an introduction to extended vocal techniques_ some compositional aspects and performance problemsl

8/4/2019 An Introduction to Extended Vocal Techniques_ Some Compositional Aspects and Performance Problemsl

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An Introduction to Extended Vocal Techniques: Some Compositional

Aspects and Performance Problems1

Deborah Kavasch

A vocal sonic vocabulary is developing in Western art music which includes and extends beyondtraditional Western art music phonation, the basic voice production associated with opera and recitalsinging. Contemporary vocal writing includes sounds which previously were seldom or never heard inmusical contexts. Some of these sounds or techniques occur in other musical cultures while others havearisen through the research and experimentation undertaken by certain contemporary vocalists.

This paper discusses selected "extended vocal techniques" in the context of specific

compositional uses and related performance problems and relates specifically to the vocabulary of vocal techniques and sounds developed by the Extended Vocal Techniques Ensemble(EVTE) of San D iego, California. The descriptive, subjective terminology developed by EVTEfor its vocabulary of techniques is used in this paper since precise definitions have not yet been developedfor most of the techniques. The ensemble recorded a Lexicon of Extended Vocal Techniques in 1974 and

the expanded index of this Lexicon2, prepared by Linda Vickerman of EVTE, has aided in explaining someof the techniques discussed in this paper.

The five techniques chosen for discussion include "reinforced harmonics," " ululation," vocal fry,"

"chant," and ""complex multiphonics." They represent those techniques which: 1) can be learned mostquickly; 2) have been used most extensively in compositions written for EVTE; and 3) are basictechniques which can be applied to- many sounds and/or from which distinctive variations can beproduced.

Although improvisation can provide a basic musical context for new sounds and, indeed, was the

first performance vehicle for these techniques used by EVTE, compositional demands offer the vocalist

new performance dimensions. As EVTE members became more proficient with these sounds,composers wrote works specifically for the ensemble. Musical examples taken largely from thesecompositions are cited and discussed in the paper and a tape recording of these examples accompaniesthe paper. By presenting practical instances of certain extended vocal techniques, the paper addressesinterested composers, singers and others, and illustrates and suggests some effective uses, limitations,and possibilities of these techniques.

Harmonics present in a sung tone can be individually reinforced or amplified and perceived asdiscrete pitches (sounding like whistles) as tongue and/or lip action changes the shape of the vocal tract.The sung fundamental is produced using Western art music phonation, usually without vibrato so that theharmonics nasalization, which tends to filter out the fundamental and focuses greater attention on theharmonics.

The examples discussed below demonstrate harmonics reinforced over either a single pitch or a

continuously changing fundamental. One or more harmonics may be individually reinforced over a singlepitch, both ad libitum and as a designated, specific harmonic. The vocalist's skill may even allow thecomposer to write a melody with the harmonics. A rapid movement through a series of harmonics willprobably shift the listener's attention to timbral changes rather than recognition of specific pitches. Ashimmering effect may result from rapid oscillation between two adjacent harmonics (see below).

Improvisation over a unison fundamental pitch represents one musical context for reinforced

harmonics. Early improvisations done by the Extended Vocal Techniques Ensemble duringrehearsal sessions were frequently structured in the following manner: A single pitch comfortable for both

men and women was chosen, usually F# (184 Hz)3 or G (196 Hz) below middle C (261 Hz), andsustained without break by staggered breathing. An approximate duration was set, perhaps 5-10 minutes,during which an emphasis first on the lower harmonics was to gradually progress to the inclusion of higher harmonic reinforcement within a specified dynamic structure of perhaps soft to loud. Taperecordings of a number of these early sessions are filed in the archive of the Center for Music Experiment



at the University of California, San Diego. The first notated composition written for EVTE, The Owl and the Pussycat by

Deborah Kavasch, includes an improvisatory section on a unison G (196 Hz) built on the last word of thetext, " moon." The score (Figure 1) indicates that only those harmonics in a fifth or octave relationship tothe fundamental are to be reinforced at first: others can be reinforced later. The instruction "Create adancing texture, active" is made possible by including several techniques in combination with or as avariation of the basic individual harmonic reinforcement. The "dancing" characteristics arise principallyfrom those techniques which rapidly change the pitches of the harmonics or which interrupt or alter thefundamental and harmonics . The term "glissandi" refers to ascending or descendingsweeps through a series of harmonics. An oscillation between harmonics, which is subsequentlyreferred to as " harmonic oscillation," results from a backward and forward movement of the tongue andis quite effective when produced rapidly between two harmonics. If the fundamental pitch is low, two highadjacent harmonics are easily oscillated: if the fundamental is high, two low adjacent harmonics respondwell. Oscillation of the fundamental, similar to vibrato, changes the pitch of the fundamental at regular or varying speeds, causing the reinforced harmonic to change pitch at the same rate. The rapid, repeatednote effect of ululation (see III. Ululation) rather evenly and quickly interrupts the fundamental, thesepulsations help emphasize the harmonics as well. When another voice adds a fundamental pitch oneoctave higher than the original fundamental, it generates a new but closely related series of harmonics

which increases the complexity of the texture'4 (Tape Example 1).

. Figure 1: Reinforced harmonics in The Owl and the Pussycat by Deborah Kavasch(Tape Example 1)

Another use of reinforced harmonics over a drone appears in Sweet Talk by Deborah



Kavasch. In one section the harmonics are specifically those which result from a slow glide through the

vowel sounds of the syllable "beau" (as in "beautiful" ), i.e. a slow glide between [ i ] and [ u ]5. Theduration and dynamics of each entrance are notated, showing specific breathing points (rests) anddefinite, perceivable entrances (Tape Example 2). Although a drone results from the continualoverlapping of entrances, the whole is not perceived as a smooth, unbroken fundamental as in theprevious example.

One further example involving harmonics reinforced over a single pitch drone illustrates a slightly

different usage involving different rates of change in harmonics generated from similar texts. In theopening section of Deborah Kavasch's Requiem. (Tape Example 3), the upper three taped voices singone syllable per measure (B 247 Hz); the upper three live voices sing the same text on the same pitch atone syllable per two measures. Harmonics appropriate to each vowel are reinforced without vibrato. Thisemphasis of a particular harmonic determined by the specified vowel aids in tuning the unison andprovides a type of countermelody to the drone, in this instance two countermelodies. Amplification withmicrophones for each vocalist aids in projecting the harmonics.

Nasalized, reinforced harmonics ad libitum on specific pitches provide a striking beginning to

Edwin London's Psalm. of These Days II (Tape Example 4). The intelligibility of the word "Lord" varies dueto the changing harmonics as well as its long duration (three measures). Although the initial unison D#(311 Hz) expands to a four-note chord spanning a minor seventh, the fundamental pitches together with

their harmonics of the " r" in "Lord" are still close enough to create a rather dense texture. Compare thiswith a later example of reinforced harmonics on the same word, in which the fundamental pitches arespread over approximately a two and one-half octave range (Tape Example 5).

Both nasalized and non-nasalized harmonics are reinforced over slowly gliding fundamental

pitches against a background of computer-generated tape sounds in Joji Yuasa's My Blue Sky inSouthern California (Tape Example 6). The fundamental pitch is chosen at random by the vocalist andgradually ascends or descends as indicated in the graphic score. Unusual effects are achieved by pitchchanges in both the fundamental and harmonics which may move at varying rates in similar or oppositedirections to each other. In order to be easily heard in this very loud and dense section, the vocalists tendto choose and nasalize the higher harmonics (towards UP, creating a rather buzzy, piercing quality in the

long pitch glides. In another section of the same composition, the oscillation between several pairs of low

harmonics of a rather high fundamental (approximately A 880 Hz) is heard against a sparse backgroundof very soft clicks and other similar short, nonpitched sounds (Tape Example 7). The higher thefundamental, the more difficult it becomes to reinforce its highest harmonics. In this instance, theoscillations occur between various combinations of the first three or four harmonics (including thefundamental), which may acocunt for the pulsating whistle effect during part of the example. Oscillationsbetween low harmonics (of a high or low fundamental) may also be more striking because of the greater intervallic distance between the pitches of the lower harmonics. For example, the oscillation between the(1) fundamental (or first harmonic) and second harmonic covers one octave; (2) second and thirdharmonics covers a fifth; (3) third and fourth harmonics covers a fourth; (4) fourth and fifth harmonicscovers a major third, and so on, the distance always smaller.

At one point in Deborah Kavasch's Tintinnabulation, harmonic oscillations occur simultaneously in

several voices. The fundamental pitches are each a half step apart (F 350 Hz, F# 370 Hz, and G 392 Hz)with the harmonic oscillations of each pitch determined by the same [ill] vowel alternation (Figure 2). Sucha close pitch combination results in an overall pulsating or shimmering effect rather than the perception of individual harmonics (Tape Example 8).



Figure 2: Harmonic oscillations in Tintinnabulation by Deborah Kavasch

A vocalist's increased skill and accuracy in reinforcing harmonics allows the corn-poser to specifymore particular uses. Simple melodies are possible, especially when using the lower three to three and

one-half octaves of harmonics (first seven to twelve harmonics). Novices can quickly learn to reinforcethe melody of the traditional bugle call, "Taps," which uses a one-octave span of harmonics, specifyingthe third, fourth, fifth, and sixth harmonics. The lower three octaves of harmonics are more favorable for writing melodies based on reinforced harmonics because it is easier to distinguish between the lower harmonics than between those which are less than the interval of a second or third apart. Generally, thelower the fundamental the more harmonics can be reinforced with clarity. If the fundamental is too low,however, the lowest harmonics become difficult or impossible to reinforce. Although this varieswi th the individual voice, a comfortable lower limit for a fundamental pitch within which the vocalist,male or female, can clearly reinforce the lowest harmonics can be set at approximately F 175 Hz (belowmiddle C). Fundamental pitches lower than this arbitrary point are increasingly more favorable for thediscriminatory reinforcement of higher harmonics, particularly those in the third and fourth octaves above

the fundamental. A melody formed by specified reinforced harmonics appears in the second

"Hosanna" of the Kavasch Requiem. (Tape Example 9). Against a taped background of four voices singing for the most part in octave F#'s (185 and 370 Hz; note that a strong C# 1108.5 Hz isgenerated by the [a] vowel), the vocalists form melodic phrases using certain of the lowest seven



harmonics of three F#'s (92.3, 185, and 370 Hz) and two C#s (138.5 and 277 Hz). The score showsregular noteheads (stems down) for the sung fundamentals and diamond-shaped noteheads (stems up)for the harmonics. For greater clarity and reliability, the melody of harmonics is always carried by at leasttwo voices; all voices are amplified with microphones. The use of voices on tape singing a slowly pacedtext to a very simple harmonic structure provides pitch stability and avoids interference with the audibilityof the harmonics produced by the live performers but helps to mask vowels resulting from reinforcing thespecified harmonics of the live portion (which do not form intelligible words). The harmonics form amelody quite similar to that which is sung in the first "Hosanna" and should, by association, be moreeasily recognized or perceived by the listener than a new melody would be.

Reinforced harmonics is one of the few techniques which does not always, or even most often,

require individual or general microphone amplification. Especially when reinforced over a drone, theharmonics are often perceived as non-directional, filling the entire space as though surrounding thelistener. The fundamental, however, is usually directional and perceived as originating in one particular spot. Amplification is recommended when the harmonics must be heard above a very loud or densetexture, or for better projection of specific melodic passages.

Ululation

The technique of ululation is perceived as a rapid, relatively even interruption of the basic sound.It is articulated by aspiration (puffs of air or "his") or glottal stops and can be applied to virtually any sound,voiced or unvoiced. Children often ululate a loud, nasal sound to imitate the firing of machine guns or thebleating of sheep.

Several forms of ululation are discussed below: (1) ululation of a single pitch or series of pitches;

(2) nonpitched ululation, or an ululated whisper; (3) ululated glottal clicks, referred to as "glottal whisper;"and (4) cross-register ululations, i.e., a very rapid alternation of two pitches produced by a rather loudululation in the area of a natural register break.

The opening section of The Owl and the Pussycat, preceding the narrator's first entrance, builds

a gradually thickening texture of soft ululations. The score (Figure 3) indicates the progression of time in minutes and seconds and shows a graphic outline of approximate pitch levels anddirections. Each box represents from top to bottom the high to low pitch range of the individualvocalis t. The taped example (Tape Example 10) demonstrates the effect of several voices softlyululating an aspirated [u] in relatively low pitch ranges. The next example (Tape Example 11) includesululation of some of the vowels and consonants of the word "pus sycat." Appropriate vowels andconsonants are deliberately aligned with similar ones in the narrator's text. Ululations can be usednot only with short or long passages of a single vowel or to extend and color individual words but toarticulate melodic phrases as well. The vocalists ululate several short melodic fragments set to thewords, "0 lovely Pussy," "0 Pussy, my love," and " What a lovely Pussy you are." This 90-second section gradually expands in total pitch range and density, and ends wi th a sudden shift fromsoft to loud ululations. The taped example (Tape Example 12) is excerpted from the first part of

the section.



Figure 3: Ululations in The Owl and the Pussycat (Tape Example 10)

Ululation of an unvoiced whisper is used in the "Lacrymosa dies illa" section of Requiem. In this

section the unvoiced sounds are divided into four categories: (1) a straight or uninterruptedwhisper; (2) measured (sixteenth-note) pulsations or aspirations of a whisper; (3) ululations of a whisper,which are faster than the pulsations and result in an almost shivering sound; and (4) measured or unmeasured "glottal whisper," a term which refers to a rapid series and/or ululation of glottal clicks. Theululated whispers attempt to support the imagery suggested by the text (" A day of tears is that day" )(Tape Example 13).

The latter part of Example 13 includes a soft ululation of two alternating pitches. This sound may

be related to the production of a glottal whisper to whic h voice is added. Although it can beproduced throughout most of the egressive singing range, it is usually referred to as a cross-register ululation. This type of ululation usually settles into the interval of a third and is most easily produced on thevowels [i] and [u]. Because it is not as reliable as the simple ululation or the louder cross-register ululation,it should be allowed a certain amount of preparation time. It is least tiring in the lower female range(approximately middle C to C 526 Hz). (As is true of certain variations of the EVTE'stechniques, the soft cross-register ululation has been perfected by only one member of the ensemble andis probably less likely to be produced by a majority of vocalists.)

A more extended use of the s oft c ross-register ululation appears in Roger Reynold's A

Merciful Coincidence. In Tape Example 14, the ululations cover a wide pitch range and appear asbackground material near the end of the piece. The designation "soft" in the term "soft cross-register ululation" refers more to the physical sensation of the vocalist in producing the pulsation, or interruption of the sound, than to the actual dynamic level. In this example the higher ululations become much louder butare still softer than a regular cross-register ululation at a comparable pitch level.

The term "cross-register ululation" refers to an ululation produced in the area of a natural register

break6. It results in a rapid alternation of two pitches, which creates the illusion of two pitches ululatedsimultaneously. The intervallic distance between the two pitches varies with the individual vocalist but

usually falls into one of two categories. The first category emphasizes narrow intervals, i.e., approximatelya minor second to a fifth. The intervallic distance can be controlled so that either one specified interval or a continuous glissando from narrowest to widest interval (or vice versa) can be produced. Theglissando appears to be m ost eas ily produced by the upper pitch, which moves towards or away from the stationary lower pitch.' This glissando of one of the pitches is best controlled in the register break around middle C. The second category emphasizes wide intervals, i.e., approximately a sixth to an



octave or ninth. There does not seem to be the same degree of intervallic control possible in the wider cross-register ululation, which generally locks into one interval. This type usually occurs in either the maleor female voice around the middle C register break area. Either type of cross-register ululation may occur in male or female voices but both types do not generally occur in one voice.

Cross-register ululation, as described above, requires more energy than simple ululation and isnecessarily rather loud. It sounds particularly loud in the male voice since the first register break at whichit can be produced includes pitches fairly high in the male chest voice range. For the same reason, cross-register ululations in the female voice around the second register break area are usually extremely loud.Ululations crossing into the whistle stop area, however, are often much softer. Those cross-register ululations which occur higher in the voice are usually more tiring than the lower ones and should be usedwith consideration.

Both s imple and c ross-register ululations enhance the text of the " quantus tremor..."

("how great a quaking..." ) section of Requiem. A total of eight voices produces the effect of many more,an effect due both to the pulsations and to the extra number of pitches generated by crossing registers,i.e., alternating two pitches (Tape Example 15). A later example (Tape Example 16, Figure 4) combinesseveral other techniques with cross-register ululations which are indicated by a general pitch level andwhich end in a quick upward glissando.



Figure 4: Cross-register ululations combined with other extended vocal techniques in Requiem by Deborah

Kavasch (Tape Example 16)

Ululations form a major portion of Tintinnabulation. The last section emphasizes high cross-register ululations alone and in combination with high, wide vibrati and trills on glockenspiel bars (TapeExample 17).



Tape Example 14 (from Reynold's A Merciful Coincidence), cited previously to illustrate soft

cross-register ululations, also provides an example of a loud cross-register ululation. Although thevocalis t is probably not crossing regis ters at all t imes during the ascent, the overlap of registersseems to be greatly expanded with an overall effect of a continuous glissando of alternating pitches.

Vocal Fry

Vocal fry is perceived as dry, clicklike pulses and is often used to imitate the opening of a creakydoor (hence, another common designation as " creaky voice"). The pulse rate of vocal fry can becontrolled to produce a range from very slow individual clicks to a stream of clicks so fast that it is heardas a discrete pitch. It can be produced both egressively (exhaling) and ingressively (inhaling). Theindividual vocalist may find one mode easier to control than the other in terms of such parameters aspulse rate, dynamics, and pitch. The term "pitch," as used here in relation to vocal fry, refers to the rangeof perceived pitches rather than to any implication regarding the mode of phonation. Egressive andingressive vocal fry can greatly expand the practical pitch range (singing and - speaking) of the individualvocalist, male or female.

Egressive vocal fry can be controlled to merge with and extend downwards the lowest part of theegressive singing range. It allows the same degree of pulse rate control as ingressive vocal fry but doesnot appear to produce individual pitches or pulses as loudly. Microphone amplification is usuallynecessary to project both modes of vocal fry. An attempt to produce ingressive vocal fry very loudly canresult in dryness in the throat or coughing.

Ingressive vocal fry can produce very stable pitches, i.e., pitches which can be sustained with

little or no wavering, in the area of E 41 Hz to C# 69 Hz in both male and female voices. Words are easilyarticulated in this range, as well as in higher ranges, although many of the consonants must be performedegressively for greater clarity or to avoid a lisping effect. As ingressive pitched vocal fry rises in pitchrange, it gradually resembles egressive singing, especially above the area of middle C, where it seems to

lose any resemblance to the click-like quality of the lower pitches or individual pulses. This area can becontrolled in terms of pitch, duration, vibrato, and dynamics (although not as reliably as a comparableegressive range) and is particularly useful in producing very soft, high pitches (area above B 967 Hz).Ingressive phonation in the range above middle C has greater practical value in producing more unusualsounds such as complex multiphonics (see VI. Complex Multiphonics). Pitched ingressive vocal fry in thearea between approximately D 73 Hz and middle C seems to be the least practical for individual pitchcontrol or other more specific uses, although speech in this range may acquire an unusual timbre.

Ingressive vocal fry (or low ingressive speech) is the mode of voice production used by the

narrator in The Owl and the Pussycat. Tape Example 11 (see III. Ululation) demonstrates the resultantvoice quality and illustrates the possibility of wide speech inflections. Later in the piece, all the vocalistsare required to speak a short phrase ingressively, the group as a whole covering a wide pitch range from

low to high (Tape Example 18). Specific low pitches are produced by ingressive vocal fry in long passages of the "Dies irae"

("Day of wrath" ) section of Requiem. The buzzy quality of the ingressive pitch B 61 Hz, combined withthe characteristics of the other techniques, seemed to the composer particularly appropriate to themood suggested by the text (Tape Example 19). The ingressive pitched vocal fry which doubles thelower note of the octave chanted (see V. Chant) by another vocalist is more reliable than the chant andinsures that the low B will always be present.

One instance of ingressive vocal fry in John Celona's Micro-Macro demonstrates an unusually

accurate imitation of the taped computer-generated sweep of harmonics on the pitch Db 69 Hz. In

accordance with the instructions to blend with and imitate the tape, the vocalist sustains the same Dband reinforces harmonics in a wide ascending and descending sweep (Tape Example 20), creating atimbre very similar to the taped pitch. A short excerpt from the "Libera animas" (" Deliver the souls" )section of Requiem requires fast pitch and text changes of low ingressive pitched vocal fry in the lowestvoice to create an organ pedal effect (Tape Example 21).



Loud, nonpitched vocal fry begins the "Rex tremendae majestatis" ("King of fearful majesty" )

section of Requiem (Tape Example 22). The unison rhythm of the taped voices is answered in unison bythe live voices, both at a fortissimo level made possible through close-miked amplification. Immediatelypreceding this section, a very different effect is created through a single voice producing a softer, slower vocal fry against a background of sparse whispers (Tape Example 23).

Very slow, individually pulsed nonpitched vocal fry forms the basis for text articulation in Roger

Reynolds' Still (Tape Example 24). Syllables and words are formed and gradually perceived over long, fairly even pulse s tream s. The eerienes s of inflec ted but unvoiced, pulsating words isoften increased by overlaid whispers and by the air sounds between pulses of the vocalist's slowlyindrawn breath. A slightly different example of nonpitched, individually pulsed vocal fry from the middle of David Evan Jones' Pastoral (Tape Example 25) demonstrates an interplay of varying pulse speedsbetween live and taped voices.

Chant

The term " chant" refers to one technique of singing an octave multiphonic, i.e., one voiceproducing simultaneously two pitches one octave apart. Low-pitched chant (the lower pitch in the area of B 61 Hz to D 73 Hz) resembles chant used in certain Tibetan Tantric Bhuddist schools. This Tibetan

chant sounds like a three-note chord because of a strong reinforced harmonic above the octavemultiphonic. When chant is produced with higher pitches, the harmonic content is less noticeable andthe sound is thinner and buzzier. The vocalist's physical sensation of chant may be described as a lightsinging tone combined with vocal fry. The sung tone is the upper pitch of the octave, and the vocalfryseems to lock into place with it to produce the lower pitch. This rather delicate process renders thechant less reliable than other techniques; the least amount of phlegm may necessitate considerableclearing of the throat to produce a clear, unbroken, resonant sound. In some instances, a loud sung tonepreceding a chanted octave seems to prepare the vocalist in the same way that clearing the throatwould remove a mucus obstruction. One example of this occurs at the end of Psalm of These Days II (Tape Example 26). The vocalist generally has little or no trouble chanting a C (130 plus 65 Hz) after several seconds' rest following a quadruple forte Bb 233 Hz. In this example the original notation showed

only a low C (65 Hz). The. vocalist could not produce this note in his normal singing rangeand chose chant as the technique which would produce a C 65 Hz that would blend best with the other pitches. Chant is used effectively by both men and women to produce pitches lower than those in thenormal singing range.

Chant seems to require an extremely steady airflow to maintain a smooth,

unwavering tone. It is best produced with straight tone. The addition of vibrato, which alters pitch and/or intensity, or ululations, which regularly interrupt the airflow, might upset the delicate balance of whatever vocal adjustment produces the chant. Fast pitch changes are less dependable than long or repeatednotes and may result in the loss of the lower chanted pitch.

One or more of the following suggestions may insure a reliable chant production at a specific

point in a composition. The chant may be: (1) prerecorded on tape; (2) performed by several vocalistssimultaneously; or (3) used in combination with other techniques which would double the pitches of thechant. The lower chanted pitch is usually the first to disappear, leaving a weak or unsteady upper pitch.

The opening of Requiem uses chant to highlight certain portions of the text. A solo voice on

prerecorded tape provides a reliable basis for the live soloist to double selected words withchant. Refer to Tape Example 3, in which the soloist chants with the tape on the words "Domine" and"Deus in Sion," as well as the entire last sentence (Tape Example 27).

The "Dies irae" section of Requiem begins with chant and pitched ingressive vocal fry combined

on tape (refer to Tape Example 19). The texture gradually thickens with additional taped voices chanting

on higher pitches (each F# and B up to B 493 Hz). Some chanted pitches are doubled with egressivesinging or ingressive pitched vocal fry; the live voices use either chant or vocal fry on the lowest pitches.Tape Example 28 provides a short excerpt from the most dense part of the section.

Nonpitched chant combined with vocal fry and glottal whispers produces a quite different total



sound. These techniques are combined in both live and taped voices in Requiem (Tape Example29), using the words "dona eis requiem. Amen" at the end of the " lacrymosa" section.

Low chant, even when soft, is generally quite resonant and full. This may explain in

part why it can effectively produce a settled feeling or a cadential sense of resting point or arrival.Isolated examples of this cadential quality appear at the end of Psalm of These Days II on the lastsyllable of " forever" (refer to Tape Example 26) and on the word "sleep" in Pastoral (Tape Example 30).A more extended use of chant to produce the sense of a strong final cadence appears in the continualoverlapping of live and taped voices chanting a low B (123 plus 61 Hz) in the last section of Requiem(Tape Example 31).

Two instances of chant in Psalm of These Days II illustrate a sudden shift in several

parameters when chant immediately follows normal sung tones without vibrato. In both examples (TapeExample 32, 33) pitches become much lower and dynamics much softer, and there is an obvioustimbral shift to a thinner, buzzier quality. Even though three of the four voices in the first example droponly one pitch, the addition of the lower octave suggests a large intervallic leap. The pitch shift in thesecond example is much more extreme, the distance in each voice covering two to three octaves. Inboth instances, the sudden dynamic reduction is a function of the chant technique, especially since onlygeneral rather than individual microphone amplification is used.

Chant functions as an ornament to the word "my" in Psalm of These Days 11 (TapeExample 34). In this instance, the instructions for two of the four voices indicate "multi-phonic chant onand off." Each voice sustains one pitch with several similar ornamental figures of rapid pitch changesresembling a trill, the chant adding a lower octave at random. Complex Multiphonics

The term "complex multiphonics" rather loosely designates a cluster of sounds producedegressively or ingress ively by one voice. The clus ter may be perc eived as a number of non-intervallically related pitches resembling noise or as a complex mixture of vocal fry with other sounds or pitches. The total mixture can cover a narrow or wide band of sound at various

general pitch levels (low, medium, high) as well as on and around specific, perceivable pitches.Complex multiphonics vary greatly among individual vocalists but are fairly consistent for each individual.Those which are most reliable for the individual vocalist can generally be reproduced with a similar degree of complexity at approximately the same pitch levels.

The major difference between complex egressive and ingressive multiphonics lies in the amount

of air used to produce them. The egressive version, referred to as " forced blown" by EVTE, requires alarge amount of air, is usually fairly loud, and can be sustained for a short time only. Although it ispossible to produce complex ingressive multi-phonics with a large amount of air, this yields a gaspingsound and may lead to coughing or choking. However, if a very small amount of air is gradually drawn in,very complex multiphonics can be sustained for a much longer time (one long breath). The physicalsensation is similar to ingressive vocal fry. Both types of multiphonics are best amplified with

microphones to avoid undue strain on the vocalist in an attempt to make them louder. Bothingressive and egressive multiphonics tend to tire the voice more quickly than other techniques andshould be used carefully.

A short burst of multiphonics supports the climax of a middle section of Requiem at the words "

confutatis maledictis, flammis accribus addictis" (when sentence is passed on the damned and all aresent to piercing flames" ). The upper two of four taped voices hold a long, high ingressive multiphonicwhile the lower two have several repeated lower egressive bursts (refer to Tape Example 16). Thecombination of these multiphonics with high whistles, vocal fry, and cross-register ululations creates acomplex texture covering a wide, approximate pitch range. In a much longer section in Still (TapeExample 35), the illusion of a light wind gradually developing to hurricane proportions is achieved through

various combinations of whistles, high ingressive pitches, and complex multiphonics. Since c omplex multiphonics do not always "speak" immediately, it is wis e to allow

for some preparation. Several possible types of preparation may include: (1) using other loud or complexsounds to cover the entrance of the multiphonic; (2) instructing the vocalist with the most reliable



multiphonic to enter first if several voices are to produce multiphonics; (3) preceding the multiphonic witha sound from which it is relatively easy to build the multiphonic. One example of the last suggestionoccurs in Requiem in the "Rex tremendae majestatis" section (Tape Example 36). In both taped and liveparts, vocal fry is followed by high, complex multiphonics. The physical sensation inproduc ing both techniques is somewhat similar, and one seems to follow the other quite easily. Thelong sus tained multiphonic on "salva me" near the end of the example is prepared by theshorter preceding multiphonics in the same voice and its entrance is covered by multiphonics in other voices.

A more extended example (Tape Example 37) of complex multiphonics set to a text occurstowards the end of A Merc iful Coincidence. The overlapping of most of the entrances helpsmask any awkward beginning and allows each multiphonic to grow out of the preceding one.

Complex multiphonics can also effectively contrast with, or punctuate, single pitches. In one

section of A Merciful Coincidence, the three vocalists, in various overlapping combinations, articulate thetext over a sustained, non-vibrated, rather piercing C (523 Hz). Specified consonants are "barked,"resulting in a multiphonic which briefly interrupts the sustained tone (Tape Example 38). A similar example occurs later in the piece (Tape Example 39). The text is articulated on a single pitch E, 659 Hz.Each word is short, loud, and further resonated by a piano sound board which exaggerates the contrastbetween the straight tones and multiphonics.

Conclusion

The musical examples and explanations of selected extended vocal techniques included in thispaper are intended to give composers and singers some idea of the practical uses and limitations of anumber of very different sounds which previously have seldom been used in vocal writing inWestern art music. Although the techniques descussed belong specifically to the soundvocabulary of the Extended Vocal Techniques Ensemble of San Diego, California, they are not limited tothis group of vocalists. The EVTE has given a number of workshops in the United States and Europeand has discovered that most of the techniques are quickly, if less skillfully, reproduced by personshearing them for the first time. The most readily accessible of the five technique discussed in this paper

are reinforced harmonics, ululations (single pitch), and vocal fry. Complex multiphonics and chantgenerally take much longer to learn to control, although the basic mechanism involved maybe imitated or understood from the first attempt. Singers and others who try to reproduce thesetechniques without supervision, especially those techniques which involve loud and/or complex sounds,are urged to exercise care. One may involve unnecessary muscles which could cause tension or strainwhen first experimenting with the sounds and continuous attempts may overtire the voice. Sensiblepacing of the voice is necessary with both "normal" singing and extended vocal techniques. They arequite compatible and extended techniques can be even more effective in the context of the normal sungtone than if totally isolated.

Microphone amplification is a necessary component of extended vocal techniques performance.

Individual amplification (a microphone for each vocalist) is preferable and usually essential. Certain

techniques require delicately balanced vocal production or are inherently quite soft. These soundscannot, be projected without strain and often lose their essential characteristics if pushed. The vocalist

must develop skill in moving close to or away from the microphone for appropriate techniques anddynamic specifications. Close-miking requires proper care to avoid " popping" or " blowing" themicrophone, amplifying extraneous air sounds (including air escaping through the nose), or explodingconsonants (especially egressive c onsonants with ingressive vowels). Composers shouldremember that close-miking requires recurring head motion to breath off-microphone. Theatricalgestures or deliberate lack of motion should be planned accordingly.

The use of prerecorded tape offers several possibilities, for example, taped nonvocal sounds

can provide a musical context for live vocal sounds. Due to the rich variety of sounds available through

extended vocal techniques such as those discussed in this paper, the composer may wish to work withvocal sounds only. Techniques which are less reliable in realtime performance can be put on tape withthe assurance that they will appear at the appropriate moment in the composition. Prerecorded tape canprovide the opportunity for more voice parts to occur simultaneously than are available with the number of live performers (this is especially useful when the number of available vocalists who have perfected



certain techniques is limited). Complex mixtures of sounds are possible on tape whereas they may beimpossible with live performers.

Notation of these techniques has not been standardized. In many instances, verbal instructionsadded to a graphic or traditionally notated score are quite adequate. Certain stringed instrument notationmight be adapted for similar vocal techniques: specific vocal harmonics may be indicated by diamond-shaped noteheads; ululations may be indicated by the notation for tremolo. When long melodicpassages are produced with reinforced harmonics, separate staves for the fundamental pitches andharmonics might be useful. The composer must decide what form of notation is most accurate andmeaningful to the performer.

The extended vocal techniques chosen for discussion in this paper represent only a portion of

EVTE's sound vocabulary, which in turn represents only part of an undefined limit of .vocal sounds.Through the work of vocalists such as the members of the EVTE, a colorful and extensive vocabulary of reliably and consistently reproducible sounds is made available to other vocalists and composersinterested in expanding traditional vocal boundaries.

List of References

Celona, John Anthony. 1975. Micro-Macro (computer generated tape and voices. Unpublished.Jones, David Evan. 1977. Pastoral (voice and prerecorded tape). Unpublished.Kavasch, Deborah. 1980. The Owl and the Pussycat (seven voices), Editions Reimers, Stockholm.

1976. Tintinnabulation (three voices and glockenspiel). Unpublished.1977. Sweet Talk (women's chorus). Unpublished.1978. Requiem (four voices and prerecorded tape). Unpublished.

London, Edwin. 1977. Psalm of These Days II (four voices). Unpublished.Reynolds, Roger. 1976. Voicespace: I. Still II. A Merciful Coincidence (taped voices), C. F. Peters

Corp., New York, NY..Yuasa, Joji. 1976. My Blue Sky in Southern California (computer-generated tape and voices).

Unpublished. List of Taped Examples 1. Reinforced harmonics in The Owl and the Pussycat by Deborah Kavasch

2. Reinforced harmonics in Sweet Talk by Deborah Kavasch

3. Reinforced harmonics from simultaneous, different texts in Requiem by Deborah

Kavasch

4. Reinforced harmonics in Psalm of These Days II 7 by Edwin London

5. Reinforced harmonics in Psalm of These Days II

6. Reinforced harmonics over gliding fundamentals in My Blue Sky in Southern

California8 by Joji Yuasa

7. High harmonic oscillation in My Blue Sky in Southern California8. Harmonic oscillations in Tintinnabulation by Deborah Kavasch

9. Melody produced by reinforced harmonics in Requiem

10. Ululations in The Owl and the Pussycat

11. Ululations (vowels and consonants of" pussycat") in The Owl and the Pussycat

12. Ululation of melodic fragments in The Owl and the Pussycat

13. Unvoiced ululations in Requiem

14. Soft cross-register ululations in A Merciful Coincidence9 by Roger

Reynolds15. Simple and cross-register ululations in Requiem

16. Cross-register ululations combined with other extended vocal techniques in Requiem17. High cross-register ululations in Tintinnabulation

18. Ingressive vocal fry as speech in The Owl and the Pussycat

19. Low. pitched ingressive vocal fry in Requiem

20. Ingressive vocal fry with reinforced harmonics in Micro-Macro10 by John Celona



21. Fast pitch and text changes of low ingressive vocal fry in Requiem

22. Nonpitched vocal fry in Requiem

23. Slow. nonpitched vocal fry in Requiem

24. Slow, nonpitched vocal fry in Still 11by Roger Reynolds

25. Interplay of vocal fry in Pastoral 12 by David Evan Jones

26. Chant in Psalm of These Days II

27. Chant used for text emphasis in Requiem

28. Chant in simultaneous voices over a wide pitch range in Requiem

29. Nonpitched chant in Requiem

30. Chant in Pastoral

31. Chant in cadential context in Requiem

•32. Chant in Psalm of These Days II 33. Chant in Psalm of These Days II

34. Chant as ornament in Psalm of These Days II

35. Complex multiphonics in Still

36. High. complex multiphonics in Requiem

37. Complex multiphonics in A Merciful Coincidence



1 This paper was previously published as Vol. 1, No. 2 of the Reports from the Center which was

released in No‑vemb5r 1980, by the Center for Music Experiment at the University of California, San

Diego. 2 The Lexicon and Index are available upon request through the Center for Music Experiment, Universityof California, San Diego, La Jolla, Ca. 92093.3

All values expressed in Hz (cycles per second) are approximate.4 The word "texture" in this paper refers to the combined effect of all parameters in a musicalcomposition.5 Bracketed symbols refer to IPA (International Phonetic Alphabet).6 For the purposes of this discussion, vocal registers are designated as follows. Male voice:(1) chest, up to middle C•area: (2) falsetto, up to high C (1046.5 Hz) area: (3) whistle stop,above high C area. Female voice: (1) chest, up to middle C area; (2) middle, up to E 330 Hzarea: (3) head, up to E 660 Hz area: (4) whistle stop, above high C area. These are arbitrarylimits which may overlap considerably in individual cases.7 All taped examples from Psalms of These Days II are ©1981 by Henmar Press Inc.Reproduction by permission of C. F. Peters Corpori.

8 All taped examples from My Blue Sky In Southern California are used by permission of the composer.9 All taped examples from A Merciful Coincidence are used by permission of the composer.10 This taped example from Micro•Macro is used by permission of the composer.11 All taped examples from Still are used by permission of the composer.12 All taped examples from Pastoral are used by permission of the composer.

an introduction to extended vocal techniques_ some compositional aspects and performance problemsl

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