by the hands of humanityhands of humanity

Rudra and RudrasRudra and Rudras

I. Rudra is a militant god of storms I. Rudra is a militant god of storms and lightening and a “provider of and lightening and a “provider of medicines”medicines”

II. He is a fierce looking god, well II. He is a fierce looking god, well built and golden in color, with built and golden in color, with braided hair of “firm limbs, braided hair of “firm limbs, multiform, strong, tawny who adorns multiform, strong, tawny who adorns himself with bright gold decorations”himself with bright gold decorations”

III. He wields the thunder bolt, bow III. He wields the thunder bolt, bow and arrow, and sends down streaks and arrow, and sends down streaks of lightening shaking the worlds, of lightening shaking the worlds, making people nervous with fearmaking people nervous with fearIV. Sometimes the hymns refer to IV. Sometimes the hymns refer to not just one Rudra but a group of not just one Rudra but a group of Rudras eleven in number—some Rudras eleven in number—some suggest this is a symbolic reference suggest this is a symbolic reference to the ten vital breathsto the ten vital breaths

MitraMitra

I. A god of the heavens, like VarunaI. A god of the heavens, like Varuna

II. Together they uphold the law, II. Together they uphold the law, causes the cows to stream, the causes the cows to stream, the plants to flourish, and send down the plants to flourish, and send down the rain-floodrain-flood

III. Both are adityas and often III. Both are adityas and often invoked togetherinvoked together

IV. Mitra stirs men to action and IV. Mitra stirs men to action and sustains both earth and heavensustains both earth and heaven

V. Mitra and Varuna are guardians of V. Mitra and Varuna are guardians of the world, who sit in a gold hued the world, who sit in a gold hued chariot from day break and behold chariot from day break and behold the infinitythe infinity

VishnuVishnu

I. In the Rig Veda, he I. In the Rig Veda, he is a minor god, one of is a minor god, one of the adityasthe adityasII. Like the Vishnu of II. Like the Vishnu of later days, he is a later days, he is a lover and protector of lover and protector of devotees in whose devotees in whose loved mansion all god loved mansion all god loving creatures live loving creatures live happily.happily.

III. He is a III. He is a god of three god of three strides who strides who upholds the upholds the threefold threefold existence, the existence, the earth, the earth, the heaven, and heaven, and all living all living creaturescreatures

UshaUsha

I. Usha is dawn, the daughter of the I. Usha is dawn, the daughter of the sky, lady of the light, who rouses all sky, lady of the light, who rouses all lifelife

II. She is borned on a hundred II. She is borned on a hundred chariots, she yokes her steed before chariots, she yokes her steed before the arrival of the sun and is never the arrival of the sun and is never latelate

III. She brings not only light, but III. She brings not only light, but hope, happiness, riches, and all the hope, happiness, riches, and all the good thingsgood things

IV. She is a goddess of light and IV. She is a goddess of light and beauty, whom the Rishis of old time beauty, whom the Rishis of old time invoked for their protection and helpinvoked for their protection and help

SomaSoma

I. Soma is the god of inspiration, the I. Soma is the god of inspiration, the intoxicant who stirs the minds, lures intoxicant who stirs the minds, lures the gods and brings them to the the gods and brings them to the place of worshipplace of worship

II. One of the most popular of the II. One of the most popular of the Rigvedic hymns, the entire 9Rigvedic hymns, the entire 9thth Mandala is dedicated to himMandala is dedicated to him

III. Also known as the Lord of the III. Also known as the Lord of the speech (Vachspati), because of his speech (Vachspati), because of his intoxicating influence on the intoxicating influence on the movement of speechmovement of speech

AsvinsAsvins

I. Twin deities who origins is I. Twin deities who origins is shrouded in mythshrouded in myth

II. They have healing and curative II. They have healing and curative powerspowers

III. They are said to descent to earth III. They are said to descent to earth three times a day to help humankind three times a day to help humankind with their restorative and curative with their restorative and curative powerspowers

MarutsMaruts

I. They are powerful and destructive I. They are powerful and destructive storm gods, who lash the world from storm gods, who lash the world from end to end, make the mountains end to end, make the mountains rock, rend the forest-kings apart, rock, rend the forest-kings apart, make the earth tremble and drench make the earth tremble and drench the earth with heavy rainsthe earth with heavy rains

II. Considered to be the progeny of II. Considered to be the progeny of RudraRudra

RtaRta

I. He is the rhythmic pattern of the I. He is the rhythmic pattern of the universe—the orderly way in which universe—the orderly way in which the world regulates itselfthe world regulates itself

II. He determines the usual paths by II. He determines the usual paths by which the heavenly objects, the sun, which the heavenly objects, the sun, the moon, the stars, the nine planets, the moon, the stars, the nine planets, conduct themselvconduct themselv

YamaYama

I. Yama is the god of justice and I. Yama is the god of justice and ruler of the dead and departed who ruler of the dead and departed who go the region of hellgo the region of hell

II. Two fierce dogs with four eyes and II. Two fierce dogs with four eyes and wide nostrils, look on men and guard wide nostrils, look on men and guard the pathway the leads the world of the pathway the leads the world of YamaYama

III. He is the master of III. He is the master of knowledge and taught knowledge and taught young Nachiketa the secrets young Nachiketa the secrets of Brahman, fire sacrifice, of Brahman, fire sacrifice, and immortalityand immortality

IV. His image is shown as IV. His image is shown as riding a he-buffalo, carrying riding a he-buffalo, carrying a mace as his weapon and a mace as his weapon and holding a noose, using the holding a noose, using the noose to drag the deceased noose to drag the deceased beings to the hellsbeings to the hells

AdityasAdityas

Varuna, Vishnu, and Mitre plus a Varuna, Vishnu, and Mitre plus a number of number of minor deities are minor deities are referred to as Adityas—children of referred to as Adityas—children of the boundless goddess Aditi (ancient the boundless goddess Aditi (ancient mother-earth?)mother-earth?)

DanavasDanavas

The Danavas were the children of Danu The Danavas were the children of Danu (restrainer) and were foes of the (restrainer) and were foes of the AdityasAdityas

a. The most important one being a. The most important one being the great dragon Vritrathe great dragon Vritra

b. He would eventually be b. He would eventually be destroyed by Inda with his destroyed by Inda with his thunderboltthunderbolt—thereby freeing the —thereby freeing the cosmic waters cosmic waters and making possible the and making possible the creationcreation

The mythologies will be in a constant flux The mythologies will be in a constant flux over the centuries and some minor deities over the centuries and some minor deities in the Rig-Veda will become important in in the Rig-Veda will become important in later writingslater writings

1 Prajapati would come to replace 1 Prajapati would come to replace Varuna as arbiter of the cosmic orderVaruna as arbiter of the cosmic order

a. By “heating” himself, a. By “heating” himself, Prajapati Prajapati would bring into being the would bring into being the

hierarchy of the universe hierarchy of the universe through through his sweat or semenhis sweat or semen

b. He would establish himself as b. He would establish himself as the “self-sacrifice” that would be the “self-sacrifice” that would be perpetuated through the priestly perpetuated through the priestly classclass

SummarySummary

I. The Vedas show a ritualistic cult I. The Vedas show a ritualistic cult involving the sacrificial use of fire and involving the sacrificial use of fire and an exhilarating drink called an exhilarating drink called somasoma, as , as well as the rudiments of a social orderwell as the rudiments of a social order

II. These gods are found to be II. These gods are found to be somewhat parallel to other Indo-somewhat parallel to other Indo-Aryan cultures, such as Iran and Aryan cultures, such as Iran and GreeceGreece

3. The religion developed by the 3. The religion developed by the Aryans are found in the VedasAryans are found in the Vedas

IIIIII.. Vedas are referred to as Vedas are referred to as the Sruti—”that which heard the Sruti—”that which heard or “that of divine origin”or “that of divine origin”

A. Represents established A. Represents established knowledge, its final authority is knowledge, its final authority is accepted by all Hindus accepted by all Hindus as eternal and revealed as eternal and revealed scripturescriptureB. The earliest portion B. The earliest portion of the Vedas consists of of the Vedas consists of four metrical hymns, four metrical hymns, known as the Samhitas:known as the Samhitas:

1028 (arranged in 10 mandalas or circles)1028 (arranged in 10 mandalas or circles)

hymns to the gods, shows optimism and enjoyment of hymns to the gods, shows optimism and enjoyment of the world, stresses humility to the godsthe world, stresses humility to the gods

Written between 1500-900 BCEWritten between 1500-900 BCE

Dominated by hymns praising the Aryan gods for giving Dominated by hymns praising the Aryan gods for giving them victorious and wealth plundered from the local them victorious and wealth plundered from the local

Dasas through warfareDasas through warfare

Hymns refer to the use of horses and chariots with Hymns refer to the use of horses and chariots with spikes, spears, bows, arrows, and iron weaponsspikes, spears, bows, arrows, and iron weapons

1. Rig-Veda1. Rig-Veda

Rig-Veda II;20:6-8 refers to victory over the Rig-Veda II;20:6-8 refers to victory over the Dasa peoplesDasa peoples

He, self-reliant, mighty and triumphant,,He, self-reliant, mighty and triumphant,, brought low the dear head of the wicked Dasas.brought low the dear head of the wicked Dasas.

Inda, the Vritra-slayer, fort-destroyer,Inda, the Vritra-slayer, fort-destroyer,scattered the Dasa hosts who dwelt in darkness.scattered the Dasa hosts who dwelt in darkness.For men hath he created earth and waters,For men hath he created earth and waters,and ever helped the prayer of him who worships.and ever helped the prayer of him who worships.To him in might the Gods have ever yielded,To him in might the Gods have ever yielded,to Indra in the tumult of battle.to Indra in the tumult of battle.When in his arms they laid the bolt,,When in his arms they laid the bolt,,he slaughtered the Dasyushe slaughtered the Dasyusand cast down their forts of ironand cast down their forts of iron

Rig-Veda I;1:1-5Rig-Veda I;1:1-5

I laud Agni, the chosen Priest, God, minister of sacrifice Worthy is Agni to be praised by living as by ancient seers Through Agni man obtaineth wealth, yes, plenty waxing day by day Agni, the perfect sacrifice, which though encompassest about May Agni, sapient-minded Priest, truthful, most gloriously great;

The first indication of the cast system is contained The first indication of the cast system is contained in a hymn to Purusha—the embodied human in a hymn to Purusha—the embodied human spirit, who is ¼ creature and ¾ eternal life in spirit, who is ¼ creature and ¾ eternal life in heavenheaven

Rig-Veda 10:90Rig-Veda 10:90A thousand heads hath Purusa, a thousand eyes, a thousand feet On every side pervading earth he fills a space ten fingers wide This Purusa is all that yet hath been and all that is to be . . . . . . . . . . . When they divided Purusa how many portions did they make? What do they call his mouth, his arms? What do they call his thighs and feet? The Brahman was his mouth, of both his arms was the Rajanya made. His thighs became the Vaisya, from his feet the Sudra was produced The Moon was gendered from his mind, and from his eye the Sun had birth; Indra and Agni from his mouth were born, and Vayu from his breath

Rig-Veda 2:12Rig-Veda 2:12

1. The god who had insight the moment he was born, the first who protected the gods with his power of thought, before whose breath the two world-halves tremble as the greatness of his manly powers.—he, my people, is Inda 2. He who made fast the tottering earth, who made still the quaking mountains,who measured out and extended the expanse of the air, who propped up the sky—he, my people, is Indra

Rig-Veda 5:85Rig-Veda 5:85

1. For the emperor I will sing a splendid, deep prayer, one that will be dear to the famous Varuna who struck apart the earth and spread it beneath the sun as the priest who performs the slaughter spreads out the victim’s skin

2. He stretched out the middle realm of space in the trees; he laid victory in swift horses and milk in the dawn cows, intelligence in hearts and fire in the waters. Varuna placed the sun in the sky and Soma on the mountain

Creation HymnsCreation Hymns

RV 10:129—There was neither non-existence nor existence then; there was neither in the realm of space nor the sky which is beyond. What stirred? Where? In whose protection? Was there water, bottomlessly deep? There was neither dead nor immortality then. There was no distinguishing sign of night or day. That one breathed, windless, by its own impulse. Other than that there was nothing beyond

RV 10:121— In the beginning the Golden Embryo arose. Once he was born, he was the one lord of creation. He held in place the earth and the sky. Who is the god whom we should worship with the oblation? He who gives life, who gives strength, whose command all the gods, his own, obey; his shadow is immortality—and death. Who is the god who we should worship with the oblation?

The relationship between the various The relationship between the various deities of Rig-Veda are not cleardeities of Rig-Veda are not clear

(a) Each may be represented (a) Each may be represented as as the supreme godthe supreme god

(b) Indra stands out as the pre-(b) Indra stands out as the pre-eminent god of Rig-Veda, eminent god of Rig-Veda, which recounts his deedswhich recounts his deeds(c) In terms of this tradition, (c) In terms of this tradition,

creation proceeded when Indra, creation proceeded when Indra, the champion of the celestial the champion of the celestial gods, slew a demon, gods, slew a demon, Vrita, who enclosed the waters Vrita, who enclosed the waters and the sun requisite for human and the sun requisite for human lifelife

(d) When Indra split open the (d) When Indra split open the belly of this demon the essentials of creation—belly of this demon the essentials of creation—moisture, heat, light—were released and cosmic moisture, heat, light—were released and cosmic order—order—ritarita—was established under administration —was established under administration of the god Varunaof the god Varuna

7. Gods and men had specific 7. Gods and men had specific functions functions ((vratavrata) to perform in accordance ) to perform in accordance

with this cosmic orderwith this cosmic order8. After death individuals who had 8. After death individuals who had

fulfilled their obligations under cosmic fulfilled their obligations under cosmic order went to a heavenly realm order went to a heavenly realm presided over by Yama, the presided over by Yama, the first first mortalmortal

9. Two mythological dogs guarded 9. Two mythological dogs guarded the the righteous on the path to the region, righteous on the path to the region, but but the sinful were fettered out, and the sinful were fettered out, and

unprotected, fell prey to various unprotected, fell prey to various demonsdemons

10. Cultic practices developed an 10. Cultic practices developed an elaborate ritual based on a fire elaborate ritual based on a fire

sacrifice, sacrifice, personified as the god personified as the god AgniAgni, the , the crackling of the sacrificial fire crackling of the sacrificial fire

was was viewed as the voice of viewed as the voice of AgniAgni

11. The soma juice, personified by 11. The soma juice, personified by the the god god SomaSoma, was used, was used

12. Importance was given to the 12. Importance was given to the chanting of chanting of hymns and invocations by hymns and invocations by the human the human priesthoodpriesthood

113. Later the sacrifice was viewed 3. Later the sacrifice was viewed cosmologically and the correct cosmologically and the correct performance of the sacrifice performance of the sacrifice

possessed possessed a magical potency which could a magical potency which could coerce coerce even the godseven the gods

(a) This magical power in the (a) This magical power in the prayers developed into spells prayers developed into spells called called brahmanbrahman

(b) He who recited them was (b) He who recited them was ““prayer-er” or prayer-er” or brahmanbrahman, or one , or one related to prayer (related to prayer (brahmanabrahmana))(c) This principle would be used (c) This principle would be used

in in the the UpanishadsUpanishads as the ultimate as the ultimate principleprinciple

2. 2. Yajur VedaYajur Veda

(10(10thth century BCE) century BCE)

Sacred liturgy written in prose, sacrificial formulas. Caste system Sacred liturgy written in prose, sacrificial formulas. Caste system was in place and role of priests and their ceremonies gained was in place and role of priests and their ceremonies gained influence and justified the Aryan ways to native workersinfluence and justified the Aryan ways to native workers

Yajur Veda has 2 collections called White and Black—the latter Yajur Veda has 2 collections called White and Black—the latter being more obscure in its meaningbeing more obscure in its meaning

By instituting more elaborate sacrifices for their wealthy patrons, By instituting more elaborate sacrifices for their wealthy patrons, the priests could grow both in numbers and wealth.the priests could grow both in numbers and wealth.

The horse sacrifice was one of the most famous—not done very The horse sacrifice was one of the most famous—not done very often—the parts of the horse symbolized different aspects of often—the parts of the horse symbolized different aspects of the universethe universe

The soma sacrifice was the most important and The soma sacrifice was the most important and could last up to 12 years.could last up to 12 years.

The priests placed themselves at the top of the The priests placed themselves at the top of the caste system. After the Atharva Veda was caste system. After the Atharva Veda was accepted, each sacrifice required at least 4 accepted, each sacrifice required at least 4 priests, one on each side of the fire using the Rig, priests, one on each side of the fire using the Rig, Sama, Yajur and Atharva Vedas, plus their Sama, Yajur and Atharva Vedas, plus their assistants.assistants.

Yajur Veda 1.2.7Yajur Veda 1.2.7a. I buy Soma from thee, strong, rich in sap, full of force, a. I buy Soma from thee, strong, rich in sap, full of force, overcoming the foe, the pure with the pure I buy, the bright overcoming the foe, the pure with the pure I buy, the bright with the bright, the immortal with the immortal, to match with the bright, the immortal with the immortal, to match they cow.they cow.b. With be the goldb. With be the goldc. Thou art the bodily form of penance, Prajati’s kind, I buy c. Thou art the bodily form of penance, Prajati’s kind, I buy (Soma) with the last offspring of thee that bast a (Soma) with the last offspring of thee that bast a thousandfold prosperity.thousandfold prosperity.d. With us be union with thee; with me let thy weal wealth d. With us be union with thee; with me let thy weal wealth abideabidee. With us be light, darkness be on the Soma-sellere. With us be light, darkness be on the Soma-sellerf. Come as a friend to us, creating firm friendships.f. Come as a friend to us, creating firm friendships.g. Enter the right thigh of Indra, glad the glad, tender the g. Enter the right thigh of Indra, glad the glad, tender the tender.tender.h. O Svana, Bhraja, Anghari, Bambhari, Hasta, Suhasta, h. O Svana, Bhraja, Anghari, Bambhari, Hasta, Suhasta, and Krcanu, here are your wages for Soma; guard them, let and Krcanu, here are your wages for Soma; guard them, let them not fail you.them not fail you.

3. Sama Vedas3. Sama Vedas

Collections of chants sung by priests at sacrifice. Collections of chants sung by priests at sacrifice. These are considered to be the origin of Indian These are considered to be the origin of Indian music The music The Sama VedasSama Vedas helped to train the helped to train the musicians and functioned as a hymnal for the musicians and functioned as a hymnal for the religious ritesreligious rites

The animal sacrifices did not use the Sama chants.The animal sacrifices did not use the Sama chants.

Sama Veda, Book III, Chapter 1, Decade 1Sama Veda, Book III, Chapter 1, Decade 11. Let Soma juices make thee glad! Display thy bounty, 1. Let Soma juices make thee glad! Display thy bounty, Thunderer: Drive off the enemies of prayer!Thunderer: Drive off the enemies of prayer!2. Drink our libation, Lord of hymns! With streams of meath 2. Drink our libation, Lord of hymns! With streams of meath thou art bedweded: Ye, Indra, glory is thy gift.thou art bedweded: Ye, Indra, glory is thy gift.3. Indra hath ever thought of you and tended you with 3. Indra hath ever thought of you and tended you with care. The God, Heroic Indra, is not checked.care. The God, Heroic Indra, is not checked.4. Let the drops pass within thee as the rivers flow into the 4. Let the drops pass within thee as the rivers flow into the sea O Indra, naught excelleth thee!sea O Indra, naught excelleth thee!5. Indra, the singers with high praise, Indra reciters with 5. Indra, the singers with high praise, Indra reciters with their lauds, Indra the choirs have glorifiedtheir lauds, Indra the choirs have glorified6. May Indra give, to aid us wealth handy that rules the 6. May Indra give, to aid us wealth handy that rules the skilful ones! Yea, may the Strong give potent wealth.skilful ones! Yea, may the Strong give potent wealth.7. Verily, Indra, conquering all, drives even mighty fear 7. Verily, Indra, conquering all, drives even mighty fear away, For firm is he and swift to act.away, For firm is he and swift to act.8. These songs with every draught we pour come, lover of 8. These songs with every draught we pour come, lover of the song, to thee As milch-kine hasten to their calves.the song, to thee As milch-kine hasten to their calves.9. Indra and Wishan will we call for friendship and 9. Indra and Wishan will we call for friendship and prosperity, And for the wining of the spoil.prosperity, And for the wining of the spoil.10. O Indra, Vrita-slayer, naught is better, mighter than 10. O Indra, Vrita-slayer, naught is better, mighter than thou Verily there is none like thee!thou Verily there is none like thee!

4. Atharva Veda4. Atharva VedaMagical formulas, spells, incantations, the most recent of the worksMagical formulas, spells, incantations, the most recent of the works

The The bheshajanibheshajani spells are for healing and cures using herbs to treat spells are for healing and cures using herbs to treat fever, leprosy, jaundice, and other diseases.fever, leprosy, jaundice, and other diseases.

The The abhicharaabhichara spells were negative or bewitching spells and were spells were negative or bewitching spells and were used to cause diseases or harm to enemiesused to cause diseases or harm to enemies

Marriage ceremonies would be included (Atharva Veda 14:2-71Marriage ceremonies would be included (Atharva Veda 14:2-71

I am he, you are she.I am he, you are she.

I am song; you are verse.I am song; you are verse.

I am heaven; you are earthI am heaven; you are earth

Let us two dwell together here;Let us two dwell together here;

let us generate childrenlet us generate children

Artha Veda 1.23Artha Veda 1.23Leprosy cured by a dark plantLeprosy cured by a dark plant

1. Born by night art thou, O plant, dark, black, 1. Born by night art thou, O plant, dark, black, sable. Do thou, that art rich in colour, stain this sable. Do thou, that art rich in colour, stain this leprosy, and the gray spots!leprosy, and the gray spots!2. The leprosy and the gray spots drive away 2. The leprosy and the gray spots drive away from here—may thy native colour settle upon from here—may thy native colour settle upon thee—the white spots cause to fly away!thee—the white spots cause to fly away!3. Sable is thy hiding place, sable thy dwelling-3. Sable is thy hiding place, sable thy dwelling-place, sable art thou, O plant: drive away from place, sable art thou, O plant: drive away from here the speckled spots.here the speckled spots.4. The leprosy which has originated in the bones, 4. The leprosy which has originated in the bones, and that which has originated in the body and and that which has originated in the body and upon the skin, the white mark begotten of upon the skin, the white mark begotten of corruption, I have destroyed with my charm.corruption, I have destroyed with my charm.

Vedic SacrificesVedic Sacrifices

Characteristics of Vedic RitualCharacteristics of Vedic Ritual

I. There was no fixed place of I. There was no fixed place of worship—no temples or permanent worship—no temples or permanent structures were devoted to Vedic structures were devoted to Vedic ritualritual

II. There is no evidence for icons or II. There is no evidence for icons or images representing gods or their images representing gods or their attributesattributes

III. Central focus of Vedic ritual is fireIII. Central focus of Vedic ritual is fire

IV. Principle and central act of IV. Principle and central act of almost all rituals is the offering of almost all rituals is the offering of edible or drinkable substances into edible or drinkable substances into the firethe fire

V. The rituals range from the V. The rituals range from the simplest (Agnihorta or “Fire offering’ simplest (Agnihorta or “Fire offering’ to the twice daily offerings of milk to the twice daily offerings of milk and other products into the fireand other products into the fire

Participants of the RitualParticipants of the Ritual

I. The Ahitagni who actually causes I. The Ahitagni who actually causes the ritual to be performed—known as the ritual to be performed—known as the yajamana or sacrificerthe yajamana or sacrificer

II. He relies on a collection of priests II. He relies on a collection of priests who fall into four main groupswho fall into four main groups

A. The priests of the Rig Veda, A. The priests of the Rig Veda, the the Sama Veda, and the Yajur Sama Veda, and the Yajur

Veda are responsible for the three Veda are responsible for the three types of types of sacral utterance that sacral utterance that together form the verbal sector of together form the verbal sector of Vedic ritualVedic ritual

B. The chief priest represent the B. The chief priest represent the Rig Rig Vedas is called the Hortar, Vedas is called the Hortar,

in in the Sama the Udgatar, that of the Sama the Udgatar, that of the the Yajur is the AdhvaryuYajur is the Adhvaryu

C. The representatives of the C. The representatives of the Atharva Veda is the Brahman who Atharva Veda is the Brahman who oversees the whole operationoversees the whole operation

III. A third set of presentatives is III. A third set of presentatives is invisible (except for Soma and Agni) invisible (except for Soma and Agni) and are a selection of the godsand are a selection of the gods

Types of SacrificesTypes of Sacrifices

I. Haviryajnas—determined by the I. Haviryajnas—determined by the rhythm of the year and movements rhythm of the year and movements of the sun and moonof the sun and moon

II. Agnihorta—twice daily offering of II. Agnihorta—twice daily offering of the firethe fire

III. Dars’apaurNamasa—the new and III. Dars’apaurNamasa—the new and full moon sacrifice involves offering full moon sacrifice involves offering every two weeksevery two weeks

IV. Caturmasyani—Four monthly or IV. Caturmasyani—Four monthly or seasonal sacrificesseasonal sacrifices

V. AgrayaNa—first fruits offered at V. AgrayaNa—first fruits offered at harvestharvest

VI. Pas’ubandha—animal sacrificeVI. Pas’ubandha—animal sacrifice

VII. As’vamedha—horse sacrifice VII. As’vamedha—horse sacrifice where a horse is slaughtered where a horse is slaughtered

(4) Commentaries on (4) Commentaries on the Vedas includethe Vedas include::

(a) (a) Brahmamanas(Between 900 & 700 BCE)

Written in prose as sacerdotal commentaries on the four Vedas to guide the practices of the sacrifices and give explanations for the often mythical and fanciful customs They serve as a transition from the Vedas to the Aranyakas and the more mystical Upanishads They also contain stories meant to explain or rationalize their religious practices The power of the WORD is increasing as the sacrifices were glorified and given power over the Vedic gods

Japa, or the practice of chanting a mantram like Japa, or the practice of chanting a mantram like Aum (OM) practiced ascetically with the sacrifices Aum (OM) practiced ascetically with the sacrifices were believed to produce all one’s desires were believed to produce all one’s desires

Prajapti becomes more powerful and is said to have Prajapti becomes more powerful and is said to have given birth to the gods and the demons—he given birth to the gods and the demons—he would be the first to sacrifice and was also would be the first to sacrifice and was also considered to be the sacrifice itselfconsidered to be the sacrifice itself

He practiced He practiced tapastapas to create by the heat of his own to create by the heat of his own efforts efforts

Prajapati would later be replaced by BrahmanPrajapati would later be replaced by BrahmanA belief in repeated lives through reincarnation is A belief in repeated lives through reincarnation is

indicated in several passages indicated in several passages

(b) Aranyakas(b) Aranyakas

(600 BCE)(600 BCE)

Forest texts, sages of the forest, collections of hidden truths Forest texts, sages of the forest, collections of hidden truths elucidatedelucidated

They were tacked on to the end of the They were tacked on to the end of the BrahmanasBrahmanas; only 3 are ; only 3 are extant and share the names of the Brahmanas they followextant and share the names of the Brahmanas they follow

Texts were transitions between the Texts were transitions between the BrahmanasBrahmanas and the and the UpanishadsUpanishads—they discuss rites and magic contents but also —they discuss rites and magic contents but also early speculations which would later flower in the early speculations which would later flower in the UpanishadsUpanishads

Emphasis is placed on knowledge; human immortality identified Emphasis is placed on knowledge; human immortality identified with the soul (with the soul (atmanatman))

(c) Upanishads(c) Upanishads

Which were reactions against sacrificial system, very Which were reactions against sacrificial system, very philosophical, stresses ultimate cosmic principle as philosophical, stresses ultimate cosmic principle as BrahmanBrahman

The term literally means “those who sit near”—implies a The term literally means “those who sit near”—implies a seeker listening closely to the secret doctrines of a spiritual seeker listening closely to the secret doctrines of a spiritual teacher.teacher.

There are over 200, but only 15 are mentioned by the There are over 200, but only 15 are mentioned by the philosopher Shankara (788-820) CE. They are considered philosopher Shankara (788-820) CE. They are considered Vedic—the rest were written later and are related to the Vedic—the rest were written later and are related to the Puranic worship of Shiva, Shakti, and VishnuPuranic worship of Shiva, Shakti, and Vishnu

The oldest and longest are the The oldest and longest are the Brihad-AranyakaBrihad-Aranyaka and and the the ChandogyaChandogya (7 (7thth century BCE) century BCE)

The The Brihad-AranyakaBrihad-Aranyaka has 3 has 3 AranyakaAranyaka chapters chapters followed by six Upanishad chaptersfollowed by six Upanishad chapters

The Principle UpanishadsThe Principle Upanishads

The best known in EnglishThe best known in English

Kena and Chandogya, attached to the Sama VedasKena and Chandogya, attached to the Sama Vedas

Katha, Prashna, Mundaka, Mandakya, attached to Katha, Prashna, Mundaka, Mandakya, attached to the Atharva Vedathe Atharva Veda

Brihad-Aranyaka, attached to the Rig-VedaBrihad-Aranyaka, attached to the Rig-Veda

Taittiriya, attached to the Black Yajur-VedaTaittiriya, attached to the Black Yajur-Veda

Isha, attached to the 40Isha, attached to the 40thth chapter of the Vajasaeyi- chapter of the Vajasaeyi-SamhitaSamhita

Doctrines of the Doctrines of the UpanishadsUpanishads

1. 1. The primary message is that through meditation The primary message is that through meditation one can become aware that one’s soul (one can become aware that one’s soul (atmanatman) ) is one with all thingsis one with all things

2. The soul is identified with the real, the immortal, 2. The soul is identified with the real, the immortal, and the life-breath (and the life-breath (pranaprana), which is veiled by ), which is veiled by name and form (individuality)name and form (individuality)

3. The principle of action (3. The principle of action (karmakarma) is explained as ) is explained as “one becomes good by good action, bad by bad “one becomes good by good action, bad by bad action” (action” (Brihad-Aranyaka UpanishadBrihad-Aranyaka Upanishad 3:2-13) 3:2-13)

5. The soul is identified as being intelligent, dear, 5. The soul is identified as being intelligent, dear, true, endless, blissful and stable. In the true, endless, blissful and stable. In the Brihad-Brihad-AranyaAranyaka ka UpanishadUpanishad (3:9-26) the soul is said to (3:9-26) the soul is said to bebe

. . .not this, not that. . .not this, not thatIt is incomprehensible, for it is not It is incomprehensible, for it is not comprehended.comprehended.It is indestructible, for it is never destroyed.It is indestructible, for it is never destroyed.It is unattached, for it does not attach itself.It is unattached, for it does not attach itself.It is unfettered; it does not suffer; it is not It is unfettered; it does not suffer; it is not injured.injured.

6. By stressing the meaning behind the 6. By stressing the meaning behind the ritual, the ritual, the UpanishadsUpanishads would stress that would stress that there would be various levels of there would be various levels of comprehension suited to different comprehension suited to different individual intellectual capacities and by individual intellectual capacities and by identifying partially or by degrees two identifying partially or by degrees two similar or dissimilar elements which will on similar or dissimilar elements which will on further analysis or introspection reveal a further analysis or introspection reveal a unityunity

7. This latter aspect helps to suggest that 7. This latter aspect helps to suggest that the the dualism in the world is to some extent dualism in the world is to some extent unrealunreal

[1] The macrocosm is viewed [1] The macrocosm is viewed universally as the universally as the brahmanbrahman[2] The microcosmic nature of the [2] The microcosmic nature of the human soul is the human soul is the atmanatman[3] [3] BrahmanBrahman is the only real and is the only real and unchanging realityunchanging reality[4] [4] BrahmanBrahman cannot really be defined cannot really be defined[5] The [5] The atmanatman exists in the midst of exists in the midst of

the the changes of the universechanges of the universe[6] The [6] The atman atman exists in all things, exists in all things, animate and inanimateanimate and inanimate[7] Beings differ in the degree to [7] Beings differ in the degree to

which which AAtmantman has come to be realized has come to be realized

8. There is an evolution of a gradual 8. There is an evolution of a gradual uncovering or bringing to light of uncovering or bringing to light of

realization of realization of atmanatman. The . The atman atman is is shown shown as being enclosed in a series of as being enclosed in a series of sheathssheaths

[a] [a] annamayaannamaya—the self, the —the self, the physical bodyphysical body[b] [b] pranamayapranamaya—the vital —the vital

principle, breath, which holds and principle, breath, which holds and vitalizes together the body vitalizes together the body and the mind. Life continues in and the mind. Life continues in this sheaththis sheath

[c] [c] manomayamanomaya—manas, —manas, impressions through the sensesimpressions through the senses[d] [d] uynanamayauynanamaya—intellect—intellect[e] [e] anandamayaanandamaya—bliss, ego—bliss, ego

9. 9. UpanishadsUpanishads identifies 3 stages of identifies 3 stages of consciousnessconsciousness

[1] The Waking State—awareness of [1] The Waking State—awareness of things external to the bodythings external to the body[2] The Dreaming State—awareness [2] The Dreaming State—awareness

of of internal phenomena and enjoying internal phenomena and enjoying mental impressions, mind active mental impressions, mind active

though though independently of the sense independently of the sense organs, pure organs, pure mental beingsmental beings

[3] The Deep Sleep State, entirely [3] The Deep Sleep State, entirely unaware of unaware of external and internal external and internal

worldworld[4] Pure Consciousness—a fourth [4] Pure Consciousness—a fourth

stage stage which transcends all states. which transcends all states. Here the Here the atmanatman is fully realized; it is the is fully realized; it is the

supreme mystical experiencesupreme mystical experience

10. Liberation is achieved through 2 spiritual 10. Liberation is achieved through 2 spiritual disciplinesdisciplines

[1] observation of moral of moral laws[1] observation of moral of moral laws

[a] moral laws are accomplished [a] moral laws are accomplished through self-disciplinethrough self-discipline

[b] ultimate moral ideal of [b] ultimate moral ideal of Upanishads Upanishads is complete self-is complete self-abnegationabnegation

[2] practice of meditation accomplished by [2] practice of meditation accomplished by hearing and reflectionhearing and reflection

11. The relationship of 11. The relationship of AtmanAtman and and BrahmanBrahman can be found in the phrase can be found in the phrase Tat Tvam AsiTat Tvam Asi — —thou art that—stressing a relationship and thou art that—stressing a relationship and complete identify between complete identify between BrahmanBrahman and and

AtmanAtman12. There are 108 Upanishads with 10 12. There are 108 Upanishads with 10

them them considered to be the most importantconsidered to be the most important[1]The words must be seen as [1]The words must be seen as spontaneous records of mystic spontaneous records of mystic experiences of the rishis, not a experiences of the rishis, not a calculated logic or rational thinkingcalculated logic or rational thinking[2] The primary state to this mystic [2] The primary state to this mystic experience is the negation or denial experience is the negation or denial

of of all external thingsall external things

MethodologyMethodologyA. Dialogue with questions and A. Dialogue with questions and answersanswers

B. Narration and episodesB. Narration and episodes

C. Similes, metaphors, and C. Similes, metaphors, and illustrationsillustrations

D. SymbolismD. Symbolism

Brahma Sutra indicates three main Brahma Sutra indicates three main guidelines to understand purpose guidelines to understand purpose

of Upanishadsof Upanishads

A. Tattu samanvayaah.h—total A. Tattu samanvayaah.h—total material available on the point of material available on the point of study in the entire Shruti literature study in the entire Shruti literature has to be taken into account and has to be taken into account and interpreted correctly by applying interpreted correctly by applying canons of interpretationcanons of interpretation

B.B. Gati samaanyaah.h—All Shruti Gati samaanyaah.h—All Shruti literature have the same purport and literature have the same purport and apparent contradictions are resolved apparent contradictions are resolved by proper study and interpretationby proper study and interpretation

C. Sarvavedoantapratyayam.h—C. Sarvavedoantapratyayam.h—underlying purport of Upanishads is underlying purport of Upanishads is found to be one of consistent truth, found to be one of consistent truth, which when fully understood fully will which when fully understood fully will lead to God-realizationlead to God-realization

Chandogya UpanishadChandogya Upanishad1. It belongs to the 1. It belongs to the Sama VedaSama Veda and is the last 8 and is the last 8 chapters of the 10-chapter chapters of the 10-chapter Chandogya Chandogya BrahmanaBrahmana2. Religious life is described as having 3 parts2. Religious life is described as having 3 parts

a. Sacrifice, study of the a. Sacrifice, study of the VedasVedas, and , and giving giving almsalms

b. Austerityb. Austerityc. Studying the sacred knowledge while c. Studying the sacred knowledge while

living living in the house of a teacherin the house of a teacher3. Reincarnation is clearly emphasized and 3. Reincarnation is clearly emphasized and declares that those who conduct is pleasant declares that those who conduct is pleasant here will enter a pleasant womb of a Brahmin, here will enter a pleasant womb of a Brahmin, Kshatriya, or Vaisya; those of stinking conduct Kshatriya, or Vaisya; those of stinking conduct will enter the stinking womb of a dog, swine, or will enter the stinking womb of a dog, swine, or outcastoutcast

Taittiriya UpanishadTaittiriya Upanishad

1. The word AUM is emphasized—prayers 1. The word AUM is emphasized—prayers often end with AUMoften end with AUM

2. Peace of the soul is emphasized—2. Peace of the soul is emphasized—prayers often end with the chanting of prayers often end with the chanting of peace (shanti) three timespeace (shanti) three times

3. Highest goal is to know Brahman3. Highest goal is to know Brahman

Aitareya UpanishadAitareya Upanishad

1. Begins with the one Spirit creating the 1. Begins with the one Spirit creating the universe out of its being. Out of the cosmic egg universe out of its being. Out of the cosmic egg came speech, breath, eyes and sight, ears and came speech, breath, eyes and sight, ears and hearing, skin, hair, and herbs; from the navel and hearing, skin, hair, and herbs; from the navel and outbreath came death and from the organ of outbreath came death and from the organ of pleasure seed and waters were bornpleasure seed and waters were born

2. Ascending from this world with the intelligent 2. Ascending from this world with the intelligent soul, one obtains all desires in a heavenly world, soul, one obtains all desires in a heavenly world, eventually immortalityeventually immortality

Katha UpanishadKatha Upanishad

Belongs to Taittiriiya Shaakhas of the Belongs to Taittiriiya Shaakhas of the Krishna Yajur VedaKrishna Yajur Veda

1. Utilizes an ancient story from the RV about a 1. Utilizes an ancient story from the RV about a father who gives his son Nachiketas to death father who gives his son Nachiketas to death (Yama); it brings in some of the highest teachings (Yama); it brings in some of the highest teachings of mystical spiritualityof mystical spirituality

2. The chariot is used as a symbol for a person2. The chariot is used as a symbol for a persona. The soul is the lord of the chariot, which a. The soul is the lord of the chariot, which

is is the bodythe bodyb. b. BuddhiBuddhi (intuition) is the chariot-driver (intuition) is the chariot-driverc. The mind is the reinsc. The mind is the reinsd. The senses are the horsesd. The senses are the horsese. The paths are the objects of the sensese. The paths are the objects of the senses

3. Three boons asked by Nachiketas3. Three boons asked by Nachiketasa. Let my father be freed from a. Let my father be freed from anger towards me, let his calm anger towards me, let his calm

by by restored and let him recognize restored and let him recognize me me when I returnwhen I return

b. Teach me the nature of the b. Teach me the nature of the Supreme God Hari, also bearing Supreme God Hari, also bearing the the name of Agni, who can name of Agni, who can bestow the bestow the immortal world to timmortal world to those who worship Him by hose who worship Him by performing the Nachiketas performing the Nachiketas sacrificesacrifice

c. Teach me the nature of the c. Teach me the nature of the Supreme God, who controls the Supreme God, who controls the souls after and liberationsouls after and liberation

Thus, the whole of Vedic literature Thus, the whole of Vedic literature consists of four consists of four VedasVedas or or SamhitasSamhitas, , several expository ritual texts several expository ritual texts attached to each of these attached to each of these VedasVedas, and , and speculative works, or speculative works, or UpanishadsUpanishads