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University of Bath PHD An evaluation of the technique of photothermal radiometry for the non-destructive testing and characterisation of plasma-sprayed coatings Patel, Pravinkumar M. Award date: 1988 Awarding institution: University of Bath Link to publication General rights Copyright and moral rights for the publications made accessible in the public portal are retained by the authors and/or other copyright owners and it is a condition of accessing publications that users recognise and abide by the legal requirements associated with these rights. • Users may download and print one copy of any publication from the public portal for the purpose of private study or research. • You may not further distribute the material or use it for any profit-making activity or commercial gain • You may freely distribute the URL identifying the publication in the public portal ? Take down policy If you believe that this document breaches copyright please contact us providing details, and we will remove access to the work immediately and investigate your claim. Download date: 29. Jun. 2020

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Page 1: An evaluation of the technique of photothermal radiometry ... · An evaluation of the technique of photothermal radiometry for the non-destructive testing and characterisation of

University of Bath

PHD

An evaluation of the technique of photothermal radiometry for the non-destructivetesting and characterisation of plasma-sprayed coatings

Patel, Pravinkumar M.

Award date:1988

Awarding institution:University of Bath

Link to publication

General rightsCopyright and moral rights for the publications made accessible in the public portal are retained by the authors and/or other copyright ownersand it is a condition of accessing publications that users recognise and abide by the legal requirements associated with these rights.

• Users may download and print one copy of any publication from the public portal for the purpose of private study or research. • You may not further distribute the material or use it for any profit-making activity or commercial gain • You may freely distribute the URL identifying the publication in the public portal ?

Take down policyIf you believe that this document breaches copyright please contact us providing details, and we will remove access to the work immediatelyand investigate your claim.

Download date: 29. Jun. 2020

Page 2: An evaluation of the technique of photothermal radiometry ... · An evaluation of the technique of photothermal radiometry for the non-destructive testing and characterisation of

TITLE

An E v a l u a t i o n o f t h e T e c h n i q u e o f P h o t o t h e r m a 1

Rad i o m e t r y f o r t h e N o n - d e s t r a c t i v e T e s t i nq and

C h a r a c t e r i s a t i o n o f P 1a s m a - s p r a y e d C o a t i n g s .

S u b m i t t e d b y

P r a v i n k u m a r M. P a t e l BSc , M S c .

f o r t h e d e g r e e o f D o c t o r o f P h i l o s o p h y

o f t h e U n i v e r s i t y o f B a t h

S e p t e m b e r 1 9 8 8

A t t e n t i o n i s d r a w n t o t h e f a c t t h a t t h e c o p y r i g h t o f

t h e s i s h a s b e e n s u p p l i e d o n t h e c o n d i t i o n t h a t a n y o n e

who c o n s u l t s i t i s u n d e r s t o o d t o r e c o g n i s e t h a t t h e

c o p y r i g h t r e s t s w i t h i t s a u t h o r an d t h a t no q u o t a t i o n

f r o m t h e t h e s i s a n d no i n f o r m a t i o n d e r i v e d f r o m i t may

b e p u b l i s h e d w i t h o u t t h e p r i o r c o n s e n t o f t h e a u t h o r .

T h i s t h e s i s may b e made a v a i l a b l e f o r c o n s u l t a t i o n

w i t h i n t h e U n i v e r s i t y L i b r a r y a n d may b e p h o t o c o p i e d o r

l e n t t o o t h e r l i b r a r i e s f o r t h e p u r p o s e o f

c o n s u l t a t i o n .

COPYRIGHT

t h i s t h e s i s r e s t s w i t h t h e a u t h o r . T h i s c o p y o f t h e

S i g n e d

P r a v i n M P a t e l

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UMI Number: U601407

All rights reserved

INFORMATION TO ALL USERS The quality of this reproduction is dependent upon the quality of the copy submitted.

In the unlikely event that the author did not send a complete manuscript and there are missing pages, these will be noted. Also, if material had to be removed,

a note will indicate the deletion.

Dissertation Publishing

UMI U601407Published by ProQuest LLC 2013. Copyright in the Dissertation held by the Author.

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Page 4: An evaluation of the technique of photothermal radiometry ... · An evaluation of the technique of photothermal radiometry for the non-destructive testing and characterisation of

J a y n a , A n i 1 a n d M e t h o o n .

Page 5: An evaluation of the technique of photothermal radiometry ... · An evaluation of the technique of photothermal radiometry for the non-destructive testing and characterisation of

7.5 2 4 APR 1989

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ABSTRACT

A r e v i e w o f f i v e p h o t o t h e r m a l r a d i o m e t r i c t e c h n i q u e s

b a s e d o n t h e a m p l i t u d e o r s p a t i a l m o d u l a t i o n o f an

i n c i d e n t e n e r g y s o u r c e f o r m a t e r i a l s t e s t i n g i s

p r e s e n t e d . M e a s u r e m e n t s a r e r e p o r t e d d e m o n s t r a t i n g t h e

p o t e n t i a l c a p a b i l i t y o f t h e p e r i o d i c h e a t i n g m e t h o d f o r

n o n c o n t a c t t h i c k n e s s g a u g i n g , s u b s u r f a c e d e f e c t

d e t e c t i o n a n d c h a r a c t e r i s a t i o n . E f f e c t s o f c o a t i n g

s t r u c t u r e s u c h a s s u r f a c e r o u g h n e s s a n d p o r o s i t y on t h e

r e c o r d e d p h o t o t h e r m a l s i g n a l a r e a l s o a s s e s s e d

e x p e r i m e n t a l l y an d t h e o r e t i c a l l y .

Two t e s t s y s t e m s w e r e e v a l u a t e d u s i n g l a s e r

i l l u m i n a t i o n f o r s a m p l e h e a t i n g . One u s i n g a 5 w a t t

a r g o n i o n l a s e r a n d t h e o t h e r , a 0 . 5 w a t t G a A l A s l a s e r

d i o d e w i t h i t s e m i s s i o n c o u p l e d t o a 2 5 0 Fm d i a m e t e r

o p t i c a l f i b r e . I n t h e l a t t e r s y s t e m a n e l l i p s o i d a l

m i r r o r c o l l e c t o r was u s e d t o e n h a n c e t h e i n f r a r e d

d e t e c t i o n e f f i c i e n c y . I n t h e e v a l u a t i o n o f t h e s e

s y s t e m s a s t u d y was u n d e r t a k e n t o d e t e r m i n e t h e

m a g n i t u d e o f p h a s e a n g l e e r r o r w i t h t h e d e t e c t i o n o f

c o h e r r e n t i n f r a r e d n o i s e s i g n a l s , i n c i d e n t l a s e r p o w e r

and s p o t s i z e , s a m p l e o r d e t e c t o r m i s a 1 i g n m e n t , and

i n t r i n s i c p h a s e n o i s e o f t h e m e a s u r e m e n t s y s t e m .

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ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

I w i s h t o t h a n k t h e t e c h n i c a l s u p p o r t s t a f f o f t h e

S c h o o l o f t h e M a t e r i a l s s c i e n c e ; i n p a r t i c u l a r P e t e r

T a y l o r and I a n T u r n e r f o r t h e c o n s t r u c t i o n o f v a r i o u s

m o u n t s f o r h o l d i n g o p t i c a l c o m p o n e n t s i t e s t s p e c i m e n s

and l i g h t t i g h t e n c l o s u r e . To D r . S . G o rm an f o r

d e s i g n i n g and m a i n t a i n i n g v a r i o u s e l e c t r i c a l ' b l a c k

b o x e s ’ r e q u i r e d f o r t h i s r e s e a r c h p r o g r a m a nd B r a i n

G o s l i n g f o r h i s a s s i s t a n c e a n d a d v i c e i n o p t i c a l

m i c r o g r a p h y .

I a l s o w i s h e x p r e s s my d e e p e s t g r a t i t u d e t o D r s

D a r r y l P . A lm o n d a n d H a r r y R e i t e r f o r t h e i r e n c o u r a g i n g

d i s c u s s i o n s t h r o u g h o u t t h e r e s e a r c h p r o g r a m .

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CONTENTS

Page

T i t l e i

Abst rac t i i

Acknowledgements i i i

Contents iv

L i s t of Tab le v i i

L i s t o f symbols v i i i

Chapter 1 Photothermal I n f r a r e d Techniques

1.1 I n t r o d u c t i o n 1

Plasma Spray Coat ings and t h e i r Q u a l i t y C o n t ro l

1 .2 Review o f Photothermal NDE Techniques 3

1 . 2 . 1 Photothermal Radiometry and Thermography 5

1 .3 D e s c r ip t io n o f PTR Techniques 6

1 . 3 . 1 P e r i o d i c Photothermal Hea t ing 7

S igna l Process ing and I n t e r p r e t a t i o n 8

1 . 3 . 2 Pulsed Photothermal Heat ing 11

P o in t Hea t in g w it h P o in t I n f r a r e d D e t e c t io n 11

L in e Heat ing w i th L in e I n f r a r e d D e t e c t i o n 11

Area Heat ing and In f r a r e d Camera D e t e c t i o n 12

1 . 3 . 3 Step Photothermal Heat ing 13

1 . 3 . 4 C oord in ate Modulat ion Photothermal Heat ing 14

1 . 3 . 5 Scanning Photothermal Heat ing 14

1 .4 Summary o f PTR NDE Methods 15

1 .4 .1 S e l e c t io n o f PTR Technique 16

Tables and F ig u re s f o r chapter 1 17

Chapter 2 Photothermal Radiom etr ic D e t e c t i o n Theory

2 .1 I n t r o d u c t i o n 31

2 . 1 . 1 Thermal Emission C h a r a c t e r i s t i c s 32

2 . 1 . 2 Thermal Waves 34

2 . 2 One Dimensional Surface Temperature Express ions 36

2 . 3 Three Dimensional Sur face Temperature Expressions 38

iv

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2 . 4 A p p l i c a t i o n to Thermal Spray Coat ings 40

2 . 4 . 1 Coat ing on a S ubst ra te 40

2 . 4 . 2 Coat ing P o r o s i t y E f f e c t s 42

2 . 4 . 3 Sur face Roughness 43

2 . 4 . 4 C o a t in g / S u b st ra te I n t e r f a c e D e fec ts 45

2 . 4 . 5 D e fec t D e te c t io n S e n s i t i v i t y 46

2 . 4 . 6 Thermal Contact Res is tance 48

2 . 5 R e s o lu t io n and D e f i n i t i o n o f Subsurface S t r u c t u r e 51

2 . 6 Summary 53

Tables and F ig ures f o r Chapter 2

Chapter 3 Exper imen tal D e s c r i p t i o n

3 .1 Photothermal System 79

3 . 2 D e te c to r S e l e c t io n 80

3 . 3 Semi -conductor Laser 81

3 . 4 Laser S a f e t y 82

3 . 5 Sample and Measurement D e t a i l s 83

Tab les and F ig ures f o r Chapter 3

Chapter 4 Exper imen tal R es u l ts

4 .1 System E v a l u a t i o n 93

4 . 1 . 1 Removal o f Unwanted I n f r a r e d S ig n a l Sources 93

I n f r a r e d Emission from the Laser 93

R e f l e c t e d Laser L ig h t 94

4 . 1 . 2 Laser Power Level 95

E l l i p s o i d a l C o l l e c t o r 97

4 . 1 . 3 Sample and D etector R o ta t io n 99

4 . 1 . 4 D iscuss ion 99

4 . 2 Sur face Roughness 101

4 . 2 . 1 LC1B F in e and Rough co at in g s 102

4 . 2 . 2 G ra p h i te Samples 102

4 . 2 . 3 D iscu ss ion 104

4 . 3 Defects 105

4 . 3 . 1 Square D e fe c ts in LC1B Coat ings 106

Photothermal I n v e s t i g a t i o n 106

U l t r a s o n i c I n v e s t i g a t i o n 107

4 . 3 . 2 D i f f u s i o n Bonded D e f e c t Samples 107

V

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4 . 3 . 3 Thermal Contact Res is tance 109

4 . 3 . 4 Discussion 110

4 . 4 Semi-conductor Laser Diode System E v a l u a t i o n 111

4 . 4 . 1 Laser Power Leve l Study 111

4 . 4 . 2 S igna l Ampl i tude and Phase Angle V a r i a t i o n 111

wi th F i b r e Head P o s i t io n in g

4 . 4 . 3 LC1B Coat ing Thickness Measurements 113

4 . 4 . 4 Discussion 113

4 . 5 I n f r a r e d D e te c to r E v a lu a t io n 114

4 . 5 . 1 I n f r a r e d D e te c to r Frequency Response 114

4 . 5 . 2 Photothermal Frequency Response 115

4 . 5 . 3 Phase Angle Noise 115

4 . 5 . 4 Discussion 116

Tables and F ig u re s f o r Chapter 4

Chapter 5 D iscuss io n

5 .1 System Performance 169

Argon ion Laser verses Laser Diode PTR System 169

I n f r a r e d D e t e c t o r 170

5 . 2 A p p l i c a t i o n to NDT o f Surface Coat ings 171

5 . 3 F u r th e r Developments 173

Tables f o r Chapter 5

Appendices

1 Thermal Wave R e f l e c t i o n and Transmission 177

C o e f f i c i e n t s .

2 One Dimensional Complex Surface Temperature 179

D e r i v a t i o n .

3 E f f e c t i v e Thermal C o n d u c t iv i t y o f a Gas Trapped 186

Between N arrowly Spaced P a r a l l e l P l a t e s .

F igures f o r Appedix 1,2 and 3. 189

References . 192

v i

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Table 1.

Tab le 1.

Tab le 2.

Table 2 .

Tab le 2.

Tab le 3.

Table' 3 .

Tab le *f.

Tab le 5 .

Table 5 .

L i s t o f Tables

Advantages and d isadvantages o f thermographic

and photothermal r a d i o m e t r i c m a t e r i a l s t e s t i n g .

Advantages and d isadvantages o f PTR NDE

techniques .

Thermal p r o p e r t i e s and the thermal d i f f u s i o n

lengths o f some common e n g in e er in g m a t e r i a l and

plasma sprayed c o a t in g s .

One dimensional s u r f a c e tem pera ture express ions

f o r thermal wave NDT o f opaque s u r fa c e c o a t in g s .

S e r ie s summation r e p r e s e n t a t i o n o f the t h r e e

dimensional s u r fa c e tem perature d i s t r i b u t i o n

w ith Gaussian beam i l l u m i n a t i o n .

Argon ion l a s e r , IR d e t e c t o r and e l l i p s o i d a l

m i r r o r c o l l e c t o r d e t a i l s .

Exper imen tal i n v e s t i g a t i o n summary.

Summary o f the phase angle and u l t r a s o n i c

a t t e n u a t i o n change across the square d e f e c t s in

plasma sprayed LC1B c o a t i n g s .

A summary o f PTR measurements on plasma sprayed

c o a t in g s .

A comparison and performance o f the gas and

semiconductor l a s e r s f o r sample h e a t i n g .

y i i

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L i s t of L a t i n symbols

D e f i n i t i o n U n i ts

b i j thermal impedance r a t i o

c speed o f l i g h t in f r e e space m/s

d mean f r e e path m

e e xp o n e n t ia l constant

f l i g h t modulat ion frequency Hz

f r a c t i o n a l volume p o r o s i t y

hi rms roughness m

i i n t e g e r

j complex ro o t o f minus one

k thermal c o n d u c t i v i t y W/(m K)

km harmonic mean thermal c o n d u c t i v i t y W/(m K)

m in t e g e r

r r a d i a l d is ta n c e m

s u r f a c e o p t i c a l r e f l e c t i v i t y

r a d i u s o f contac t

r 0 gauss ian beam l / e a r a d iu s m

t t ime s

u d i s t a n c e between the mean p lane o f the * m

rough and f l a t su r face s

x d is t a n c e m

A0 apparent area o f c o n ta c t ma

At. t r u e area o f contac t me

C S p e c i f i c heat c a p a c i t y J / (K g K)

D* S p e c i f i c D e t e c t i v i t y m Hz” ty'a /w

F accommodation form f a c t o r

I 0 l a s e r beam i n t e n s i t y W / ma

Li l a y e r th ic kness m

Kc. bulk thermal c o n d u c t i v i t y o f a i r Ul/(m K)

vi i i

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K0 m o d i f ied thermal c o n d u c t i v i t y o f a i r

M m ole cu la r mass

N number o f contac t spots per u n i t a rea

P m a t e r i a l hardness

P0 la s e r power

R c o a t i n g - s u b s t r a t e thermal wave r e f l e c t i o n

c o e f f i c i e n t

ft thermal c o n ta c t r e s is t a n c e

Rm thermal contac t r e s i s t a n c e o f rough

s u r fa c e s in contact

S a p p l ie d s t r e s s

T m a t e r i a l temperature

c o a t i n g - s u b s t r a t e thermal wave t ra n sm is s io n

c o e f f i c i e n t

Tm(A) i n f r a r e d o p t i c s t ransmiss io n f a c t o r

Zi thermal impedance

L i s t o f Greek symbols

a thermal d i f f u s i v i t y

£ o p t i c a l ab so rp t io n c o e f f i c i e n t

§ e l e c t r o m a g n e t ic sk in depth

q e m i s s i v i t y

-q l i g h t to heat conversion f a c t o r

q i n f r a r e d c o l l e c t i o n angleo

^ wavelength o f l i g h t

thermal wavelength

^ thermal d i f f u s i o n length

H p e r m e a b i l i t y o f metal

p e r m e a b i l i t y o f f r e e space

m a t e r i a l d e n s i ty

Vo

pq e l e c t r i c a l c o n d u c t i v i t y

t her ma l wave ve c t or

W/(m K)

Kg

m-a

N/ma

Ul

ma K /W

ma K /W

N/ma

K

U/(ma K)

ma /s

m_1

degree

m

m

Kg m~3

( O m ) " 1

m ~1

I X

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q S t e f a n - B o 1tzmann constan t W/(m KB )e

^ t ime constan t s

(D angular f requency r a d ia n s~x

p Thermal wave r e f l e c t i o n c o e f f i c i e n t1 t

O S o l id ang le o f in f r a r e d r a d i a t i o n d e t e c t i o n s t e r a d ia nX Z I R

X

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C h a p t e r 1

P h o t o t h e r m a l I n f r a r e d T e c h n i q u e s

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CHAPTER i PHOTOTHERMAL INFRARED TECHNIQUES

1 . 1 IN TR OD U C TIO N

PLASMA SPRAY COATINGS AND T H E I R Q U A L IT Y CONTROL

S u r f a c e c o a t i n g s a p p l i e d b y p l a s m a s p r a y i n g a r e

b e i n g i n c r e a s i n g l y u t i l i s e d i n t h e p o w e r g e n e r a t i o n and

a e r o s p a c e i n d u s t r i e s t o p r o v i d e f u n c t i o n a l l y e f f e c t i v e

s u r f a c e s C l - 3 3 . T h e c o a t i n g p r o c e s s c o m b i n e s i n t o a

s i n g l e o p e r a t i o n t h e m e l t i n g , q u e n c h i n g and

c o n s o l i d a t i o n s t a g e s o f m a t e r i a l s p r o c e s s i n g . W i t h

p l a s m a s p r a y i n g t h e c o a t i n g p r o c e s s i n v o l v e s t h e

m e l t i n g o f p o w d e r e d c o a t i n g m a t e r i a l i n a p l a s m a f l a m e

a n d t h e a c c e l e r a t i o n o f t h e m o l t e n m a t e r i a l a t s o n i c

v e l o c i t i e s t o w a r d s t h e s u b s t r a t e . On i m p a c t w i t h t h e

s u b s t r a t e t h e s e p a r t i c l e s r a p i d l y d e f o r m , q u e n c h and

s o l i d i f y on t h e s u b s t r a t e ( o r p r e v i o u s l y s o l i d i f i e d

c o a t i n g m a t e r i a l ) . T h i s c a p a b i l i t y o f t h e t e c h n i q u e

a l l o w s m a t e r i a l s t o b e d e p o s i t e d w i t h c o m p o s i t i o n s

i n d e p e n d e n t o f t h e r m o d y n a m i c l i m i t a t i o n s , t h e c o n t r o l

o f c o a t i n g m i c r o s t r u c t u r e and i t s p h y s i c a l p r o p e r t i e s .

Common a p p l i c a t i o n s o f p l a s m a s p r a y e d c o a t i n g s

i n c l u d e t h e p r o t e c t i o n o f b a r e m e t a l l i c s u r f a c e s f r o m

w e a r , e r o s i o n , c o r r o s i o n , o x i d a t i o n ; f o r t h e r m a l o r

e l e c t r i c a l i n s u l a t i o n / c o n d u c t i o n and f o r r e c l a m a t i o n

o f w o r n c o m p o n e n t s . C o a t i n g t h i c k n e s s e s a p p l i e d r a n g e

b e t w e e n .1 and 1 mm, and m e t a l s , a l l o y s , c e r a m i c s ,

c e r m e t s and p l a s t i c s c a n b e d e p o s i t e d o n a l m o s t any

s u b s t r a t e . T h e g r o w i n g a p p l i c a t i o n s o f p l a s m a s p r a y e d

c o a t i n g s i n many h i g h - t e c h i n d u s t r i e s h a s l e d t o

i n c r e a s e s i n t h e d e m an d s f o r c o a t i n g q u a l i t y and

s u i t a b l e c o n t r o l m e t h o d s f o r a s s e s s i n g c o a t i n g

1

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i n t e g r i t y , d u r i n g b o t h d e p o s i t i o n and i t s s e r v i c e l i f e .

P r e s e n t q u a l i t y c o n t r o l m e t h o d s o f p l a s m a s p r a y e d

c o a t i n g s i n c l u d e

a) p r ocess c o n t r o l ,

b) d e s t r u c t i v e and

c) n o n - d e s t r u c t i v e t e s t i n g .

T h e p r o d u c t i o n o f h i g h q u a l i t y d e p o s i t s w i t h u n i f o r m

m i c r o s t r u c t u r e an d c o a t i n g t h i c k n e s s r e q u i r e s a c a r e f u l

c o n t r o l o f t h e c o a t i n g m a t e r i a l a nd s p r a y i n g

p a r a m e t e r s . C u r r e n t e f f o r t s i n g u a r a n t e e i n g

r e p r o d u c i b l e h i g h q u a l i t y d e p o s i t s i n c l u d e t h e

d e v e l o p m e n t o f s p r a y i n g s y s t e m s f e a t u r i n g c o m p u t e r i s e d

c o n t r o l o f s p r a y i n g p a r a m e t e r s a n d a u t o m a t i o n o f

c o m p o n e n t h a n d l i n g .

D e s t r u c t i v e t e s t m e t h o d s r e q u i r e s t h e u s e o f c o u p o n

s a m p l e s w i t h t h e r e s e r v a t i o n t h a t t h e t e s t s a m p l e may

n o t h a v e t h e same c r o s s - s e c t i o n n o r h a v e b e e n p r e p a r e d

i n e x a c t l y t h e same m a n n e r a s t h e c o m p o n e n t .

D e s t r u c t i v e e x a m i n a t i o n p r o c e d u r e s i n c l u d e a d h e s i o n

(ASTM C 6 3 3 - 7 9 ) and h a r d n e s s t e s t s , m e t a l l o g r a p h i c

exam i n a t i o n u s i n g o p t i c a l and s c a n n i n g e l e c t r o n

m i c r o s c o p y .

A p a r t f r o m d i m e n s i o n a l c h e c k s t h e u s e f u l n e s s o f

n o n - d e s t r u c t i v e t e s t i n g ( N D T ) m e t h o d s f o r m o n i t o r i n g

c o a t i n g q u a l i t y h a s y e t t o b e d e m o n s t r a t e d w i t h t h e

d e v e l o p m e n t and a p p l i c a t i o n o f a s u i t a b l e i n s p e c t i o n

t e c h n i q u e ( s ) .

F i g u r e s 1 . 1 a - c , s u m m a r i s e r e s p e c t i v e l y , t h e p l a s m a

s p r a y s u r f a c e c o a t i n g p r o c e s s , t h e common c o a t i n g

2

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m a t e r i a l s c u r r e n t l y u t i l i s e d a nd t h e p r i n c i p l e d e f e c t s

f o u n d i n t h e s e c o a t i n g s . T h e a b n o r m a l c o a t i n g

c o n d i t i o n s i n c l u d e , c o a t i n g / s u b s t r a t e , c o a t i n g /

c o a t i n g d e l a m i n a t i o n , s u r f a c e ' b r e a k i n g c r a c k s ,

p o r o s i t y , s u r f a c e / i n t e r f a c e and c o a t i n g t h i c k n e s s

v a r i a t i o n s . T h e m a i n r e q u i r e m e n t s o f t h e i n s p e c t i o n

t e c h n i q u e may b e s u m m a r i s e d a s f o l l o w s .

1) S i n g l e - s i d e d , n o n - c o n t a c t iv e and n o n - d e s t r u c t i v e .

2) P ro v id e d e fe c t d e t e c t i o n and th ic kness measurement.

3) Be a p p l i c a b l e to a wide range o f co a t in g m a t e r i a l s

and complex shaped components.

4) O f f e r remote c a p a b i l i t y and speed in o p e r a t i o n .

1 . E R E V I E U OF PHOTOTHERMAL NDE TECHNIQUES

D u r i n g t h e p a s t d e c a d e t h e r e h a s b e e n r e n e w e d

i n t e r e s t " i n t h e a p p l i c a t i o n o f t h e r m a l i n f r a r e d

t e c h n i q u e s f o r m a t e r i a l s t e s t i n g a n d c h a r a c t e r i s a t i o n .

T h i s h a s made b e e n p o s s i b l e d u e t h e c o m m e r c i a l

a v a i l a b i l i t y o f s t a b l e m e d iu m p o w e r l a s e r s o u r c e s ^

H i g h s e n s i t i v i t y 8 - 1 4 Hm i n f r a r e d < I R ) d e t e c t o r s

c a p a b l e o f d e t e c t i n g a m i l l i d e g r e e c h a n g e i n s u r f a c e

t e m p e r a t u r e ^ and a d v a n c e s i n e l e c t r o n i c s i g n a l

p r o c e s s i n g e q u i p m e n t .

T h e r e a r e i n t h e U n i t e d K i n g d o m s i x r e s e a r c h g r o u p s

c u r r e n t l y e x p l o i t i n g p h o t o t h e r m a l IR t e c h n o l o g y f o r

q u a n t i t a t i v e m a t e r i a l s c h a r a c t e r i s a t i o n and

n o n - d e s t r u c t i v e e v a l u a t i o n . Two - i n d e p e n d e n t r e s e a r c h

t e a m s a r e a t t h e U n i v e r s i t y o f S t r a t h c l y d e and o n e a t

e a c h o f t h e f o l l o w i n g e s t a b l i s h m e n t s . U n i v e r s i t y

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C o l l e g e L o n d o n , H a r w e l l NDT r e s e a r c h c e n t r e , CEGB

M a r c h w o o d L a s e r a p p l i c a t i o n s c e n t r e and t h e U n i v e r s i t y

o f B a t h .

I n t h e f o l l o w i n g p a r a g r a p h s s e v e r a l p h o t o t h e r m a l IR

t e c h n i q u e s a r e r e v i ewed d i s c u s s i n g i n g e n e r a 1 t h e i r

p r i n c i p l e o f o p e r a t i o n , t h e i r m e r i t s and s u i t a b i l i t y

f o r i n s p e c t i n g v a r i o u s t y p e s o f c o a t e d c o m p o n e n t s .

T h e r m a l i n s p e c t i o n m e t h o d s a r e b a s e d on t h e

d e t e c t i o n o f l o c a l v a r i a t i o n i n h e a t p r o p a g a t i o n i n a

s a m p l e . T h e p r e s e n c e o f a d e f e c t o r a t h e r m a l i m p e d a n c e

c h a n g e h a s a d i s t u r b i n g e f f e c t o n t h e h e a t f l o w p a s s i n g

t h r o u g h t h e s a m p l e . T h i s d i s t u r b a n c e i s t r a n s m i t t e d

t o t h e s u r f a c e , w h e r e i t a p p e a r s i n t h e f o r m o f a l o c a l

c h a n g e i n t h e s a m p l e s u r f a c e t e m p e r a t u r e . P h o t o t h e r m a l

r a d i o m e t r y ( P T R ) i s a m e a s u r e m e n t t e c h n i q u e w h i c h c a n

m o n i t o r t h e s e t h e r m a l v a r i a t i o n s t h r o u g h t h e

s y n c h r o n i s e d d e t e c t i o n o f e m i t t e d t h e r m a l r a d i a t i o n

f o l l o w i n g r a d i a t i v e h e a t i n g . To d a t e , a v a r i e t y o f

t e c h n i q u e s h a v e b e e n d e v e l o p e d o n t h i s m e a s u r e m e n t

p r i n c i p l e f o r t h e n o n - d e s t r u c t i v e n e a r s u r f a c e

e x a m i n a t i o n o f m a t e r i a l s [ 5 - 2 1 1 . T h e s e t h e r m a l m e t h o d s

o f f e r s e v e r a l a d v a n t a g e s o v e r c o n v e n t i o n a l NDT

t e c h n i q u e s s u c h a s u l t r a s o n i c s , X - r a y r a d i o g r a p h y and

e d d y c u r r e n t . T h e y a r e n o n - c o n t a c t i v e , s i n g l e - s i d e d

and o f f e r r e m o t e c a p a b i l i t y . T h e y a l l o w t h e i n s p e c t i o n

o f a w i d e r a n g e o f m a t e r i a l s a n d c o m p l e x s h a p e d

c o m p o n e n t s a n d s e v e r a l c o m p l e m e n t a r y t e c h n i q u e s b a s e d

on t h e same d e t e c t i o n p r i n c i p l e a r e a v a i l a b l e .

A p p l i c a t i o n s r e p o r t e d i n t h e o p e n l i t e r a t u r e

i n c l u d e :

4

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a) th ic kness measurements, d e f e c t d e t e c t i o n , imaging, thermal

p r o p e r ty d e t e rm in a t io n and monitor ing thermal cyc l ing

damage o f coat ings [ 6 , 8 , 9 , 2 2 - 2 5 3

b) d e t e c t i o n and imaging o f impact damage, f i b r e debonding and

e f f e c t i v e thermal p r o p e r t y e v a lu a t i o n o f composite

polymeric m a t e r i a ls [26 -283

c) semi-conduct ing m a t e r i a l s examinat ion f o r d e t e c t io n of

processing d e f e c t s , imaging o f doped reg io ns ,

d e t e r m in a t io n o f c a r r i e r e l e c t r o n i c p r o p e r t i e s and bonding

d e fe c ts in soldered j o i n t [29 -313

d) in s p e c t io n o f b i o l o g i c a l m a t e r i a l s [3 2 ,333

e) spec t roscop ic s tu d ie s o f opaque and t r a n s l u c e n t m a t e r i a l s

[ 3 ^ , 3 5 3 .

1« 2 • 1 PHOTOTHERMAL RADIOMETRY AND THERMOGRAPHY

PTR i s a d y n a m i c m e a s u r e m e n t m e t h o d r e l y i n g on t h e

a c t i v e h e a t i n g ( o r c o o l i n g ) o f t h e s a m p l e t o r e v e a l i t s

i n t e r n a l s t r u c t u r e . I n t h e a b s e n c e o f an a c t i v e

t h e r m a l s t i m u l u s , t h e t e c h n i q u e i s m o r e c o m m o n ly known

as t h e r m o g r a p h y o r t h e r m a l i m a g i n g [ 3 6 3 . T h e r m o g r a p h y

i s a p a s s i v e I R i n s p e c t i o n m e t h o d m o n i t o r i n g t h e

t h e r m a l e m i s s i o n d i f f e r e n c e d u r i n g h e a t e x c h a n g e

b e t w e e n t h e s a m p l e and i t s e n v i r o n m e n t t o r e v e a l

p a s s i b l e i n t e r n a l n o n - u n i f o r m i t i e s .

An im a g e o b t a i n e d b y m a p p i n g t h e p h o t o t h e r ma 1 s i g n a 1

a m p l i t u d e i s a s u p e r p o s i t i o n o f an o p t i c a 1 i m a g e ,

t h e r m o g r a p h i c i m a g e ( a r i s i n g f r o m s t r u c t u r e s o f a v e r a g e

t e m p e r a t u r e and IR e m i s s i v i t y ) , and an i m a g e o f t h e r m a 1

s t r u c t u r e s . T h i s l a t t e r p i e c e o f i n f o r m a t i on i s t h e

m ost r e l e v a n t f o r t h e r m a l ND T. I n add i t i o n , t h e t ime

5

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i n f o r m a t i o n c o n t a i n e d w i t h t h e p h o t o t h e r m a l s i g n a l c a n

b e p r o c e s s e d t o p r o v i d e a new s i g n a l t h a t i s o n l y

s e n s i t i v e t o t h e t h e r m a l and g e o m e t r i c p a r a m e t e r s o f

t h e s a m p l e . H e n c e , a c o m p l e t e d e s c r i p t i o n o f t h e

s a m p l e s ’ s u b s u r f a c e t h e r m a l s t r u c t u r e may b e p o s s i b l e .

F i n a l l y , t a b l e 1 . 1 s u m m a r i s e s t h e r e l a t i v e m e r i t s and

n o n - m e r i t s o f t h e r m o g r a p h i c and p h o t o t h e r m a l IR

m e t h o d s .

1 • 3 D E S C R I P T I O N OF PTR T EC H N IQ U E S

T h e p h o t o t h e r m a l e f f e c t i s t h e g e n e r a t i o n and

p r o p a g a t i o n o f h e a t i n a s a m p l e b y t h e a b s o r p t i o n o f

o p t i c a l r a d i a t i o n . H e a t i s g e n e r a t e d i n t h e s a m p l e

t h r o u g h a v a r i e t y o f n o n - r a d i a t i v e r e l a x a t i o n p r o c e s s e s

a l m o s t i n s t a n t a n e o u s l y , t y p i c a l l y l e s s t h a n 1 0 “ 10

s e c o n d s f o r c o n d u c t o r s and i n s u l a t o r s . T h e d e p t h o f

h e a t g e n e r a t i o n i n t h e s a m p l e i s d e t e r m i n e d b y t h e

o p t i c a l a b s o r p t i o n c o e f f i c i e n t o f t h e s a m p l e . W i t h

o p t i c a l i l l u m i n a t i o n on m e t a l l i c s a m p l e s l i g h t

a b s o r p t i o n i s c o n f i n e d t o t h e s u r f a c e t y p i c a l l y a f e w

t e n t h s o f a m i c r o m e t e r . T h e d e p t h o f l i g h t a b s o r p t i o n

c a n b e d e t e r m i n e d t o a f i r s t a p p r o x i m a t i o n b y t h e

e l e c t r o m a g n e t i c s k i n d e p t h f o r t h e s a m p l e C 3 7 1 :

w h e r e X i s t h e w a v e l e n g t h o f t h e l i g h t , c , t h e s p e e d

o f l i g h t , cr, i s t h e e l e c t r i c a l c o n d u c t i v i t y o f t h e

m e t a l , F and F,;;. a r e p e r m e a b i l i t y o f t h e m e t a l and f r e e

s p a c e r e s p e c t i v e l y . U s i n g t h e D r u d e f r e e e l e c t r o n

t h e o r y o f m e t a l s , i t c a n b e sh o w n t h a t t h e f r a c t i o n o f

i n c i d e n t p o w e r a b s o r b e d b y a m e t a l i s g i v e n

( l . i )J t O C H j l

6

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a p p r o x i m a t e l y by L371

( 1 .2 ) A = 4JtC [L

X aH e n c e s h o r t w a v e l e n g t h l i g h t s o u r c e s ( e . g . i n t h e

v i s i b l e and u l t r a - v i o l e t ) a r e m o r e e f f i c i e n t f o r

s a m p l e h e a t i n g as r e f l e c t i o n l o s s e s a r e t h e n a t a

p h o t o t h e r m a l t e c h n i q u e s a r i s e f r o m t h e f o r m o f s a m p l e

h e a t i n g a n d t h e IR d e t e c t i o n s c h e m e s u s e d . G e n e r a l l y

l a s e r s a n d i n c o h e r e n t o p t i c a l s o u r c e s a r e u s e d f o r

s a m p l e h e a t i n g . H e a t i n g c a n b e p e r i o d i c * p u l s e d , s t e p

i n t e n s i t y m o d u l a t e d , s p a t i a l l y m o d u l a t e d o r s c a n n e d on

t h e s a m p l e s u r f a c e . T h e h e a t i n g c a n a l s o b e l o c a l i s e d

t o a p o i n t , l i n e o r an a r e a o n t h e s a m p l e . T h e t h e r m a l

d e t e c t i o n c a n a l s o b e l o c a l i s e d a s t h e h e a t s o u r c e and

t h e s a m p l e d r e g i o n c a n b e c e n t r a l i s e d , p a r t i a l l y

d i s p l a c e d f r o m o r d i r e c t l y o p p o s i t e t h e h e a t e d r e g i o n .

T h e f o l l o w i n g s e c t i o n s d i s c u s s v a r i o u s p h o t o t h e r m a l

i n f r a r e d m e t h o d s . S p e c i a l a t t e n t i o n b e i n g g i v e n t o t h e

p e r i o d i c p h o t o t h e r m a l t e c h n i q u e d i s c u s s i n g i t s

i n s t r u m e n t a t i o n and m e t h o d s o f s i g n a l a n a l y s i s .

1 . 3 . 1 P E R I O D I C PHOTOTHERMAL H EA TIN G

I n f i g u r e 1 . 2 a s c h e m a t i c i l l u s t r a t i o n i s p r e s e n t e d

s h o w i n g t h e b a s i c c o m p o n e n t s o f a p e r i o d i c p h o t o t h e r m a l

NDT s y s t e m . I n t h i s t e c h n i q u e c h o p p e d s q u a r e w a v e o r

s i n u s o i d a l c o n t i n o u s - w a v e ( CW) o p t i c a l i l l u m i n a t i o n i s

u s e d f o r s a m p l e h e a t i n g f o l l o w e d b y l o c k - i n d e t e c t i o n

o f p e r i o d i c t h e r m a l e m i s s i o n t o o b s e r v e t h e r m a l

v a r i a t i o n s i n t h e s a m p l e .

A l m o s t a l l t h e c u r r e n t l a s e r s h a v e b e e n u s e d f o r

m i n i m u m . T h e d i f f e r e n c e b e t w e e n t h e v a r l o u s

7

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s a m p l e h e a t i n g . H o w e v e r , t h e Ar + i o n l a s e r a p p e a r s t o

b e t h e m o s t w i d e l y u s e d . T h i s l a s e r p r o v i d e s a

h i g h l y s t a b l e CUI e m i s s i o n s o u r c e w i t h w h i c h

c o n v e n t i o n a l o p t i c a l c o m p o n e n t s c a n b e u s e d w i t h o u t

s p e c i a l s e l e c t i o n .

Beam m o d u l a t i o n i s e i t h e r b y a m e c h a n i c a l c h o p p e r o r

an a c o u s t o - o p t i c d e v i c e . E a r l y e x p e r i m e n t s w i t h t h i s

t e c h n i q u e u s e d m e c h a n i c a l c h o p p e r s w h i c h c o v e r e d a

f r e q u e n c y r a n g e up t o a f e w k i l o h e r t z . M e c h a n i c a l

c h o p p e r s h a v e t h e a d v a n t a g e s o f s i m p l i c i t y and a 100*/.

d e p t h o f m o d u l a t i o n . T h e i r m a i n d i s a d v a n t a g e s a r e p h a s e

j i t t e r n o i s e a t l o w m o d u l a t i o n f r e q u e n c i e s . And a n

u p p e r l i m i t o n t h e m o d u l a t i o n f r e q u e n c y w h i c h

e f f e c t i v e l y s e t t h e t h e r m a l i m a g e r e s o l u t i o n ( s e e

s e c t i o n 2 . 5 ) .

A c o u s t o - o p t i c m o d u l a t o r s a r e now g e n e r a l l y u s e d .

T h e y p r o v i d e a d i g i t a l c o n t r o l o f t h e m o d u l a t i o n

f r e q u e n c y o v e r a w i d e r a n g e , 0 t o t e n s MHz and i m m u n i t y

f r o m t h e p h a s e j i t t e r a s s o c i a t e d w i t h lo w f r e q u e n c y

m o d u l a t i o n f r o m m e c h a n i c a l c h o p p e r s . T h e e x c i t i n g w a v e

f o r m c a n a l s o b e s e l e c t e d ( s i n e o r s q u a r e w a v e s ) and

t h e m o d u l a t i o n d e p t h c a n b e a s h i g h a s 90*/..

T h e r m a l e m i s s i o n f r o m t h e s a m p l e h a v e b e e n r e m o t e l y

s e n s e d b y a v a r i e t y o f IR d e t e c t o r s . G o l a y c e l l and

p y r o e l e c t r i c ( L i T a Q ' 3 , > T G S . . . ) - d e v i c e s i n t h e

f r e q u e n c y r a n g e l e s s t h a n , 2 0 0 H z . S e m i c o n d u c t o r ( C M T ,

I n S b , P b S n T e ) d e v i c e s a r e u s e d f o r h i g h f r e q u e n c y

o p e r a t i o n s up t o 100 KHz C 5 - 9 , 3 8 ] .

SIGNAL PRO CESSIN G AND IN T E R P R E T A T IO N

T h e p h o t o t h e r m a l s i g n a l g e n e r a t e d i n s o l i d s a m p l e s

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i s q u i t e w e a k . I t i s t h e r e f o r e n e c e s s a r y t o i n c r e a s e

t h e e l e c t r i c a l o u t p u t f r o m an I R s e n s o r b y a lo w n o i s e

p r e - a m p 1 i f i e r . T h i s e l e c t r o n i c c i r c u i t i s a l r e a d y

p r e s e n t i n m o s t c o m m e r c i a l l y a v a i l a b l e I R d e t e c t o r s .

The o u t p u t f r o m t h e d e t e c t o r c a n t h e n b e d i r e c t l y

a p p l i e d t o t h e l o c k - i n a m p l i f i e r . U s i n g t h e r e f e r e n c e

s i g n a l f r o m t h e o p t i c a l m o d u l a t i o n d r i v e r , t h e l o c k - i n

a m p l i f i e r c a n p r o v i d e t w o c o m p o n e n t s o f t h e

p h o t o t h e r m a l s i g n a l :

a ) t h e m a g n i t u d e and p h a s e .

b ) t h e i n - p h a s e and q u a d r a t u r e s i g n a l .

When o n l y t h e a m p l i t u d e a n d p h a s e o f t h e d e t e c t e d

s i g n a l i s m o n i t o r e d , t h e p h a s e i n f o r m a t i o n o f t h e

s i g n a l i s m o s t u s e f u l a s i t i s o n l y r e l a t e d t o t h e

t h e r m a l a n d g e o m e t r i c p r o p e r t i e s o f t h e s a m p l e . 1 When

t h e i n - p h a s e a nd q u a d r a t u r e c o m p o n e n t s a r e r e c o r d e d ,

t h e q u a d r a t u r e i s s e n s i t i v e t o s u b s u r f a c e t h e r m a l

s t r u c t u r e an d t h e i n - p h a s e c o m p o n e n t m a i n l y t o t h e

s u r f a c e o p t i c a l s t r u c t u r e .

A n o t h e r t y p e o f s i g n a l a n a l y s i s u s e d w i t h t h i s

t e c h n i q u e i s p h a s e a n g l e a d j u s t m e n t . H e r e t h e p h a s e o f

t h e r e f e r e n c e s i g n a l i s a d j u s t e d t o d e t e c t s e l e c t i v e l y

t h e p h o t o t h e r m a l s i g n a l w i t h a s p e c i f i e d p h a s e d e l a y .

I f l o c k - i n d e t e c t i o n i s d o n e d i g i t a l l y t h e n t h i s l a t t e r

m e t h o d o f s i g n a l a n a l y s i s e n a b l e s t h e u s e r t o

r e c o n s t r u c t a s u b s u r f a c e t h e r m a l im a g e o f t h e s a m p l e a t

a n y d e s i r a b l e d e p t h f r o m t h e s u r f a c e .

1 T h i s i s d i s c u s s e d i n d e t a i l i n s e c t i o n E . ^ . 1

9

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The s i m p l i c i t y o f t h e e x p e r i m e n t a l a p p a r a t u s and a

w e l l d e v e l o p e d t h e o r y h a v e p r o v i d e d t h e m a i n d r i v i n g

f o r c e f o r t h e r a p i d e x p l o i t a t i o n o f t h i s t e c h n i q u e

s i n c e i t s d e m o n s t r a t i o n f o r m a t e r i a l s t e s t i n g b y N o r d a l

and K a n s t a d and L u u k k a l a i n 1 9 8 0 C5D. R e a r s i d e C 6 , 2 3 1

and d i s p l a c e d d e t e c t i o n C7D s c h e m e s h a v e a l s o b e e n

i n v e s t i g a t e d . An a d v a n t a g e o f t h e f o r m e r d e t e c t i o n

sch em e i s a g r e a t e r d e p t h o f i n s p e c t i o n , a f e w

m i l l i m e t r e s , l i m i t e d o n l y b y t h e e x p e r i m e n t a l

s i g n a l - t o - n o i s e r a t i o . Two d i s a d v a n t a g e s o f t h i s

t r a n s m i s s i o n d e t e c t i o n m e t h o d a r e t h e r e q u i r e m e n t o f

a c c e s s t o t h e r e a r s u r f a c e and a l o s s i n t h e a b i l i t y t o

d e t e r m i n e t h e d e p t h o f a s u b s u r f a c e d e f e c t . T h i s

f o l l o w s f r o m t h e f a c t t h a t t h e s i g n a l - c h a n g e s r e c o r d e d

r e f l e c t o n l y a p r o j e c t i o n o f t h e i n t e r n a l t h e r m a l

s t r u c t u r e C63 i n a n a l o g y w i t h i m a g e s o b t a i n e d b y x - r a y

r a d i o g r a p h y .

When t h e h e a t i n g and I R d e t e c t i o n s p o t o n t h e s a m p l e

s u r f a c e a r e p a r t i a l l y d i s p l a c e d , t h e t e c h n i q u e i s

s e n s i t i v e t o t h e r m a l c h a n g e s p a r a l l e l t o t h e s u r f a c e

C7D and t h u s m o r e s u i t a b l e f o r d e t e c t i n g s u r f a c e

b r e a k i n g c r a c k s and t h e r m a l p r o p e r t y v a r i a t i o n s a l o n g

t h e s u r f a c e .

A r e c e n t d e v e l o p m e n t on t h e a b o v e b a s i c t e c h n i q u e i s

t h e p a r a l l e l d e t e c t i o n o f a l a r g e n u m b e r o f s a m p l e

p a i n t s w i t h a n IR v i d e o c a m e r a and d i g i t a l

p h a s e - s e n s i t i v e s i g n a l p r o c e s s i n g . R a p i d i n s p e c t i o n o f

l a r g e c o m p o n e n t a r e a s i s now f e a s i b l e . M o d u l a t i o n

f r e q u e n c i e s up t o 2 0 0 Hz h a v e b e e n d e m o n s t r a t e d w i t h

t h i s m e t h o d [ 3 9 , ^ 0 1 . T h e u p p e r l i m i t a t i o n on t h e

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m o d u l a t i o n f r e q u e n c y i s d e t e r m i n e d e i t h e r b y t h e

t h e r m a l i m a g e d i g i t i s a t i o n r a t e o r t h e p i x e l p r o c e s s i n g

r a t e o f t h e I R c a m e r a d e t e c t o r e l e m e n t .

1 . 3 . 2 PULSED PHOTOTHERMAL H EA T IN G

T he p u 1s e d p h o t o t h e r m a l t e c h n i q u e i s t h e m o s t w i d e l y

e x p l o i t e d o f a l l t h e p h o t o t h e r m a l m e t h o d s and h a s b e e n

r e a l i s e d i n two c o m m e r c i a l i n s t r u m e n t s ; L a s e r i n s p e c t

2 0 0 0 f r o m V a n z e t t i I n c . C313 and T h e r m a l w a v e i m p e d a n c e

s c a n n e r f r o m H a n f o r d E n g i n e e r i n g l a b o r a t o r y C 1 3 1 .

T h r e e s c h e m e s o f i n s p e c t i o n h a v e b e e n d e v e l o p e d w i t h

p u l s e d h e a t i n g : " p o i n t " h e a t i n g w i t h " p o i n t " d e t e c t i o n ,

l i n e h e a t i n g w i t h l i n e I R d e t e c t i o n and a r e a h e a t i n g

w i t h a r e a d e t e c t i o n b y an I R c a m e r a .

P O IN T H E A T IN G UIITH P O IN T INFRARED D ETE C TIO N

I n t h i s a r r a n g e m e n t , f i g u r e 1 . 3 a , s a m p l e h e a t i n g i s

p r o v i d e d b y a s h o r t p u l s e Ng*, N d - Y A G , o r COsa l a s e r .

T h e e v o l v i n g t r a n s i e n t t h e r m a l e m i s s i o n s i g n a l i s

d e t e c t e d b y a f a s t I R s e m i c o n d u c t o r d e t e c t o r , ( I n d i u m

a n t i m o n i d e i n t h e 3 - 5 Hm b a n d o r Cadmium m e r c u r y

t e l l u r i d e i n t h e 8 - 14 Hm b a n d ) . A l a r g e b a n d w i d t h

t r a n s i e n t r e c o r d e r i s u s e d f o r s i g n a l r e c o r d i n g and

a v e r a g i n g o v e r a nu m b er o f p u l s e s . M e a s u r e m e n t t i m e s

r a n g e f r o m a f e w m i l l i s e c o n d s f o r m e t a l s t o s e v e r a l

s e c o n d s f o r i n s u l a t o r s . Common a p p l i c a t i o n s r e p o r t e d

w i t h t h i s m e t h o d i n c l u d e t h e r a p i d d e t e c t i o n o f

s u b s u r f a c e d e f e c t s , t h e r m a l and o p t i c a l p r o p e r t y

d e t e r m i n a t i o n and a u t o m a t e d i n s p e c t i o n o f s o l d e r e d

j o i n t s .

L I N E H E A T IN G U I T H L I N E INFRARED DETECTIO N

A s c h e m a t i c i l l u s t r a t i o n o f t h i s t e c h n i q u e i s shown

11

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i n f i g u r e 1 . 3 b . A h o t a i r j e t o f 5 m i l l i s e c o n d p u l s e

d u r a t i o n i s u s e d t o h e a t t h e s a m p l e s u r f a c e . The

s a m p l e i s t h e n moved a s h o r t d i s t a n c e and t h e d e c a y i n g

t h e r m a l e m i s s i o n i s d e t e c t e d b y a l i n e IR s c a n n e r a t

two p r e d e t e r m i n e d t i m e i n t e r v a l s . S a m p l e t r a n s l a t i o n

i s r e q u i r e d t o a v o i d t h e r m a l e m i s s i o n i n t e r f e r e n c e f r o m

t h e h e a t s o u r c e . T h e I R s e n s o r s a m p l e s t h e s u r f a c e a t

a r a t e o f 2 5 6 l i n e s / s e c o n d and t h e d i g i t i s e d o u t p u t

i s a v e r a g e d o v e r a f i n i t e t i m e i n t e r v a l t o e n h a n c e t h e

s i g n a l t o n o i s e r a t i o . L a r g e s a m p l e a r e a s c a n be

i n s p e c t e d b y t h i s t e c h n i q u e b y c o n t i n u o u s l y s t e p p i n g

and p u l s e h e a t i n g t h e s a m p l e . T h e u s e o f l a s e r

h e a t i n g h a s y e t t o b e d e m o n s t r a t e d w i t h t h i s l i n e

s c a n n i n g t e c h n i q u e a nd m e a s u r e m e n t s h a v e o n l y b e e n

r e p o r t e d on t h e r m a l s p r a y c o a t i n g s C1 3 , A 1 - A 3 3 .

AREA H E A T IN G AND INFRARED CAMERA D E TEC TIO N

An I R c a m e r a i s a v e r s a t i l e t h e r m a l r a d i a t i o n

d e t e c t o r a l l o w i n g p o i n t , l i n e and a r e a d e t e c t i o n o f t h e

t h e r m a l r a d i a t i o n . I n a n a r e a s e n s i n g mode o f

o p e r a t i o n t h e c a m e r a o f f e r s t h e a b i l i t y t o m o n i t o r and

r e c o r d t r a n s i e n t t h e r m a l d i f f u s i o n e f f e c t s i n a s a m p l e

b y p a r a l l e l s c a n n i n g w i t h g o o d s p a t i a l , t e m p o r a l and

t e m p e r a t u r e r e s o l u t i o n . O p e r a t i n g a t v i d e o —f r a m e

r a t e s a t h e r m a l s c e n e c a n b e im a g e d i n 2 0 m i l l i s e c o n d s .

Two t y p e s o f t h e r m a l i m a g e r s h a v e b e e n e v a l u a t e d f a r

u s e w i t h t h i s mode o f h e a t i n g : c o o l e d s e m i c o n d u c t o r and

p y r o e l e c t r i c v i d i c o n c a m e r a . T h e l a t t e r p r o v i d e s room

t e m p e r a t u r e o p e r a t i o n and i s a c h e a p e r a l t e r n a t i v e t o

t h e s e m i c o n d u c t o r c a m e r a C 2 6 D .

An a r r a n g e m e n t o f t h i s a r e a s e n s i n g p u l s e d

t h e r m o g r a p h i c t e c h n i q u e i s sh own i n f i g u r e 1 . 3 c i n a

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t r a n s m i s s i o n mode o f o p e r a t i o n . H i g h e n e r g y f l a s h and

IR lam p s w i t h c o n v e n t i o n a l m i r r o r o p t i c s i s u s e d t o

u n i f o r m l y h e a t t h e s a m p l e . T h e t r a n s i e n t t h e r m a l

s i g n a l f r o m t h e s a m p l e i s t h e n r e c o r d e d by t h e c a m e r a

c o l l e c t i n g some 1 0 , 0 0 0 p o i n t m e a s u r e m e n t on t h e s a m p l e

e v e r y SO m i l l i s e c o n d s . A t t h e sam e t i m e t h e im a g e i s

r e c o r d e d on a v i d e o t a p e . T h e r e c o r d e d im a g e c a n t h e n

be a n a l y s e d v i s u a l l y b y p l a y i n g b a c k t h e i m a g e s a f r a m e

a t a t i m e and s i n g l e l i n e s f r o m t h e im a g e c a n be

e x t r a c t e d f o r m o r e q u a n t i t a t i v e s t u d y . Im ag e

p r o c e s s i n g t e c h n i q u e s i n c o r p o r a t i n g t r a n s i e n t t h e r m a l

d i f f u s i o n m o d e l s c a n a l s o b e r e a d i l y a p p l i e d t o t h e

t h e r m a l i m a g e s [ 1 5 - 1 7 , 2 6 - 5 8 ] .

1 . 3 . 3 STEP PHQTDTHERMAL H E A T IN G

S t e p i n t e n s i t y m o d u l a t i o n o f f e r s a n o t h e r v a r i a n t t o

t r a n s i e n t t h e r m a l t e c h n i q u e s . I t s a p p l i c a t i o n t o

t h e r m a l p r o p e r t y m e a s u r e m e n t s h a s s h o w n t h a t lo w p o w e r

la m p s ( r a t h e r t h a n p u l s e d l a s e r s ) c a n b e u s e d t o s t e p

e x c i t e t h e s a m p l e w i t h much r e d u c e d o v e r a l l h e a t i n g o f

t h e s a m p l e [ ^ , ^ 5 ] . A s c h e m a t i c i l l u s t r a t i o n o f a

s t e p h e a t i n g t e c h n i q u e u s i n g a l a s e r s o u r c e i s shown i n

f i g u r e 1 . A- . When m e a s u r e m e n t s t i m e s a r e l o n g , t h e

t r a n s i e n t e m i s s i o n c a n be c h o p p e d a t a h i g h f r e q u e n c y

and r e c o r d e d b y p h a s e s e n s i t i v e d e t e c t i o n . T h i s

r e m o v e s t h e n e e d o f t r a n s i e n t r e c o r d e r t o c a p t u r e t h e

s i g n a l . T h i c k n e s s and t h e r m a l r e s i s t a n c e m e a s u r e m e n t

on t h e r m a l b a r r i e r p l a s m a s p r a y e d c o a t i n g h a v e b e e n

r e p o r t e d by C i e l o and D a l l i a r e CA-6] u s i n g t h i s

t e c h n i q u e .

13

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1 . 3 . 4 COORDINATE MODULATION PHOTOTHERMAL HEATING

I n t h i s t e c h n i q u e h e a t i n g i s a l t e r n a t e d b e t w e e n two

a d j a c e n t s p o t s on t h e s a m p l e s u r f a c e a s show n i n f i g u r e

1 . 5 . P h a s e s e n s i t i v e IR d e t e c t i o n i s t h e n u s e d t o

m o n i t o r t h e t h e r m a l v a r i a t i o n b e t w e e n t h e h e a t e d s p o t s .

I f t h e s a m p l e p r o p e r t i e s a r e i d e n t i c a l a t t h e h e a t e d

r e g i o n s t h e n a n u l l s i g n a l w i l l b e o b t a i n e d . T h u s

m a k i n g t h e t e c h n i q u e s e n s i t i v e t o s m a l l v a r i a t i o n s i n

t h e t h e r m a l p r o p e r t i e s o f t h e s a m p l e d r e g i o n . L e t h o

e t a l CEO! h a v e i n v e s t i g a t e d t h i s t e c h n i q u e f o r

t h i c k n e s s m e a s u r e m e n t o f p l a s m a s p r a y e d t u n g s t e n

c a r b i d e on s t e e l . T h e i r r e s u l t s s h o w e d t h a t t h i c k n e s s

a r e s o l u t i o n o f £ 5 Hm i s p o s s i b l e w i t h t h i s c o a t i n g

s y s t e m .

1 . 3 . 5 SCANNING PHOTOTHERMAL H E A T IN G

By s c a n n i n g a l o c a l i s e d h e a t s o u r c e i n a r a s t e r

f a s h i o n on a s a m p l e s u r f a c e a n d d e t e c t i n g t h e t h e r m a l

r a d i a t i o n f r o m t h e h e a t e d s p o t , r a p i d i n s p e c t i o n o f

l a r g e s a m p l e a r e a c a n be m a d e , f i g u r e 1 . 6 . T h i s

a r r a n g e m e n t was w i d e l y e x p l o i t e d i n t h e l a t e 1 9 6 0 7s

u s i n g a s i n g l e e l e m e n t I R d e t e c t o r and e x t e r n a l o p t i c a l

s c a n n i n g t o f o c u s t h e h e a t e d s p o t o n t o t h e d e t e c t o r

e l e m e n t C 4 7 , 4 8 3 . The m o d e r n v e r s i o n o f t h i s t e c h n i q u e

u s e s t h e b u i l t i n o p t i c a l s c a n n i n g f a c i l i t i e s o f an IR

c a m e r a t o s e n s e t h e c h a n g i n g t h e r m a l e m i s s i o n f r o m t h e

s a m p l e [ 4 9 3 . S u b - s u r f a c e d e f e c t s and f a t i g u e c r a c k s

d e t e c t i o n h a s b e e n d e m o n s t r a t e d w i t h t h i s t e c h n i q u e

C 4 7 - 5 0 3 . To m a x i m i s e c o n t r a s t f r o m d e f e c t s an o p t im u m

s c a n n i n g s p e e d n e e d t o be p r e d e t e r m i n e d e x p e r i m e n t a l l y ,

14

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o r b y n u m e r i c a l m o d e l l i n g . S c a n n i n g t o o r a p i d l y w i l l

l e a d t o a r e d u c t i o n i n t h e s i g n a 1 - t o - n o i s e , t o im a g e

b l u r r i n g and p o o r r e s o l u t i o n .

1 . i* SUMMARY OF PTR NDE METHODS

T h e a b o v e p h o t o t h e r m a l I R t e c h n i q u e s o p e r a t e on a

p r i n c i p l e s i m i l a r t o u l t r a s o n i c p u l s e - e c h o m a t e r i a l s

t e s t i n g . S u b s u r f a c e i m p e r f e c t i o n s i n a m a t e r i a l s a r e

r e v e a l e d b y d e t e c t i o n o f t h e r e f l e c t e d t h e r m a l w a v e o r

p u l s e ( s e e s e c t i o n 2 . 2 ) . I n o p a q u e m a t e r i a l s w i t h

p u l s e d s u r f a c e h e a t i n g , t h e t i m e i n t e r v a l f o r t h e

d e l a y e d s i g n a l t o a p p e a r a t t h e s u r f a c e i s g i v e n by

L ^ / r x , w h e r e L i s t h e d e p t h o f t h e d e f e c t ( o r i n t e r f a c e )

an d oc t h e t h e r m a l d i f f u s i v i t y o f t h e m a t e r i a l . T h i s

s i m p l e r e l a t i o n s h i p sh o w s t h a t l o n g m e a s u r e m e n t t i m e s

w i l l b e r e q u i r e d f o r l o w d i f f u s i v i t y m a t e r i a l s ( i . e .

c e r a m i c s a n d p o l y m e r s ) a n d d e f e c t s d e e p i n t h e

m a t e r i a l . T h e same i n f e r e n c e s a l s o a p p l y t o t h e o t h e r

t h e r m a l m e t h o d s ( p e r i o d i c a n d s c a n n e d h e a t i n g ) s i n c e

a n y t h e r m a l p u l s e c a n b e d e c o m p o s e d i n t o w av e

c o m p o n e n t s t h r o u g h a F o u r i e r t r a n s f o r m a t i o n [ 5 1 3 .

T a b l e 1 . 2 s u m m a r i s e s t h e m a i n a d v a n t a g e s and

d i s a d v a n t a g e s o f a l l t h e PTR m e t h o d s d i s c u s s e d a b o v e .

T h e p r i m a r y a d v a n t a g e s o f t r a n s i e n t m e t h o d s o v e r

p e r i o d i c p u l s e t e c h n i q u e s a r e t h e i r s h o r t m e a s u r e m e n t s

t i m e s and c o m p l e t e s u b s u r f a c e t h e r m a l i n f o r m a t i o n i n a

s i n g l e h e a t i n g p u l s e . T h e i r d i s a d v a n t a g e s a r e t h e

r e q u i r e m e n t o f s i g n a l p r o c e s s i n g , n u m e r i c a l m o d e l l i n g

and e x t e n s i v e c o m p u t a t i o n a l s u p p o r t . I n c o n t r a s t ,

p e r i o d i c p u l s e h e a t i n g t e c h n i q u e s o f f e r s e v e r a l

i m p o r t a n t a d v a n t a g e s o v e r t r a n s i e n t m & t h o d s .

15

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P h a s e - s e n s i t i v e d e t e c t i o n removes s ig n a l <noise) components

t h a t are not a t the same f requency as the photothermal s i g n a l .

The output from the l o c k - i n a m p l i f i e r p ro v ides d i r e c t l y to the

user the s ig n a l ampl i tude and phase angle i n f o r m a t i o n .

The phase angle s ign a l i s s e n s i t i v e on ly to the samples’

thermal and geometr ic param eter .

Thermal d i f f u s i o n a n a ly s i s i s r e l a t i v e l y s imple f o r many NDT

p rab le m s.

F in e tuning o f the t e s t system is p o s s ib l e f o r optimum

performance by a d ju s t in g the modulat ion f req u en cy .

To o b t a i n s i m i l a r s i g n a l i n f o r m a t i o n w i t h t r a n s i e n t PTR

m e t h o d s i t w i l l b e n e c e s s a r y t o c o m p u t e t h e l o g a r i t h m i c

d e r i v a t i v e o f t h e t r a n s i e n t t h e r m a l s i g n a l .

1 . 4 . 1 S E L E C T IO N OF PTR TEC H N IQ U E

T h e c h o i c e o f w h i c h p a r t i c u l a r PTR t e c h n i q u e t o

a p p l y w i l l d e p e n d on t h e i n s p e c t i o n p r o b l e m . Some o f

t h e p a r a m e t e r s t h a t w i l l r e q u i r e c o n s i d e r a t i o n may b e :

a) the thermal d e g ra d a t io n temperature and the thermal

p r o p e r t i e s o f the m a t e r i a l ,

b) the type o f measurement req u i r e d

( i . e . th ickness gauging, d e f e c t d e t e c t i o n or imag in g) ,

c) component s i z e and geometry,

d) i n s p e c t io n speed,

e) system p o r t a b i l i t y , and

f ) economics.

F i g u r e 1 . 7 o u t l i n e s o n e s e l e c t i o n p r o c e d u r e i n

i d e n t i f y i n g t h e m o st a p p r o p r i a t e PTR m e t h o d f o r c o a t i n g

t h i c k n e s s m e a s u r e m e n t . T h e s e l e c t i o n c r i t e r i a i s b a s e d

on t h e m a g n i t u d e o f t h e t h e r m a l d e l a y t i m e d e f i n e d

a b o v e . F o r a r e l a t i v e l y t h i n a n d / o r h i g h l y c o n d u c t i v e

s u r f a c e c o a t i n g , t h e p e r i o d i c h e a t i ng t e c h n i q u e w i l l

16

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o f f e r e x c e l l e n t s i g n a 1- t o - n o i s e ( S / N ) r a t i o s and s h o r t

m e a s u r e m e n t t i m e s d u e t o t h e h i g h m o d u l a t i o n

f r e q u e n c i e s r e q u i r e d f o r t e s t i n g ( s e e s e c t i o n 2 . . 1 ) .

I f t h e c o a t i n g t h i c k n e s s i s l a r g e and i t s t h e r m a l

c o n d u c t i v i t y l o w , a t r a n s i e n t e x c i t a t i o n PTR s y s t e m i s

m o re s u i t a b l e a s m e a s u r e m e n t t i m e s w i t h a m o d u l a t e d PTR

t e c h n i q u e c a n b e l a r g e , t y p i c a l l y s e v e r a l 1 0 ’ s o f

s e c o n d s - I n t h e i n t e r m e d i a t e c a s e s t h e s e l e c t i o n

b e t w e e n t h e t h e v a r i o u s PTR t e c h n i q u e s w i l l n e e d t o be

d e t e r m i n e d e x p e r i m e n t a l l y .

T h e i n s p e c t i o n o f l a r g e c o m p o n e n t s a r e a s r e q u i r e s

t h e a p p l i c a t i o n o f an a r e a s e n s i t i v e PTR m e t h o d , i . e .

I R d e t e c t i o n w i t h e i t h e r I R l i n e s c a n n e r o r I R v i d e o

c a m e r a . T h e s e l e c t i o n o f t h e a p p r o p r i a t e PTR

t e c h n i q u e t h e n e s s e n t i a l l y f o l l o w s t h a t f o r c o a t i n g

t h i c k n e s s m e a s u r e m e n t s e x c e p t w h en v e r y t h i n s u r f a c e

l a y e r s a r e t o b e i n s p e c t e d . I n t h i s c a s e t h e m o v i n g

l i n e s o u r c e PTR t e c h n i q u e w i t h s y n c h r o n i s e d l i n e IR

w i l l n e e d t o b e i n v e s t i g a t e d C ^ 9 3 .

17

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Table 1 .1 : Advantages and d isadvantaqes o f thermographic and

photothermal ra d io m etr ic mater i a l s t e s t i n q .

Technique

Thermography

Photothermalrad io m et ry

Advantages

No a c t i v e h e a t in g necessary

Large area in sp ec t io n

Complex o b j e c t s

Severa l techniques a v a i l a b l e

Large area in s p e c t io n

Complex o b j e c t s

E m i s s iv i t y independent

Disadvantages

Surface e m i s s i v i t y var i at ions

Weak s e n s i t i v i t y to subsurface d e f e c t s

Sample h e a t in g r e q u i r e d

Laser hazard

Accurate thermal d i f f u s i o n models r e q u i r e d f o r quant i t a t ive a n a ly s i s

High s e n s i t i v i t y to subsurface d e f e c t s

Q u a n t i t a t i v e thermal a n a l y s i s

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Tab 1e 1 . g : Advantages and disadvantaqes o f PTR NDE te chn iq ues .

METHOD ADVANTAGES DISADVANTAGES

Ii

jPERIODIC

Simple te s t appara tus .

1

High noise re jec t ion.

iE m is s iv i ty independent.

IDepth p r o f i l i n g , thickness measurement and d efect d e te c t io n .

Thermal proper ty eva lua t ion.

High background heat i ng.

Depth p r o f i l i n g re q u i re s severa l frequency measurements.

1

PULSED

Minimum background h e a t i n g .

F as t .

Remote c a p a b i l i t y .

Complete subsurface in format ion in a s in g le measurement.

Thicknessmeasurement, de fec t d e te c t io n and thermal proper ty d e te rm in a t ion .

Extensive computer support requ ired fo r s ig na l processing and numerical a n a l y s i s .

Accurate thermal d i f f u s i o n model(s) needed fo r quanti t a t i v e a n a ly s is .

Signal averaging re quired to improve s i g n a l - t o noise r a t i o .

STEP

As above.

Reduced measurement t imes.

Smal ler dynamic temperature change.

As above

I

COORDINATEMODULATION

j

Simple te s t appara tus .

S e n s i t i v e to small changes in thermal propert i e s .

Comparative measurements o n ly .

1Uniform sur face o p t i c a l p r o p e r t i e s r e q u i r e d .

MOVINGSOURCE

j

F a s t .

Detect io n of f a t i g u e cracks and th i n f l 1ms.

Uniform sur face o p t ic a l p r o p e r t i e s requi r e d .

Optimum scanning speed needs to be determined fo r

! subsurface lnspec 1 1 on.

19

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FLAME TEMPERATURES 4,000 - 12, 1000 K

o° ooo °

CDATING MATERIAL

PLASMAFLAME

F i g u r e l a : A s c h e m a t i c

p l a s m a s p r a y i n g .

AIR DR INERT GAS ATMDSPHERE

SONIC VELOCITIES

o o

MOLTEN COATING PARTICLES

LdI—

COATINGLAYERS

i l l u s t r a t i o n o f c o a t i n g d e p o s i t i o n by

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METALS 8c CERAMICSALLOYS Ala D3 , Cr203

Al, Cu, Mo, w Zr02- Y20 3NlAl, Steels Z r0 2~ MgO

CERMETSNlCr-carbldej Nl-Graphlte, VC + Co

SURFACE COATING

METAL & ALLDYS Mo, NlAl M-CrAlY<M= Nt Co, Fe >

BOND COAT

SUBSTRATESTEELSSUPERALLOYS

LAYER THICKNESS

0,1 to 1 nm

^ 0.1 m

F i g u r e l b : F r e q u e n t l y u s e d m a t e r i a l s and t h e c o a t i n g / s u b s t r a t e

s y s t e m i n p l a s m a s p r a y i n g .

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SURFACE RDUGHNESS SURFACE BREAKINGCRACK

* SUBSURFACE• CRACKS

CDATING

DELAMINATIDN

PDRDSITYCLUSTERS

SUBSTRATE

F i g u r e l c : Some common d e f e c t s i n p l a s m a s p r a y e d c o a t i n g s .

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LIGHT CHOPPER SAMPLE

r o

oo

EMISSION

IR SENSOR

REF.SIGNAL

LOCK-INAMPLIFIER

LASER SOURCE

MICROCOMPUTER

SAMPLESCANNINGSYSTEM

Figure 1.2: A periodic PTR inspection system.

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N>

IR REFLECTING MIRRDR

SAMPLE

FILTERSEMICONDUCTORDETECTORREF.

SIGNAL

TRANSIENTRECORDER

PULSED LASER

MICROCOMPUTER

SAMPLESCANNINGSYSTEM

Figure 1.3a: A pulsed PTR instrumentation with spot illumination.

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SOURCE IR RADIATIDN SHEILD

IR LINE SCANNER

HOT AIR JET

SAMPLE

SAMPLE TRAVEL DIRECTION

AIR JET HEATER

SAMPLEDRIVER

DISPLAY ANDDATASTORAGE

L CONTROLLING ~ COMPUTER

IR SCANNER ELECTRONICS

F i g u r e 1 . 3 b : A p u l s e d PTR i n s t r u m e n t a t i o n w i t h l i n e h e a t i n g .

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TESTPIECEFLASHLAMP . MONITOR

INFRARED CAMERA 625 LINES PER FRAME

APPLICATION

FLASHCONTROL

POWER SUPPLY

MONITORVIDEO TIMERVIDEO TYPE

WRITERRECORDING VIDEO CASSETTE RECORDER

FIELD CONTROLMDNITDRDIAL-A-LINE

STRIPPERX-Y

RECORDERSCOPEANALYSIS 101

Figure 1.3c: A pulsed PTR transmission set-up with area heating.

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IR REFLECTING MIRROR

SAMPLE

LASER SOURCE SAMPLESCANNINGSYSTEM

LIGHTCHDPPERSTEP

PULSETRIGGER FILTER

SEMICONDUCTORDETECTDR

REF.SIGNAL

LOCK-INAMPLIFIER

MICROCOMPUTER

Figure 1 . **: A step heating PTR inspection system.

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SENSDR

BEAMDEFLECTDR

LDCK-INAMPLIFIERMICROCOMPUTER

LASER

SAMPLE

SAMPLE SCANNING SYSTEM

F i g u r e 1 . 5 : A c o o r d i n a t e m o d u l a t i o n PTR a r r a n g e m e n t .

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SYNC. PULSE IMAGEBUFFERANDDISPLAY

BEAMDEFLECTORMICROCOMPUTER

VIDEOSIGNALBEAM BLANKING

SIGNAL

CAMERA

A/OMODULATORLASER

SAMPLE

F i g u r e 1 . 6 : A s c h e m a t i c i l l u s t r a t i o n o f a m o v i n g s o u r c e PTR i n s p e c t i o n

s y s t e m . C4-9D

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MDVINGSOURCEPTR

HIGH OR LOWTHERMALCONDUCTIVITY

VERYTHIN

HIGH THERMAL CONDUCTIVITY

MODULATEDPTR

THIN PULSEDPTRCOATING

THICKNESS LOV THERMAL CONDUCTIVITY “

STEPPTR

PCKCOATING

PCKSUBSTRATE

HIGH THERMAL CONDUCTIVITY

MODULATED DR TRANSIENT PTR

THICKLOV THERMAL CONDUCTIVITY TRANSIENT PTR

F i g u r e 1 . 7 : A s e l e c t i o n g u i d e o f t h e m o s t a p p r o p r i a t e PTR i n s p e c t i o n

t e c h n i q u e f o r t h i c k n e s s m e a s u r e m e n t .

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C h a p t e r 2

P h o t h e r m a l R a d i o m e t r i c D e t e c t i o n T h e o r y

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CHAPTER E PHOTOTHERMAL R A D IO M E T R IC D E TE C T IO N THEORY

a. 1 IN TR OD U C TIO N

T h e t e c h n i q u e o f p h o t o t h e r m a l r a d i o m e t r y i n v o l v e s

m o d u l a t e d o p t i c a l h e a t i n g o f a s a m p l e and t h e d e t e c t i o n

o f e m i t t e d t h e r m a l i n f r a r e d ( I R ) r a d i a t i o n f r o m

s o m e w h e r e on t h e s a m p l e . T h e i n c r e a s e d b l a c k b o d y

t h e r m a l e m i s s i o n s i g n a l r e c o r d e d i n a p h o t o t h e r m a l

m e a s u r e m e n t c a n g e n e r a l l y b e g i v e n t h r o u g h an

e x p r e s s i o n l i k e C 5 2 1 :

( 2 . 1 a ) Signal^S x . 5 ^.S3S i » Sa> and S3 a r e s i g n a l c o n t r i b u t i o n t e r m s d e t e r m i n e d

r e s p e c t i v e l y b y t h e t e m p e r a t u r e and t h e r m a l p r o p e r t i e s

o f t h e s a m p l e , I R c o l l e c t i o n e f f i c i e n c y o f t h e t e s t

s y s t e m a nd t h e I R d e t e c t o r s e n s i t i v i t y . T h e s e t e r m s

c a n b e e x p r e s s e d a s f o l l o w s :

(2 .16) S x a3T

f e ( A . , r ) l / ( A , r ) d Xk

S 2** A radO JR J 7 m (kX')dX

S 3«D* .U h e r e

T is the ab so lu te temperature o f the sample,

X is the emission wave length ,

€( X »T ) is the IR e m i s s i v i t y o f the sample1,

W( X , T ) is the blackbody s p e c t r a l r a d i a n t e x c i t a n c e ,

cST is the induced temperature increment ,

A r«d is the thermal emission area on the sample,

R is the s o l i d angle over which the thermal

r a d i a t i o n is c o l l e c t e d ,

1 I g n o r i n g t h e d i r e c t i o n a l d e p e n d e n c e o f s u r f a c e t h e r m a l e m i s s i o n .

31

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T„,( X ) is the s p e c t r a l t ra n s m is s io n o f the IR

c o l l e c t i o n o p t i c s ,

D“ is the IR d e te c to r s e n s i t i v i t y .

I n t h e f o l l o w i n g p a r a g r a p h s a d e t a i l e d d i s c u s s i o n i s

g i v e n o f t h e t e r m S , w h i c h c o n t a i n s t h e t h e r m a l

e m i s s i o n c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s a n d t h e i n d u c e d s u r f a c e

t e m p e r a t u r e c h a n g e o f a s a m p l e f o l l o w i n g o p t i c a l

h e a t i n g . P a r t i c u l a r e m p h a s i s i s g i v e n t o o p a q u e\

l a y e r e d s t r u c t u r e s h a r m o n i c a l l y h e a t e d b y a l a s e r b e a m .

A w a v e d e s c r i p t i o n o f h e a t d i f f u s i o n i n a s a m p l e i s

i n t r o d u c e d a n d some common a p p 1 i c a t i o n s t o t h e r m a l NDT

a r e e x a m i n e d . T o p i c s d i s c u s s e d i n c l u d e t h e r e f l e c t i o n

and t r a n s m i s s i o n o f h e a t a t a n i n t e r f a c e and

i n t e r f e r e n c e a n d i n t e r f e r o m e t r y w i t h h e a t w a v e s . A

d i s c u s s i o n o f t h e t e r m s Se a n d S3 i s p r o v i d e d i n

c h a p t e r 3 .

5 . 1 . 1 THERMAL E M I S S I O N C H A R A C T E R IS T IC S

T h e s p e c t r a l d i s t r i b u t i o n o f s u r f a c e r a d i a n c e f r o m a

s a m p l e v a r i e s w i t h i t s t e m p e r a t u r e a n d c a n b e

r e p r e s e n t e d e x p l i c i t l y b y P l a n c k ’ s r a d i a t i o n

f u n c t i o n C 5 3 3 :

2 nhc2( 2 . 2 ) t / ( T , A) = --- ---

1

A5 L e x p f / i c /A / c T ) - 1 _f o r a n i d e a l b l a c k b o d y e m i t t e r . h , and k a r e

r e s p e c t i v e l y , t h e P l a n c k a n d B o l t z m a n n c o n s t a n t , c t h e

s p e e d o f l i g h t and T t h e a b s o l u t e t e m p e r a t u r e . T h e

i n c r e m e n t a l c h a n g e i n t h e r a d i a n c e w i t h c h a n g e s i n t h e

s a m p l e t e m p e r a t u r e , c o r r e s p o n d i n g t o t h e d e r i v a t i v e o f

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t h e P l a n c k ' s f u n c t i o n , i s g i v e n b y t h e e x p r e s s i o n :

a 1 / ( 7 , A . ) 2 n h * c 3 ( t i c ) 1

^ 2 , 3 ) a r " k T 2k * e X P U / c T j \ _ e x p ( h c / k f c T ) - 1 _

I n f i g u r e 2 . 1 and 2 . 2 t h e s e f u n c t i o n s a r e p l o t t e d f o r

d i f f e r e n t s a m p l e t e m p e r a t u r e s . F i g u r e 2 . 2 c o r r e s p o n d s

t o t h e m o d u l a t e d t h e r m a l IR e m i s s i o n s i g n a l d e t e c t e d i n

a p h o t o t h e r m a l m e a s u r e m e n t . F o r s a m p l e s h e a t e d t o n e a r

a m b i e n t t e m p e r a t u r e s p e a k t h e r m a l e m i s s i o n l i e s b e t w e e n

9 t o 10 Fm. A l s o , a t l o w e r w a v e l e n g t h s t h e t h e r m a l

e m i s s i o n d e c r e a s e s r a p i d l y a n d a t l o n g e r w a v e l e n g t h s

t h e d e c r e a s e i s g r a d u a l an d n e a r l y i n d e p e n d e n t o f

t e m p e r a t u r e . When t h e s e f u n c t i o n s a r e i n t e g r a t e d

a c r o s s t h e e m i s s i o n s p e c t r u m , t h e t o t a l r a d i a n c e i s

p r o p o r t i o n a l t o t h e f o u r t h p o w e r o f t h e t e m p e r a t u r e

( S t e f a n - B o 1 t z m a n n L a w ) . T h e i n c r e m e n t a l c h a n g e i n

r a d i a n c e w i t h t e m p e r a t u r e i s p r o p o r t i o n a l t o t h e t h i r d

p o w e r o f t h e s t e a d y s t a t e t e m p e r a t u r e o f t h e s a m p l e and

d i r e c t l y p r o p o r t i o n a l t o tfT f o r a s m a l l c h a n g e i n t h e

s a m p l e s u r f a c e t e m p e r a t u r e :

(2.4) 6W =6a [ ( r0 + Td<; + 67)4- ( r 0+ r dJ 4]

- 4 e o ( T 0 + T dc)36 T

T 0 i s t h e a m b i e n t s a m p l e t e m p e r a t u r e ; T dc i s t h e

s t e a d y s t a t e t e m p e r a t u r e r i s e o f t h e s a m p l e and cr =

5 . 6 7 x l O - 1 2 W cm ” 2 K“ 4 i s t h e S t e f a n - B o 1 t z m a n n

c o n s t a n t . T he c u b i c t e m p e r a t u r e d e p e n d e n c e o f <£W c a n be

e x p l o i t e d t o i n c r e a s e t h e s i g n a 1 - t o - n o i s e r a t i o o f t h e

d e t e c t e d s i g n a l . H o w e v e r , t h i s w i l l b e a t t h e e x p e n s e

o f an i n c r e a s e d c o h e r e n t n o i s e s i g n a l d u e t o c h a n g e s

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AT i n t h e s a m p l e ' s b a c k g r o u n d t e m p e r a t u r e :

6 1 / A T( 2 . 5 ) A W = d — A T = 3 6 W —

J 3 T T

E x a m i n a t i o n o f f i g u r e 2 . 2 sh o w s t h a t t h e t h i s n o i s e

s i g n a l w i l l b e r e d u c e d i f I R d e t e c t i o n i s a t l o n g IR

w a v e 1e n g t h s .

2 . 1 THERMAL WAVES

When a s u r f a c e i s s u b j e c t e d t o p l a n e h a r m o n i c

h e a t i n g , t h e e q u a t i o n d e s c r i b i n g t h e d i f f u s i o n o f h e a t

i n t o t h a t s a m p l e h a s a w a v e l i k e s o l u t i o n f o r t h e

t e m p e r a t u r e d i s t r i b u t i o n C54-3:

( 2 . 6 ) 7 ( x . < ) = ^ o ^ e x p T - x / f / - + J J .

T ( x , t ) i s t h e t e m p e r a t u r e r i s e a b o v e t h e e q u i l i b r i u m

a m b i e n t t e m p e r a t u r e , I 0 m a g n i t u d e o f t h e s u r f a c e h e a t

f l u x a n d F i s t h e t h e r m a l d i f f u s i o n l e n g t h

( 2 . 7 ) i i = a / n f

w i t h oc = t h e t h e r m a l d i f f u s i v i t y a nd f t h e m o d u l a t i o n

f r e q u e n c y . T h e t h e r m a l d i f f u s i v i t y i s e q u a l t o

( 2 . 8 ) a = k/pCw h e r e k i s t h e t h e r m a l c o n d u c t i v i t y , p t h e d e n s i t y and

C t h e s p e c i f i c h e a t c a p a c i t y . L i k e n o r m a l p r o p a g a t i n g

w a v e s , t h e t h e r m a l w a v e h a s an o s c i l l a t o r y s p a t i a l

d e p e n d e n c e o f t h e f o r m ’ e x p ( i k x ) ’ , w i t h a w a v e v e c t o r

g i v e n b y 1 / F . H o w e v e r , u n l i k e n o r m a l p r o p a g a t i n g

w a v e s , t h e t h e r m a l w a v e i s a l s o v e r y h e a v i l y damped

( e x p ( - x / H ) ) w i t h a d a m p i n g c o e f f i c i e n t 1 / F . I n o n e

t h e r m a l w a v e l e n g t h , 2 t t f , t h e a m p l i t u d e o f t h e t h e r m a l

wav e i s r e d u c e d b y a f a c t o r e x p ( - 2 T T ) = 0 . 0 0 1 9 . T h e

34

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t h e r m a l d i f f u s i o n l e n g t h c a n r a n g e f r o m a f e w

m i l l i m e t r e s (mm) a t lo w m o d u l a t i o n f r e q u e n c i e s t o

f r a c t i o n s o f mm a t h i g h e r m o d u l a t i o n f r e q u e n c i e s .

T a b l e 2 . 1 l i s t s t h e t h e r m a l p r o p e r t i e s and t h e r m a l

d i f f u s i o n l e n g t h s f o r v a r i o u s common e n g i n e e r i n g

m a t e r i a l s and t h e r m a l s p r a y c o a t i n g s .

The a b o v e p l a n e t h e r m a l w a v e e q u a t i o n c a n a l s o be

u s e d t o d e r i v e t h e t h e r m a l w a v e r e f l e c t i o n and

t r a n s m i s s i o n c o e f f i c i e n t a t a t h e r m a l b o u n d a r y ( s e e

a p p e n d i x 1 ) . F o r two h o m o g e n e o u s m e d i a i n p e r f e c t

t h e r m a l c o n t a c t t h e r e f l e c t i o n a n d t r a n s m i s s i o n

c o e f f i c i e n t f o r n o r m a l l y i n c i d e n t t h e r m a l w a v e s a r e

g i v e n b y t h e e q u a t i o n s [ 5 5 3 :

(2.9) * = 7 ^ : 7' = 7^ tl+o 1+6

where b = »/( P i C i f c i J

f o r t h e r m a l w a v e s i n c i d e n t f r o m m e d iu m o n e t o med ium

t w o . As an e x a m p l e , i f t h e t h e r m a l i m p e d a n c e m i s m a t c h

r a t i o ' b 7 b e t w e e n two c o n t a c t i n g s u r f a c e s i s a h a l f ,

t h e n a t h i r d o f t h e i n c i d e n t t h e r m a l e n e r g y i s

r e f l e c t e d and t w o - t h i r d s i s t r a n s m i t t e d .

I t i s i m p o r t a n t t o n o t e t h a t t h e s e t h e r m a l w a v e

r e f l e c t i o n c o e f f i c i e n t s a r e r e a l an d i n d e p e n d e n t o f t h e

m o d u l a t i o n f r e q u e n c y . T h i s i s n o t t h e c a s e , a s w i l l be

s e e n l a t e r , w hen t h e c o n t a c t b e t w e e n tw o m e d i a i s

p a r t i a l . I n t h i s s i t u a t i o n t h e s e c o e f f i c i e n t s b eco m e

c o m p l e x and f r e q u e n c y d e p e n d e n t .

E q u a t i o n 2 . 6 a l s o sho w s t h a t t h e s u r f a c e t e m p e r a t u r e

i s i n v e r s e l y p r o p o r t i o n a l t o t h e s q u a r e r o o t o f t h e

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m o d u l a t i o n f r e q u e n c y and t h e p h a s e l a g s t h e h e a t i n g

s o u r c e b y 4 5 d e g r e e s . T h i s i n d e p e n d e n c e o f t h e s u r f a c e

p h a s e a n g l e f r o m t h e m o d u l a t i o n f r e q u e n c y f o r a

s e m i - i n f i n i t e s a m p l e c a n b e u t i l i s e d i n n o r m a l i s i n g

e x p e r i m e n t a l p h a s e a n g l e d a t a f o r q u a n t i t a t i v e

a n a l y s i s .

g . g ONE D IM E N SIO N A L SURFACE TEMPERATURE EXP R E S S IO N S

When p e r i o d i c a l l y c h o p p e d l i g h t i l l u m i n a t e s an

o p a q u e s a m p l e t h e r e s u l t i n g s u r f a c e t e m p e r a t u r e

d i s t r i b u t i o n a s s u m i n g o n e d i m e n s i o n a l ( I D ) h e a t f l o w ,

c a n b e w r i t t e n a s a sum o f t h r e e t e m p e r a t u r e s C 5 6 3 :

( 2 . 1 0 ) T ( x ) = T 0 + T ( x ) d c - T ( x ) ae

w h e r e T0 i s t h e a m b i e n t t e m p e r a t u r e o f t h e s a m p l e , Tcic=

t h e s t e a d y s t a t e and T ^ t h e p e r i o d i c t e m p e r a t u r e o f

t h e s a m p l e d u e t o o p t i c a l h e a t i n g ( s e e a p p e n d i x 2 ) .

F o r a n o p a q u e s e m i - i n f i n i t e s a m p l e t h e r a t i o o f t h e

d c / a c s u r f a c e t e m p e r a t u r e c a n d i f f e r b y a n o r d e r o f

m a g n i t u d e a s show n i n t h e f o l l o w i n g e x a m p l e f o r a n LC1B

p l a s m a s p r a y c o a t i n g .

Let the coat in g o p t i c a l r e f l e c t i v i t y be 0 . 5 , o p t i c a l heat g e n e r a t in g e f f i c i e n c y n = l , la y e r th ic k n e s s 200 Fm, the in c id e n t l a s e r power P0 , o f 1 wat t over an a rea o f .65 mm r a d i u s . 2 The steady s t a t e sur face temperature can then be e v a lu a te d form:

( l - r ) f P a \ L x

\ r c r gJ k— = 8 . 5 C

and the p e r io d i c s u r face temperature a t a modula t ion frequency of 81 Hz

2 L a s e r beam r a d i u s c o r r e s p o n d s t o t h e A r g o n i o n l a s e r u s e d i n t h e i n v e s t i g a t i o n s .

3 A t t h i s f r e q u e n c y t h e . 2 mm l a y e r w i l l b e s e m i - i n f i n i t e t o t h e t h e r m a l w a v e .

36

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T a b l e 2 . 2 s u m m a r i s e s t h e p r i n c i p l e o n e d i m e n s i o n a l

s u r f a c e t e m p e r a t u r e e x p r e s s i o n s f o r t h e r m a l wave

i n s p e c t i o n o f s u r f a c e c o a t i n g s . R e w r i t i n g t h e p e r i o d i c

s u r f a c e t e m p e r a t u r e e x p r e s s i o n f o r an o p t i c a l l y o p a q u e

l a y e r on a t h i c k s u b s t r a t e a s :

1 + r e x p ( - 2 c r Z )(1 -r)/0(2.11) T ac2 k a

(1-r)/2k<y

1 - rexp(-2crZ)_ 2rexp(-2tfZ)

1 + 1 - rexp(-2crl)t h e p r e s e n c e o f a s u r f a c e l a y e r i s s e e n t o add a

c o r r e c t i o n t e r m t o t h e t e m p e r a t u r e t h a t w o u l d h a v e b e e n

o b t a i n e d f o r a s e m i - i n f i n i t e l a y e r . T h e m a g n i t u d e o f

t h e c o r r e c t i o n t e r m d e p e n d s o n t h e t h e r m a l wa ve

r e f l e c t i o n c o e f f i c i e n t j T , a t t h e c o a t i n g / s u b s t r a t e

i n t e r f a c e a n d o n t h e t h e r m a l t h i c k n e s s ( L / H ) .t

F u r t h e r e x p a n s i o n o f t h i s e q u a t i o n s h o w s t h a t t h e

s u r f a c e t e m p e r a t u r e i s c o m p o s e d o f many t h e r m a l w ave

r e f l e c t i o n s f r o m t h e c o a t i n g / s u b s t r a t e a n d t h e

c o a t i n g / g a s i n t e r f a c e s :

( l - O / .(2.12) T ac = 1 + 2 L r nexp ( -2n<fL' )rt- 12 k a

l h i s d e s c r i p t i o n o f t h e r m a l w a v e p r o p a g a t i o n i n t h e

s u r f a c e l a y e r ( o r l a y e r e d m e d i a ) i s a n a l o g o u s t o t h a t

o f o p t i c a l i n t e r f e r e n c e i n t h i n t r a n s l u c e n t f i l m s .

T h u s e q u a t i o n s 2 . 1 1 - 2 . 1 2 p h y s i c a l l y r e p r e s e n t t h e r m a 1

w av e i n t e r f e r e n c e i n a t h i n o p t i c a l l y o p a q u e f i l m C 5 7 I .

I t i s t h i s p h e n o m e n a t h a t a l l o w s t h e r m a l wave

t e c h n i q u e s t o b e u t i l i s e d a s a s e n s i t i v e

i n t e r f e r o m e t r i c m e t h o d f o r n o n - c o n t a c t t h i c k n e s s

m e a s u r e m e n t s .

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g . 3 THREE D IM E N S IO N A L SURFACE TEMPERATURE

EXPRESSIO NS

As m e n t i o n e d i n c h a p t e r 1 , l a s e r beam s a r e w i d e l y

u s e d f o r o p t i c a l h e a t i n g i n p h o t o t h e r m a l N D T . T h e

h e a t e d r e g i o n i s v e r y o f t e n a s m a l l s p o t on t h e s a m p l e

s u r f a c e and h e a t d i f f u s i o n c a n n o t b e s i m p l y r e g a r d e d a s

I D . T h e t e m p e r a t u r e d i s t r i b u t i o n now h a s a n a d d i t i o n a l

d e g r e e o f f r e e d o m . R a d i a l h e a t d i f f u s i o n i n now

p o s s i b l e . T h e s u r f a c e t e m p e r a t u r e o f t h e s a m p l e c a n b e

s e p a r a t e d i n t o t h r e e c o m p o n e n t s :

/2.13/ T(r,z) = T 0(r,2 ) + T dc(r,z)+Toe(r,z)w h e r e r i s t h e d i s t a n c e f r o m t h e c e n t r e o f t h e h e a t i n g

b e a m . A n u m b e r o f a n a l y t i c a l m e t h o d s h a v e b e e n

d e v e l o p e d t o s o l v e t h e t h r e e d i m e n s i o n a l ( 3 D ) t h e r m a l

d i f f u s i o n e q u a t i o n w i t h t h e e n d r e s u l t o f e v a l u a t i n g

t h e p e r i o d i c s u r f a c e t e m p e r a t u r e b y a n i n t e g r a l C 5 8 3 ,

s e r i e s s u m m a t i o n C 5 9 , 6 0 3 , o r a f a s t F o u r i e r t r a n s f o r m

C 6 1 3 . I n t a b l e 2 . 3 t h e s e r i e s r e p r e s e n t a t i o n o f t h e

c o m p l e x h a r m o n i c s u r f a c e t e m p e r a t u r e i s g i v e n f o r a

s e m i - i n f i n i t e o p a q u e s u b s t r a t e and a t h i n o p a q u e l a y e r

on a t h i c k s u b s t r a t e . I n b o t h c a s e s i t i s s e e n t h a t

t h e 3D s u r f a c e t e m p e r a t u r e i s c o m p o s e d o f I D s u r f a c e

t e m p e r a t u r e t e r m an d c o r r e c t i o n t e r m f o r t h e r a d i a l

d i f f u s i o n o f h e a t . I n s p e c t i o n o f t h e 3D s u r f a c e

t e m p e r a t u r e t e r m show s t h a t o n e c a n r e a d i l y w r i t e down

3D s u r f a c e t e m p e r a t u r e e x p r e s s i o n s b y r e p l a c i n g t h e ID

t h e r m a l w a v e v e c t o r , <x= ( j w / a ) 1 / 2 , w i t h ( 7 m 2 +

( jw /o c > ) 1 / 2 . One i m p o r t a n t c o n s e q u e n c e o f t h i s

s u b s t i t u t i o n i s t h e i n c r e a s e d d e c a y r a t e o f t h e s u r f a c e

t e m p e r a t u r e . F i g u r e s 2 . 3 a - c s u m m a r i s e t h e d e p t h d e c a y

o f a p l a n e t h e r m a l w a v e ( 2 . 3 a ) and t h e r a d i a l and d e p t h

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d e c a y o f t h e 3D t e m p e r a t u r e f i e l d ( 2 . 3 b , c ) . F o r a

p u r e l y ID h e a t f l o w t h e m a g n i t u d e o f t h e s u r f a c e

t e m p e r a t u r e d e c r e a s e s b y 1 / e i n a d i s t a n c e o f o n e

t h e r m a l d i f f u s i o n l e n g t h . T h e 3D s u r f a c e t e m p e r a t u r e

d e c a y s m ore r a p i d l y , d e c a y i n g by 1 / e i n a d i s t a n c e o f

H / 3 , f o r t h e t e s t p a r a m e t e r s shown i n f i g u r e 2 . 3 b .

W i t h l o c a l i s e d h e a t i n g a n d l o c a l i s e d IR d e t e c t i o n a

f u r t h e r c o m p l i c a t i o n i s i n t r o d u c e d i n i n t e r p r e t i n g t h e

r e c o r d e d p h o t o t h e r m a l s i g n a l . F i g u r e 2 . 3 d sho w s t h e

v a r i a t i o n o f t h e s i g n a l p h a s e w i t h o p t i c a l s p o t s i z e

and I R d e t e c t i o n a r e a f o r a n o p a q u e s e m i - i n f i n i t e

s a m p l e . ( I t i s a s s u m e d t h a t t h e h e a t i n g and I R

d e t e c t i o n s p o t a r e c o i n c i d e n t ) . T h e p h o t o t h e r m a l s i g n a l

i s t h e n c o m p u t e d f r o m a n i n t e g r a t i o n o f t h e s u r f a c e

t e m p e r a t u r e o v e r t h e e x t e n t o f t h e I R d e t e c t i o n r e g i o n .

F o r p o i n t IR d e t e c t i o n t h e p h a s e a n g l e i s p r e d i c t e d t o

show a p h a s e a d v a n c e a s t h e o p t i c a l s p o t s i z e i s

d e c r e a s e d ( c u r v e 1 ) . T h e p h a s e a n g l e a p p r o a c h e s t h e ID

v a l u e a t o p t i c a l - s p o t s i z e / H r a t i o > 2 0 . H e n c e , t o

a p p l y I D s u r f a c e t e m p e r a t u r e e x p r e s s i o n s t o i n t e r p r e t

e x p e r i m e n t a l p h a s e a n g l e d a t a t h e a b o v e c o n d i t i o n n e e d s

t o be s a t i s f i e d . W i t h an i n c r e a s e i n t h e I R s a m p l i n g

r e g i o n , c u r v e s 2-A- , t h e p h a s e a d v a n c e i s r e d u c e d and

r e t u r n s t o t h e v a l u e e x p e c t e d f o r I D h e a t f l o w , n a m e l y

—4-5 d e g r e e s . T h i s a d d i t i o n a l d e p e n d e n c e o f t h e p h a s e

a n g l e o n t h e o p t i c a l s p o t s i z e and t h e f i n i t e I R

d e t e c t i o n a r e a p r e s e n t s a d i f f i c u l t p r o b l e m s i n

i n t e r p r e t i n g e x p e r i m e n t a l p h a s e a n g l e d a t a

q u a n t i t a t i v e l y .

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g . * f A P P L I C A T I O N TO THERMAL SPRAY COATINGS

I n t h e f o l l o w i n g s e c t i o n s t h e t h e r m a l w a v e r e s p o n s e

f r o m o p t i c a l l y o p a q u e t h e r m a l s p r a y c o a t i n g s i s

e x a m i n e d . I t i s assum ed t h a t t h e s u r f a c e c o a t i n g ( s )

and t h e s u b s t r a t e h a v e u n i f o r m t h e r m a l p r o p e r t i e s and

I D h e a t f l o w c o n d i t i o n s a p p l y . S i g n a l v a r i a t i o n s u n d e r

3D h e a t d i f f u s i o n a r e a l s o c o n s i d e r e d . C o a t i n g

p a r a m e t e r s e x a m i n e d i n c l u d e : v a r i a t i o n s i n c o a t i n g

t h i c k n e s s , t h e r m a l p r o p e r t i e s , s u r f a c e r o u g h n e s s and

s u b s u r f a c e d e f e c t s .

5 . ^ . 1 COATING ON A SUBSTRATE

The e f f e c t s o n t h e s u r f a c e t e m p e r a t u r e a m p l i t u d e and

p h a s e a n g l e f r o m a t h i n o p a q u e c o a t i n g on a

s e m i - i n f i n i t e s u b s t r a t e a r e s h o w n n o r m a l i s e d a g a i n s t

t h e t h e r m a l t h i c k n e s s , L / H » a n d f o r d i f f e r e n t c o a t i n g /

s u b s t r a t e t h e r m a l w a v e r e f l e c t i o n c o e f f i c i e n t s i n

f i g u r e s 2 . 4 - a a n d b . T h e n o r m a l i s a t i o n i s w i t h r e s p e c t

t o t h e c o m p l e x s u r f a c e t e m p e r a t u r e f r o m a s e m i - i n f i n i t e

c o a t i n g . T h e s e two f i g u r e s r e p r e s e n t u n i v e r s a l

d i a g r a m s t h a t c a n b e u s e d t o p r e d i c t t h e v a r i a t i o n s o f

t h e p h o t o t h e r m a l s i g n a l a m p l i t u d e a nd p h a s e f r o m a n y

c o m b i n a t i o n o f a n o p a q u e c o a t i n g o n a s u b s t r a t e when

h e a t d i f f u s i o n i s I D . T h e m a i n e l e m e n t s o f t h e s e

a m p l i t u d e an d p h a s e d i a g r a m s a r e s u m m a r i s e d b e l o w .

1) The l a r g e r the d i f f e r e n c e s between the thermal e f f u s i v i t y

va lu es o f the coat ing and th e s u b s t r a t e (hence a la rg e

thermal wave r e f l e c t i o n c o e f f i c i e n t magnitude) the g r e a t e r

are the changes in the a m p l i tud e and phase o f the

photothermal s i g n a l .

40

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2) For a g iv en c o a t i n g / s u b s t r a t e r e f l e c t i o n c o e f f i c i e n t

changes in the co a t in g th ic k n e s s gen era te the locus

s p e c i f i e d f o r the c o a t i n g / s u b s t r a t e system, see f i g u r e

2 . 5 a .

3) Any v a r i a t i o n in the thermal p r o p e r t i e s o f the co a t in g and

/o r the s u b s t ra t e w i l l a l t e r the c o a t i n g / s u b s t r a te

thermal wave r e f l e c t i o n c o e f f i c i e n t to a d i f f e r e n t value

thus causing the phase ang le to s h i f t to a new r e f l e c t i o n

c o e f f i c i e n t locus, see f i g u r e 2 . 5 b .

**) Phase an gle measurements have th e advantages over ampl i tude

rec o rd in g o f g r e a t e r depth sens in g , up to 1.5x thermal

d i f f u s i o n le n g th , and being u n a f f e c t e d by v a r i a t i o n s in

the s u r f a c e o p t i c a l p r o p e r t i e s , a b s o r p t i v i t y and

e m i s s i v i t y , o f the sample. The l a t t e r p o i n t can be seen

e x p l i c i t l y by w r i t i n g the argument o f e q u a t io n 2 .11 [ 5 7 ] :

(2.14) A<j>= tan - 1 -2f exp(-2I/ji)sin(2Z//i)1 - r 2exp(-4I/*i)

or q u a l i t a t i v e l y through the phasor diagrams o f f i g u r e 2 . 6

S i n c e t h e r m a l w a v e i n t e r f e r e n c e e f f e c t s c a n o n l y b e

o b s e r v e d up t o 1 . 5 t i m e s t h e t h e r m a l d i f f u s i o n l e n g t h " 1* ,

t h e t e s t f r e q u e n c y f o r i n s p e c t i o n c a n a s a f i r s t

a p p r o x i m a t i o n b e d e t e r m i n e d b y s e t t i n g :

a( 2 . 1 5 ) L / i.i= 1 /

i t L

F o r a 2 5 0 Hm l a y e r o f A l ^ C ^ , L C 1 B , Z r Q G- Y a 0 3 , t h e t e s t

f r e q u e n c i e s a r e f o u n d t o b e 1 1 . 1 , 6 . ^ and 1 . 3 Hz

r e s p e c t i v e l y . I n g e n e r a l a l o w m o d u l a t i o n f r e q u e n c y

i s r e q u i r e d f o r i n s p e c t i n g l a r g e c o a t i n g t h i c k n e s s e s o r

lo w t h e r m a l d i f f u s i v i t y c o a t i n g s .

F i g u r e 2 . 7 sh o w s t h e t h e o r e t i c a l p h a s e a n g l e

A F o r t h e r m a l w a v e g e n e r a t i o n a nd d e t e c t i o n a t t h e s a m p l e s u r f a c e .

41

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v a r i a t i o n o f t h e s u r f a c e t e m p e r a t u r e when h e a t

d i f f u s i o n i n t h e s a m p l e i s t h r e e d i m e n s i o n a l . The

s u r f a c e c o a t i n g i s L C l t i and t h e s u b s t r a t e 3 1 6 s t a i n l e s s

s t e e l . As n o t e d e a r l i e r , when t h e l a s e r beam d i a m e t e r

i s s m a l l c o m p a r e d t o t h e t h e r m a l d i f f u s i o n l e n g t h ,

d e v i a t i o n s f r o m t h e I D p h a s e l o c u s o c c u r s , t h e

m a g n i t u d e o f w h i c h d e p e n d s on t h e r e l a t i v e r a t i o s o f

t h e a b o v e two d i m e n s i o n s and I R d e t e c t i o n a r e a

C 5 8 , 6 2 1 . F o r l a s e r beam d i a m e t e r s g r e a t e r t h a n 5 0 0

Hm, t h e p h a s e c u r v e s g e n e r a t e d f r o m t h e 3D and I D

s u r f a c e t e m p e r a t u r e e q u a t i o n s c o i n c i d e . I n g e n e r a l , t o

a p p l y I D t h e r m a l d i f f u s i o n a n a l y s i s i n PTR NDT a l a s e r

beam d i a m e t e r o f 2 0 t i m e s t h e l a y e r t h i c k n e s s i s

r e q u i r e d when p o i n t I R d e t e c t i o n u s e d . T h i s

r e q u i r e m e n t c a n b e r e l a x e d , a t t h e e x p e n s e o f r e d u c e d

i m a g e r e s o l u t i o n , i f t h e I R d e t e c t i o n s p o t on t h e

s a m p l e s u r f a c e i s i n c r e a s e d .

5 . *».2 COATING POROSI TY EFFECTS

L o c a l v a r i a t i o n s i n t h e c o a t i n g t h e r m a l p r o p e r t i e s

d u e t o p o r o s i t y c a n be m o d e l l e d b y r e p l a c i n g t h e b u l k

c o a t i n g t h e r m a l p a r a m e t e r s w i t h t h o s e c o r r e c t e d f o r

p o r o s i t y . F o r s p h e r i c a l p o r e s t h e c o r r e c t i o n t e r m s

a r e C 6 3 1 :

(2.16) pC “ (1 - /)pC , fc- (1~ ^ }(1 +0.5/)From t h e s e r e l a t i o n s h i p s i t i s s e e n t h a t t h e c o a t i n g

t h e r m a l e f f u s i v i t y c h a n g e s m o r e r a p i d l y w i t h i n c r e a s i n g

p o r o s i t y t h e s a m p l e ’ s t h e r m a l d i f f u s i v i t y :

l 2 ' 1 7 ) p C t ~ r H o ~ 5I / ) t ( , c t ) -

42

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w h e r e f i s t h e v o l u m e p o r o s i t y f r a c t i o n a nd s u f f i x o

r e f e r s t o t h e b u l k t h e r m a l p r o p e r t i e s . I n f i g u r e 2 . 8

a p l o t o f t h e n o r m a l i s e d p h a s e a n g l e v a r i a t i o n a g a i n s t

s q u a r e r o o t f r e q u e n c y f o r a 2 0 0 Hm LC1B c o a t i n g on 3 1 6

s t a i n l e s s s t e e l s a m p l e i s p r e s e n t e d w i t h d i f f e r e n t

p o r o s i t y f r a c t i o n s . UJi th i n c r e a s i n g c o a t i n g p o r o s i t y ,

t h e p h a s e a n g l e i s p r e d i c t e d t o i n c r e a s e w i t h r e s p e c t

t o t h e " z e r o " p o r o s i t y c o a t i n g v a l u e . T h i s p h a s e

a d v a n c e i s d u e t o t h e i n c r e a s e i n t h e t h e r m a l i m p e d a n c e

m i s m a t c h and h e n c e t h e t h e r m a l w a v e r e f l e c t i o n

c o e f f i c i e n t b e t w e e n t h e c o a t i n g a nd s u b s t r a t e ( s e e

e q u a t i o n 2 . 9 ) .

2 . . 3 SURFACE ROUGHNESS

T h e r m a l s p r a y c o a t i n g s h a v e i n h e r e n t l y r o u g h

a s - s p r a y e d s u r f a c e s . S u r f a c e r o u g h n e s s c a n r a n g e up

t o 2 5 Hm r m s , a l m o s t 10*/. o f t h e c o a t i n g t h i c k n e s s u s e d

i n many a p p l i c a t i o n s . I n a d d i t i o n t o t h e s u r f a c e

r o u g h n e s s t h e c o a t i n g / s u b s t r a t e i n t e r f a c e i s i r r e g u l a r

d u e t o t h e i n i t i a l r o u g h i n g o f t h e s u b s t r a t e t o p r o m o t e

c o a t i n g a d h e s i o n . To m o d e l t h e r m a l w a v e p r o p a g a t i o n

i n s u c h a s t r u c t u r e i t i s a s s u me d t h a t t h e ’ r o u g h ’

s u r f a c e s o f t h e c o a t i n g c a n b e r e p l a c e d b y a d i s c r e t e

l a y e r o f d i f f e r e n t t h e r m a l p r o p e r t i e s , a s shown i n

f i g u r e 2 . 9 . The s u r f a c e t e m p e r a t u r e o f s u c h a l a y e r e d

s a m p l e , w h e r e t h e s u r f a c e l a y e r i s o p t i c a l l y o p a q u e ,

c a n b e e v a l u a t e d b y a p p l y i n g t h e O s p a l - R o s e n c w a i g d e p t h

p r o f i l i n g t h e o r y C6^+l:

( 1 - r ' i r j l , ,( 2 . 1 8 ) 7' ac *7 InZ '[

4 3

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z [n = zC IZj,".! + Z„tanh u„ Z n + Zj," i tanhu.

w h e r e l a y e r n i s t h e n u mb e r o f s u r f a c e l a y e r s and t h ea r e

u p p e r m o s t l a y e r i s n u mber 1 . t h e t h e r m a l i n p u t

i m p e n d a n c e s .

C o n s i d e r f i r s t t h e e f f e c t s o f a t h e r m a l c o n d u c t i v i t y

v a r i a t i o n i n a c o a t i n g c h a n g i n g s t e p w i s e f r o m a v a l u e

o f 11 a t t h e s u b s t r a t e t o a v a l u e o f 1 a t t h e s u r f a c e .

L e t t h e c o a t i n g t h i c k n e s s b e 1 0 0 Hm. F i g u r e 2 . 1 0 a and

b show t h e c h a n g e s i n s i g n a l a m p l i t u d e a n d p h a s e a n g l e

w i t h r o o t f r e q u e n c y o f a 1 , 2 , a n d 8 l a y e r c o a t i n g

s t r u c t u r e . T h e f i g u r e sho ws t h a t w i t h i n c r e a s e d l a y e r s

and a m o r e g r a d u a l t h e r m a l c o n d u c t i v i t y c h a n g e t h e

t h e r m a l w a v e i n t e r f e r e n c e i s m o r e ’ d i f f u s e d ’ i n

c o m p a r i s o n t o t h e o n e l a y e r t h e r m a l s t r u c t u r e .

T h e t h e r m a l w a v e i n t e r f e r e n c e p a t t e r n f o r a m o d e l l e d

s u r f a c e r o u g h n e s s shown i n f i g u r e 2 . 9 i s shown i n

f i g u r e s 2 . 1 1 a - b f o r d i f f e r e n t t h e r m a l p r o p e r t i e s and

s u r f a c e r o u g h n e s s t h i c k n e s s . T h e p h a s e p l o t s

i l l u s t r a t e d i n t h e s e f i g u r e s a r e n o r m a l i s e d t o a

c o a t i n g t h i c k n e s s o f 100 Hm. F r o m t h e s e f i g u r e s t h e

f o l l o w i n g o b s e r v a t i o n s c a n b e s u m m a r i s e d .

1) W i t h i n c r e a s i n g f r e q u e n c y t h e t h e r m a l w a v e

i n t e r f e r e n c e e f f e c t s w i t h i n t h e s u r f a c e l a y e r

b e c o me i n c r e a s i n g l y a p p a r e n t a s sh o wn by t h e

p h a s e p e a k s i n t h e s e f i g u r e s . Two i n t e r f e r e n c e

Page 61: An evaluation of the technique of photothermal radiometry ... · An evaluation of the technique of photothermal radiometry for the non-destructive testing and characterisation of

p e a k s a r e s e e n , t h e f i r s t f r o m t h e e f f e c t i v e

t h i c k n e s s o f t h e w h o l e c o a t i n g and s e c o n d l y f r o m

t h e s u r f a c e r o u g h n e s s l a y e r .

2 ) W i t h d e c r e a s i n g t h e r m a l c o n d u c t i v i t y o f t h e

s u r f a c e l a y e r f r o m a b u l k v a l u e o f 4 . ^ t o 2 . 2 W

/m K , t h e t h e r m a l w a v e i n t e r f e r e n c e p e a k s a r e

m o r e p r o n o u n c e d du e t o i n c r e a s i n g d i f f e r e n c e i n

t h e l a y e r / s u b s t r a t e t h e r m a l e f f u s i v i t y .

3 ) I n c r e a s i n g t h e t h i c k n e s s o f t h e s u r f a c e r o u g h n e s s

l a y e r t h e t h e r m a l w a v e i n t e r f e r e n c e p e a k s h i f t s

t o a l o w e r f r e q u e n c y . T h e m a g n i t u d e o f t h e

i n t e r f e r e n c e p e a k r e m a i n s u n c h a n g e d .

2 . 4 - . 4 - C O A T I N G / SUBSTRATE I NTERF ACE DEFECTS

S u b s u r f a c e d e f e c t s i n a c o a t e d c o m p o n e n t f a l l i n

e i t h e r o n e o f t h e f o l l o w i n g t wo c a t e g o r i e s . T h e d e f e c t

c a n b e a l o c a l i s e d r e g i o n o f c o m p l e t e s e p a r a t i o n o r

c o n s i s t s o f r e g i o n s i n p a r t i a l c o n t a c t C 6 5 , 6 6 1 . I n

b o t h c a s e s , t h e c o m p l e x s u r f a c e t e m p e r a t u r e , s e e t a b l e

2 . 2 , t a k e t h e same f o r m a s e q u a t i o n 2 . 1 1 b u t w i t h T

r e p l a c e d r e s p e c t i v e l y w i t h :

r 1 + r 2 e ~ 3 a * L*( 2 . 1 9 ) r = — i----- ? :-ia-L

i + r 1r 2e 22w h e r e

1 - b i 1 - 5 , 2( 2 . 2 0 ) r , - — - i a n d

l + 0 ',| I + 6 2

f o r t h e a i r g a p m o d e l , and

1 - b i + R'k2o 2< 2 - 2 1 > r = T ~ r — f i t - 51 b i + K k 2 o i

f o r t h e c o n t a c t r e s i s t a n c e m o d e l .

I n f i g u r e 2 . 1 2 t h e p h a s e v a r i a t i o n o f w i t h r o o t

f r e q u e n c y i s p r e s e n t e d f o r t h e a b o v e two d e f e c t s i n 3 1 6

45

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s t a i n l e s s s t e e l 0 . 5mm b e l o w t h e s u r f a c e f o r a r a n g e o f

a i r g a p t h i c k n e s s e s 53 and t h e r m a l c o n t a c t r e s i s t a n c e s .

T h e f i g u r e shows a c h a r a c t e r i s t i c p h a s e l o c u s f o r b o t h

d e f e c t t y p e s . A t l ow m o d u l a t i o n f r e q u e n c i e s t h e p h a s e

a n g l e shows an a d v a n c e w i t h r e s p e c t t o t h e d e f e c t f r e e

p h a s e c u r v e . W i t h i n c r e a s i n g f r e q u e n c y t h i s p h a s e

a d v a n c e t u r n s i n t o a p h a s e l a g . T h e s e t h e o r e t i c a l

c u r v e s a l s o p r e d i c t t h e f r e q u e n c y a t w h i c h a d e f e c t

b e c o m e s u n d e t e c t a b l e .

T h e s i m i l a r i t y o f t h e t h e r m a l w a v e p h a s e f o r b o t h

d e f e c t m o d e l s c a n b e s e e n e x p l i c i t l y by e x p a n d i n g t h e

r e f l e c t i o n c o e f f i c i e n t f o r l o w and h i g h f r e q u e n c y . A t

l o w m o d u l a t i o n f r e q u e n c i e s , t h e t h e r m a l w a v e v e c t o r s cr*

and (js a r e b o t h s m a l l and r r e d u c e s t o :

2 r i o t z 2 i—( 2 . 2 2 ) r « £ , e

f o r t h e a i r g a p m o d e l , and

JR k i cf i i——( 2 . 2 3 ) r **— - — £.g roccrlocyja)

f o r t h e t h e r m a l c o n t a c t r e s i s t a n c e m o d e l . A t h i g h

f r e q u e n c i e s b o t h e x p r e s s i o n s f o r F t e n d t o u n i t y a n d

a r e a l s o f r e q u e n c y i n d e p e n d e n t .

g - ^ - 5 DEFECT D ETEC TI ON S E N S I T I V I T Y

F i g u r e 2 . 1 3 and 2 . 1 ^ p l o t t h e p h a s e d i f f e r e n c e

( p h a s e a n g l e a t t h e d e f e c t m i n u s t h e p h a s e a t a d e f e c t

f r e e r e g i o n ) w i t h s q u a r e r o o t f r e q u e n c y f o r an a i r - g a p

t y p e d e f e c t i n c o a t e d o r b u l k m a t e r i a l s . T h e b u l k

S i n c l u d i n g g a s t h e r m a l c o n d u c t i v i t y c o r r e c t i o n a t s m a l l a i r gap t h i c k n e s s , s e e b e l o w .

46

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m a t e r i a l s c h o s e n a r e a l u m i n i u m a nd e p o x y r e s i n a s t h e y

h a v e an o r d e r o f m a g n i t u d e d i f f e r e n c e i n t h e t h e r m a l

e f f u s i v i t y w i t h r e s p e c t t o 3 1 6 s t a i n l e s s s t e e l , t h e

s u b s t r a t e m a t e r i a l i n t h e c o a t e d s i t u a t i o n . T h e c o a t e d

s t r u c t u r e s c o n s i s t o f a 0 . 5 mm s u r f a c e l a y e r o f

a l u m i n i u m , o r LC1B o r Y t t r i a s t a b i l i s e d z i r c o n i a on 3 1 6

s t a i n l e s s s t e e l .

C o n s i d e r i n g f i r s t t h e a i r g a p d e f e c t p l o t s o f f i g u r e

2 . 1 2 a n d 2 . 1 3 , when t h e a i r ga p t h i c k n e s s , L a »‘

a p p r o a c h e s t h e mean f r e e p a t h o f t h e a i r m o l e c u l e s , d ,

a c o r r e c t i o n f o r t h e g a s t h e r m a l c o n d u c t i v i t y m u s t be

ma d e . I n a p p e n d i x 3 t h e g a s c o n d u c t i v i t y c o r r e c t i o n

f a c t o r

(2.24) K a - K 0/ [ 1 + 7 7 )

i s d e r i v e d . d and F a r e t a k e n t o b e 0 . 1 5 Hm and 3

r e s p e c t i v e l y ( t h e a c c o m m o d a t i o n f a c t o r i m p l i c i t i n F i s

t a k e n t o b e 0 . 5 f o r b o t h s u r f a c e s ) . I n a d d i t i o n t o t h e

a b o v e d i s c u s s i o n on t h e d e f e c t p h a s e l o c u s t h e r e a r e

t h r e e o t h e r m a i n p o i n t s t o n o t e .

1) A i r gap d e f e c t s embedded i n h ig h th e r m a l e f f u s i v i t y

m a t e r i a l s ( e . g . a lu m in iu m ) w i l l be more r e a d i l y d e t e c t e d

th a n s i m i l a r s i z e d d e f e c t s i n low th e r m a l e f f u s i v i t y

m a t e r i a l s . T h is i s due t h e g r e a t e r d i f f e r e n c e i n the

t h e r m a l e f f u s i v i t y between t h e d e f e c t and host m a t e r i a l .

2 ) C o n t r a s t between d e f e c t s o f d i f f e r e n t t h i c k n e s s e s

d i m i n i s h e s in h ig h d i f f u s i v i t y m a t e r i a l due the r a p i d

approach o f th e r e f l e c t i o n c o e f f i c i e n t to u n i t y (o r the

s am p le / b ac k i n g r e f l e c t i o n c o e f f i c i e n t ) w i t h i n c r e a s i n g

d e f e c t t h i c k n e s s (see e q u a t i o n 2 . 1 9 ) .

47

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3) E s t i m a t i o n o f d e f e c t t h i c k n e s s become more d i f f i c u l t in

h ig h e f f u s i v i t y m a t e r i a l s due to c o n t r a s t s a t u r a t i o n .

5 . ^ . 6 THERMAL CONTACT R E S I ST A N C E

I n t h e p h a s e c u r v e s p r e s e n t e d i n f i g u r e 2 . 1 2

a r b i t r a r y v a l u e s o f t h e t h e r m a l c o n t a c t r e s i s t a n c e s

b e t w e e n t h e c o a t i n g and s u b s t r a t e w e r e u s e d t o

i l l u s t r a t e t h e p h a s e a n g l e v a r i a t i o n a t p a r t i a l l y

c o n t a c t i n g i n t e r f a c e s . I n t h i s s e c t i o n a d e t a i l e d

a n a l y s i s i s p r e s e n t e d f o r t h e c a l c u l a t i o n o f t h e r m a l

c o n t a c t r e s i s t a n c e s v a l u e s a t a r o u g h c o n t a c t i n g

i n t e r f a c e and i t s a p p l i c a t i o n t o t h e r m a l w a v e NDT o f

c o n t a c t i n g s u r f a c e s £ 6 7 3 .

T h e t h e r m a l c o n t a c t r e s i s t a n c e b e t w e e n r o u g h

s u r f a c e s i n c o n t a c t c a n b e r e l a t e d t o t h e t r u e c o n t a c t

a r e a b y a p p l y i n g a s t a t i s t i c a l d e s c r i p t i o n t o t h e

s u r f a c e t o p o g r a p h y C 6 8 D . I n t h e f o l l o w i n g a n a l y s i s

c e r t a i n a s s u m p t i o n s a r e m a d e :

i ) t h e t h e r m a l c o n t a c t r e s i s t a n c e a t a c o n t a c t i n g

s u r f a c e may b e d i v i d e d i n t o t wo c o m p o n e n t s ;

a) the th e rm a l r e s i s t a n c e due to c o n t a c t between s u r f a c e

a s p e r i t i e s ( t h e c o n s t r i c t i o n r e s i s t a n c e ) , Rm, and

b) t h e t h e rm a l r e s i s t a n c e due to t h e t r a p p e d f l u i d (gas ) l a y e r

between th e m at i ng s u r f a c e , R0 .

i i ) B o t h Rm and R^ a r e i n d e p e n d e n t o f e a c h o t h e r and

t h a t t h e t o t a l r e s i s t a n c e o f t h e i n t e r f a c e i s g i v e n

by

( 2 . 2 5 ) ( 1 ' 1 ^ 1RJ \ R mJ \ R J

4 8

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i i i ) The contact topography of the rough surface

a s s u m e s t h a t when two r o u g h s u r f a c e s ( r m s h and h o )

a r e p r e s s e d i n t o c o n t a c t , t h e s u r f a c e d e f o r m a t i o n

c a n be m o d e l l e d as b e i n g t h a t o f a r i g i d f l a t p l a n e

o n t o a s u r f a c e h a v i n g a c o m b i n e d r o u g h n e s s h,~=(h., .

+h;=> f~ ) , s e e f i g u r e 2 . 1 5 . F u r t h e r , t h e a s p e r i t i e s

o f t h e r o u g h s u r f a c e d e f o r m p l a s t i c a l l y w i t h

i n c r e a s i n g l o a d and t h a t a t a n y l o a d , t h e t r u e c o n t a c t

c o m p r o m i s e s a l a r g e n u m b e r o f e q u i - a r e a c i r c u l a r

c o n t a c t s o f r a d i u s r .

F o r a c o n t a c t s u r f a c e f o r m e d b e t w e e n a r i g i d f l a t

p l a n e a nd a r o u g h s u r f a c e h a v i n g a n o r m a l d i s t r i b u t i o n

o f c o n i c a l a s p e r i t i e s , t h e t h e r m a l r e s i s t a n c e Rm c a n

b e o b t a i n e d b y a p p l y i n g t h e r e l a t i o n s h i p s C693

f a l l o w s t h e p l a s t i c c o n t a c t t h e o r y . T h i s t h e o r y

(2.26) N n r

(2.27)

(2.28) R 1

m (2 N r k m)

where

A* i s the r e a l a r e a o f c o n t a c t ,

A0 i s t h e a p p a r e n t a r e a o f c o n t a c t ,

S i s th e a p p l i e d s t r e s s ,

P,„ i s th e har dness o f the d e f o r m in g m a t e r i a l ,

N i s th e number o f the c o n t a c t s p o t s p e r u n i t a r e a ,

u i s t h e d i s t a n c e between t h e mean p l a n e o f the

rough s u r f a c e and the p e r f e c t l y f l a t s u r f a c e ,

k„, is the harmonic mean the rm a l c o n d u c t i v i t y .

4 9

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Th e t h e r m a l r e s i s t a n c e , RSi(, c a n a s a f i r s t

a p p r o x i m a t i o n be w r i t t e n a s :

(2.29) R a = h c/ k gand t h e c o r r e s p o n d i n g c h a n g e i n t h e m a g n i t u d e o f t h e

t h e r m a l w a v e r e f l e c t i o n c o e f f i c i e n t , P , may be

e v a l u a t e d f r o m e q u a t i o n 2 . 8 0 a s s u m i n g o n e d i m e n s i o n a l

h e a t f l o w .

I n f i g u r e s 2 . 1 6 a a nd b , t h e v a r i a t i o n o f t h e

t h e r m a l c o n t a c t r e s i s t a n c e , f o r c o n t a c t s p o t s i n

v a c u u m a nd a i r , a g a i n s t t h e n o r m a l i s e d c o n t a c t a r e a

( A b/ A 0 ) a r e p l a t t e d u s i n g s u r f a c e r o u g h n e s s v a l u e s

o f 1 and 10 Hm rms a n d h a r m o n i c mean t h e r m a l

c o n d u c t i v i t y o f 64- and 1 W/m K . T h e s e f i g u r e s show

t h a t t h e t h e r m a l c o n t a c t r e s i s t a n c e d e c r e a s e s r a p i d l y

w i t h i n c r e a s i n g c o n t a c t a r e a r a t i o . T h e t h e r m a l

c o n t a c t r e s i s t a n c e i s l o w e r f o r c o n t a c t w i t h s mo o t h

s u r f a c e s and m a t e r i a l s w i t h h i g h t h e r m a l c o n d u c t i v i t y .

A i r p r e s e n t b e t w e e n t h e c o n t a c t i n g s u r f a c e s a l s o

r e d u c e s t h e t h e r m a l r e s i s t a n c e o f t h e j o i n t ; t h e

o v e r a l l r e d u c t i o n b e i n g d e p e n d a n t on t h e s p o t t h e r m a l

r e s i s t a n c e , Rm.

F i g u r e 2 . 1 7 a and b show t h e n o r m a l i s e d p h a s e a n g l e

v a r i a t i o n w i t h n o r m a l i s e d d e p t h ( d e p t h / t h e r m a l

d i f f u s i o n l e n g t h ) f o r d i f f e r e n t f r a c t i o n a l c o n t a c t a r e a

i n m i l d s t e e l and o p a q u e z i r c o n i a s a m p l e s -

a s s u m i n g t h e r m a l w a v e s b e i n g g e n e r a t e d a n d d e t e c t e d a t

t h e s u r f a c e . T h e s u r f a c e r o u g h n e s s o f t h e c o n t a c t i n g

f a c e s f o r t h e s e two p l o t s i s 1 Hm r m s . F o r an

e x p e r i m e n t a l p h a s e a n g l e n o i s e o f 1 d e g r e e , i t i s s e e n

f r o m t h e p l o t s t h a t f r a c t i o n a l c o n t a c t a r e a s up t o 0 . 3

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c a n be r e a d i l y d e t e c t e d b y t h e r m a l w a v e s f o r t h e s e

s a m p l e s . I t i s a l s o s e e n f r o m f i g u r e 2 . 1 7 b t h a t t h e

p r e s e n c e o f a i r b e t w e e n t h e c o n t a c t s u r f a c e o f l o w

c o n d u c t i v i t y m a t e r i a l r e d u c e s t h e d e t e c t a b i l i t y o f

t h i s i n t e r f a c e .

To c o m p a r e t h e s e n s i t i v i t y o f t h e r m a l and

u l t r a s o n i c w a v e s t o c o n t a c t i n g s u r f a c e s we a s s u m e t h a t

f o r c o m p a r a b l e r e s o l u t i o n b e t w e e n t h e t wo t e c h n i q u e s

t h a t t h e t h e r m a l d i f f u s i o n l e n g t h e q u a l s t h e u l t r a s o n i c

wa v e l e n g t h . T h i s a l l o w s t h e d e t e r m i n a t i o n o f t h e

a p p r o p r i a t e t h e r m a l w a v e t e s t f r e q u e n c y . N e x t i t i s

a ssumed t h a t s u i t a b l e n o i s e l e v e l b e s e t t o t h e

d e t e c t e d s i g n a l ; 1 d e g r e e p h a s e a n g l e n o i s e f o r t h e r m a l

w a v e s and a 1 dB s i g n a l c h a n g e f o r u l t r a s o n i c s .

F i g u r e 2 . 1 8 sh o ws t h e v a r i a t i o n o f t h e u l t r a s o n i c

r e f l e c t i o n c o e f f i c i e n t m a g n i t u d e , ( c o m p u t e d f r o m

e q u a t i o n 19 i n [ 6 9 3 ) , a g a i n s t t h e n o r m a l i s e d c o n t a c t

a r e a f o r a m i l d s t e e l s a m p l e w i t h a r ms i n t e r f a c e

r o u g h n e s s 1 Hm and 10 MH z . u l t r a s o n i c w a v e . I n

a t h r o u g h t r a n s m i s s i o n u l t r a s o n i c t e s t a 1 dB s i g n a l

c h a n g e c o r r e s p o n d s t o d e t e c t i n g a c o n t a c t a r e a r a t i o

o f a b o u t 0 . 1 . T h i s v a l u e i s s l i g h t l y l e s s t h e n t h e

c o n t a c t a r e a r a t i o p r e d i c t e d f o r t h e r m a l w a v e s o f

0 . 3 .

2 . 5 RESOLUTI ON AND D E F I N I T I O N OF SUBSURFACE

STRUCTURE

The p a r a m e t e r s w h i c h d e t e r m i n e t h e r e s o l u t i o n i n

m o d u l a t e d p h o t o t h e r m a l r a d i o m e t r y a r e :

a) the o p t i c a l h e a t i n g and IR d e t e c t i o n spot s i z e s ,

b) the dep th and geometry o f t h e s u b s u r f a c e s t r u c t u r e and,

c) the m o d u l a t i o n f r e q u e n c y .

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R e s o l u t i o n o f n e a r b y s t r u c t u r e s i s i m p r o v e d a s t h e

o p t i c a l h e a t i n g and I R d e t e c t i o n s p o t s i z e s a r e made

s m a l l e r t h e n t h e s u b s u r f a c e s t r u c t u r e . W i t h s o u r c e

l o c a l i s a t i o n t h e r e w i l l b e l i m i t e d i n t e r a c t i o n o f

s c a t t e r e d t h e r m a l wa v e s f r o m n e i g h b o u r i n g s t r u c t u r e s .

I n g l e h a r t e t a l . C7 0 ] h a v e s h o w n t h a t f o r o p t i c a l l y

o p a q u e s a m p l e s i m a g e r e s o l u t i o n i s i n d e p e n d e n t o f t h e

m o d u l a t i o n f r e q u e n c y , ( i . e . t h e r m a l w a v e l e n g t h ) f o r

s u b s u r f a c e t h e r m a l s t r u c t u r e s v e r y c l o s e t o t h e

s u r f a c e . I n t h i s ex t r e m e n e a r - f i e 1d l i m i t t h e i m a g e

r e s o l u t i o n i s t h e n d e t e r m i n e d b y t h e d e p t h o f t h e

s c a t t e r e r . T h e e x p l a n a t i o n f o r t h i s i s d u e t o t h e

f a c t t h a t t h e r e i s v e r y l i t t l e t h e r m a l w a v e s c a t t e r i n g

t o w a r d s t h e s u r f a c e . O n l y wh e n t h e s o u r c e a p p r o a c h e s

a l a t e r a l d i s t a n c e a p p r o x i m a t e l y e q u a l t o t h e d e p t h , i s

t h e r e a p p r e c i a b l e s c a t t e r i n g i n t h i s d i r e c t i o n 1 7 1 1 .

S i n c e t h e o p t i c a l w a v e l e n g t h u l t i m a t e l y d e t e r m i n e s t h e

mi n i mum o p t i c a l s p o t s i z e , t h e r e s o l u t i o n i n PTR i s

l i m i t e d by t h e o p t i c a l w a v e l e n g t h r a t h e r t h a n t h e I R

f o c a l s p o t .

When t h e s u b s u r f a c e d e f e c t i s f a r f r o m t h e s u r f a c e

b u t w i t h i n t h e t h e r m a l d i f f u s i o n l e n g t h , t h e l a t e r a l

r e s o l u t i o n i s d e t e r m i n e d by t h e t h e r m a l d i f f u s i o n

l e n g t h a s s u m i n g t h a t b o t h t h e h e a t e d and s e n s i n g s p o t

a r e much s m a l l e r t h e n t h i s l e n g t h . I m a g e w i d t h i n t h i s

n e a r - f i e 1d l i m i t w i l l b e d e p e n d e n t on t h e m o d u l a t i o n

f r e q u e n c y and d e f e c t g e o m e t r y C 7 2 - 7 ^ 1 . T h e o b s e r v e d

i m a g e w i d t h w i l l be l a r g e r t h e n t h e a c t u a l d e f e c t s i z e

d u e t o t h e r m a l wave d i f f r a c t i o n and good c o r r e l a t i o n o f

t h e o b s e r v e d i m a g e w i d t h w i l l o n l y b e o b t a i n e d a t h i g h

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f r e q u e n c i e s w h e r e i m a g e b l u r r i n g b y t h e r m a l w a v e

d i f f r a c t i o n i s r e d u c e d C75D. F i n a l l y , i f t h e o p t i c a l

s p o t s i z e i s much l a r g e r t h a n t h e t h e r m a l d i f f u s i o n

l e n g t h t h e l a t e r a l r e s o l u t i o n i s d e t e r m i n e d by o p t i c a l

s p o t s i z e . T h e d e p t h r e s o l u t i o n w i l l s t i l l b e s e t by

t h e t h e r m a l d i f f u s i o n l e n g t h . F i g u r e 2 . 1 9 p r o v i d e s a

summar y o f t h e v a r i o u s r e s o l u t i o n l i m i t s f o r t h e r m a l

w a v e NDT. B e s i d e s t h e a b o v e p a r a m e t e r s , r e s o l u t i o n

c a n a l s o b e l i m i t e d b y e n g i n e e r i n g d e t a i l s o f t h e

i n s p e c t i o n s y s t e m . I n p a r t i c u l a r t h e s t e p s i z e o f t h e

s a m p l e / o p t i c a l beam s c a n n i n g s y s t e m , f o c u s i n g l e n s

i m p e r f e c t i o n s a n d f i n i t e I R d e t e c t i o n s p o t s i z e .

2 . 6 SUMMARY

A d e t a i l e d a c c o u n t o f t h e t h e o r y f o r p h o t o t h e r m a l

r a d i o m e t r i c d e t e c t i o n and NDT h a s b e e n g i v e n a b o v e . T h e

t h e r m a l e m i s s i o n c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s , t h e r m a l w a v e

p r o p a g a t i o n a n d i n t e r a c t i o n w i t h t h e s u b s u r f a c e t h e r m a l

m i c r o s t r u c t u r e h a v e b e e n d i s c u s s e d i n r e l a t i o n t o

s u r f a c e c o a t i n g i n s p e c t i o n . T h e v a r i a b l e s d i c t a t i n g

t h e c h o i c e o f m o d u l a t i o n f r e q u e n c y f o r t h i c k n e s s

m e a s u r e m e n t s a n d d e f e c t d e t e c t i o n h a v e b e e n i d e n t i f i e d .

E x p e c t e d d e v i a t i o n s f r o m t h e s i m p l e o n e d i m e n s i o n a l

t h e o r y d u e t o h e a t d i f f u s i o n i n t h r e e d i m e n s i o n s h a v e

a l s o b e e n d i s c u s s e d . I n t h e f o l l o w i n g c h a p t e r s t h e

p r e d i c t i o n s o f t h e a b o v e t h e o r y a r e c o m p a r e d w i t h

e x p e r i m e n t a l r e s u l t s .

53

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Table 2 . 1 : Thermal p r o p e r t i e s o f some common m a t e r i a l s and plasma-sprayed c o a t in g s .

CJl-f*

i) M a t e r i a l

Densi t y S p e c i f i c h e a t

capac i t y

Thermal conduct i v i t y

Thermal d i f f u s i v i t y

x 10“ *

Thermal e f f u s i v i t y

x 10 6

Thermal d i f f u s i o n ( i n Hm)

le n g t h

1

I ..................... Kg /m3 J/Kg K W/m K m*2 / s ( J / m T- K) e s 1 Hz 16 Hz 64 Hz1j A luminium 2702 903 237 9 7 . 1 5 7 8 . 2 6 5560 1390 695

| M i l d s t e e l 7850 580 6 3 . 6 1 6 .5 2 9 8 . 6 0 2292 573..... .. ............. 2B7

! 316 S t a i n l e s s j s t e e l

8238 46B 1 3 .4 3 . 4 8 5 1 . 6 6 1052 263 131

i! T i t a n i u m 4500 522 2 1 . 9 9 . 3 2 5 1 . 4 4 1722 430 215

j_ Germanium

' S i l i c o n

5360 322 5 9 . 9 3 4 . 7 1 0 3 .4 0 3323 831 415

2330 712 1 4 8 . 0 8 9 . 2 2 4 2 . 3 6 5328 1332 666I

P l o y c r v s t a l - S l i n e Alu mina

3970 765 3 6 . 0 1 1 . 9 1 0 9 . 3 3 1946 487 243

|High d e n s i t y Gra phi te

1940 630 150 123 1 8 3 . 3 3 6257 1564 782

j Epoxy R es in

O !

in; ru; _ 1200 0 . 2 0_____ _____0 . 1 3 ____ !O

!m

|°ji! __ 203 51 25

j A i r 1 1005 0 . 0 2 5 2 4 . 9 0 . 0 0 0 0 2 5 2813 704 352

j PLASMA SPRAYED COATINGS ..... .....

1 ~ Alb-Oa 3540 6 . 3 5

ij

CD I

w H i

cu j; 1 8 . 5 8 , 833 208 1041 .......... • ...

|___ZrOa

j Z r O a -8 wt'/. Ya 0 3

5320 470 1 . 3 0 . 5 2 3 . 2 5 407 102 51

5670 491 0 . 7 2 0 . 2 6 1 . 8 8 288 72 36

[ Z r 0 H. - C r E.0:3 5410 475 1 . 4 0 0 . 5 5 3 . 5 6 418 105 52

1 N i - C r C a r b i d e i (LC1B)

6400 550 4 . 4 1 . 2 6 1 5 .3 6 633 158 79

! WC+12 wt*/. Co 12500 2 1 7 . 7 _____9.JE0_____ .... ...... 3 ______ 2 5 . 0 3 977 244 122

I N iC r A lY 6980 410 5 . 7 7 2 . 0 2 16.51 802 200 100

1 N i A l 1 8 . 4 4 . 6 7 3 . 6 1210 302 ; 151

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T a b l e 2 . 2 : One d i m e n s i o n a l s u r f a c e t e m p e r a t u r e e x p r e s s i o n s f o r

th e r m a l wave NDT o f opaque s u r f a c e c o a t i n c

S e m i - i n f i n i t e sol i d .

Th in c o a t i n g on a s e m i - i n f i n i t e s u b s t r a t e .

2 A r t a ,

y?C 1 - r ) l 2 ka

1 + r e x p ( - 2 o 1 L !) 1 - / ' e x p ( - 2 c r l L x)

r - ^ 2 ^ 2

k xo x

Aii— gap d e f e c t a t c o a t i n g / s u b s t r a t e i n t e r f a c e .

Rep la ce V above w i t h :

r r t -*-r2exp(-2or2Z2)1 + f 1/ , 2 e x p ( - 2 a 2 i 2 )

1 - b

F + bb2 3 ^ 3

I n t e r f a c e c o n t a c t r e s i s t a n c e .

R ep la ce r above w i t h :

1 - b t *+■ R k 2o 2r - 1 + bi *+■ R k 2o 2

55

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Tab l e 2 . 3 : S e r i es summat ion r e p r e s e n t a t i o n of the t h r ee

dimensional sur face temperature d i s t r i b u t i o n wi th Gaussian beam

i 1luminat i o n .

Generalterm

T„

r cJo, 7i

Opaque Semi- i n f i n i t e sol id

m-0

Thermal wave gen e r a t i o n term. Source i l l u m i n a t i o n term.

/ ( r ) = / 0e x p ( - 2 r a/ r * )

2 J l { y mr c) \ re x p ( - y ’ r ’ / 8 )

Given by J i (% m r c ) = 0Radius on sample a t which heat f l u x is zero .Zero and f i r s t order Bessel f unc t i on s r e s p e c t i v e l y ,

T. 12 k a ( m )

I f r V * 0 ( r ) = Tr — r

O C D - ^

2 \ r cJ m~o koim')

2

J-h- r c m • t mK C f m=l

Opaquet h i nc oat i ngon at h i c ks u b s t r a t e

r =1 -*■ r(m)exp(-2<r x(m)Li \

^icr^An)^ 1 - r ^ m ) e x p [ - 2 a Lt )

1 + r e x p ( - 2 a 1Ll )_ k i C f l ( \ - r e x p ( - 2 c r 1Z.l )) m- i

- r c -Tm m

Hrtm)b (m)

= J.(y~r ) ■ exp[-ylr l /a)/Jl(v*>rc)o * { m ) +

sample thermal d i f f u s i o n l engt h .: complex thermal wave r e f l e c t i o n c o e f f i c i e n t| = 1 - b ( m ) / 1 b ( m )

b( r n) = k 2o 2( m ) / k xa x(rr i )

56

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SP

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CE

35

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£3

£U>3.V/OootHX

25□25W A V E L E N G T H / um W A V E L E N G T H / um

F i g u r e 2 . 1 : S p e c t r a l e m i t t a n c e v e r s e s e m i s s i o n w a v e l e n g t h f o r

s a m p l e s t e m p e r a t u r e s o f 1) 2 0 0 , 2 ) 3 0 0 , 3 ) 3 2 0 and 4 ) 3 4 0 K.

F i g u r e 2 . 2 : D e r i v a t i v e p l o t o f t h e s p e c t r a l e m i t t a n c e f o r t h e

s a m p l e t e m p e r a t u r e s g i v e n i n f i g u r e 2 . 1

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NO

RM

. T

EM

P

□ 5N O R M A L I S E D D E P T H

O 5N O R M A L I S E D D E P T H

F i g u r e 2 . 3 a : A m p l i t u d e and p h a s e a n g l e v a r i a t i o n o f p l a n e t h e r m a l

w a v e s w i t h n o r m a l i s e d d e p t h , x / H -

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i o

-70O 1

1 O

LlIaDY-<aUJQ.2UJh-

J<n□<01

o 1

R / p R /p i

F i g u r e E . 3b : A m p l i t u d e and p h a s e a n g l e v a r i a t i o n o f t h e t h r e e

d i m e n s i o n a l s u r f a c e t e m p e r a t u r e a g a i n s t t h e n o r m a l i s e d r a d i a l

d i s t a n c e r / H - T h e s a m p l e i s m i l d s t e e l * 1 / e beam r a d i u s i s 0 . 5 mm

and t h e m o d u l a t i o n f r e q u e n c y i s 10 H z .

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TE

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E

l O

-701□

l O

Z / p Z / p

F i g u r e 2 . 3 c : A m p l i t u d e and p h a s e a n g l e v a r i a t i o n o f t h e t h r e e

d i m e n s i o n a l s u r f a c e t e m p e r a t u r e a g a i n s t t h e n o r m a l i s e d d e p t h z / H .

T h e s a m p l e i s m i l d s t e e l , 1 / e beam r a d i u s i s 0 . 5mm and t h e

m o d u l a t i o n f r e q u e n c y i s 10 H z .

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PH

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AN

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C

DE

G

l O

- 5 020O

2 R //J

F i g u r e 2 . 3 d : P h a s e a n g l e v a r i a t i o n o f t h e t h r e e d i m e n s i o n a l

s u r f a c e t e m p e r a t u r e a g a i n s t t h e n o r m a l i s e d p a r a m e t e r , 2 R / n > f o r

v a r i o u s i n f r a r e d d e t e c t i o n s p o t d i a m e t e r s o f 1) p o i n t , 2 ) ^ mm

and 3 ) 8 mm. T h e s a m p l e i s a l u m i n i u m and l a s e r beam 1 / e r a d i u s

i s 1 . 5 mm.

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50-0-9

- 0-6

- 0 - 3

0-3

0-6

0-9

-50O 3

0-9

_ \0*60-3

-0-3

- 0-6

-0-9

O 3L / y u L / / J

F i g u r e 2 . 4 - : N o r m a l i s e d t h e r m a l w a v e i n t e r f e r e n c e p l o t s s h o w i n g t h e

v a r i a t i o n o f t h e a m p l i t u d e , f i g . 2 . 4 a and p h a s e a n g l e , f i g . 2 . 4 b ,

a g a i n s t t h e t h e r m a l t h i c k n e s s , l_/H> f o r v a r i o u s c o a t i n g / s u b s t r a t e

t h e r m a l w a v e r e f l e c t i o n c o e f f i c i e n t .

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PHAS

E AN

GLE

FIG. 2.5 a FIG. 2.5 b

INCREASING COATING THICKNESS

THERMAL THICKNESS

C O A T I N G / S U B S T R A T E

L O C U S

l±JID2<U

<XCL

THICKNESSTHERMAL

DEFECT PHASE LOCUS

F i g u r e 2 . 5 : S c h e m a t i c i l l u s t r a t i o n o f t h e c h a n g e i n t h e o b s e r v e d

p h a s e a n g l e w i t h c h a n g e s i n t h e c o a t i n g t h i c k n e s s f i g . 2 . 5 a , and

i n t e r f a c e d e f e c t , f i g . 2 . 5 b .

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CD-P*

□ P T I C A L

H E A T I N G

HEAT D I F F U S I O N

S E M I - I N F I N I T E S U B S T R A T E

F i g u r e 2 . 6 a :

t h e s u r f a c e

A p h a s o r r e p r e s e n t a t i o n o f

p h o t o t h e r m a 1 s i g n a l f o r a

s e m i - i n f i n i t e o p a q u e s a m p l e .

C O A T I N G

S U B S T R A T E

Y THERMAL

N E T

P H A S E

SURFACESIGNALN E T N

S I G N A LN E T >

S I G N A L

R E F L E C T E D

S I G N A L

L I G H T E R

R E G I O ND A R K E R

R E G I O N

F i g u r e 2 . 6 b : P h a s o r d i a g r a m i l l u s t r a t i n g t h e d e v e l o p m e n t o f t h e

f i n a l p h o t o t h e r m a l f o r an o p a q u e c o a t i n g on a s u b s t r a t e , ( l e f t ) ,

a n d t h e i n v a r i a n c e o f t h e n e t p h a s e a n g l e o f t h i s s i g n a l d u e t o

i n c r e a s e d l i g h t a b s o r p t i o n a t a ’ d a r k e r ’ r e g i o n on t h e s a m p l e

s u r f a c e ( r i g h t ) .

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PH

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C

DE

G

- l O

-508O

S O R T . F R E Q U E N C Y

F i g u r e 2 . 7 : P h a s e a n g l e v a r i a t i o n w i t h r o o t f r e q u e n c y f o r

d i f f e r e n t d i a m e t e r l a s e r s p o t s i z e s 1) i n f i n i t e , 2 ) 2 mm, and 3 ) <+

mm. P h a s e v a l u e s a r e t a k e n a t t h e c e n t r e o f t h e l a s e r b e a m .

T h e s a m p l e i s a 1 0 0 Fm LC1B c o a t i n g on s t a i n l e s s s t e e l .

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PH

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C

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1 6

20

-4O 6

S Q R T . F R E Q U E N C Y

F i g u r e 2 . 8 : I n f l u e n c e o f c o a t i n g p o r o s i t y on t h e p h a s e a n g l e

f r e q u e n c y p l o t f o r a 2 0 0 urn LC1B c o a t i n g on s t a i n l e s s s t e e l .

1) 0 , 2 ) 10 a nd 3 ) 2 0 */. p o r o s i t y .

r o o t

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SURFACE LAYERSURFACE ROUGHNESS

COATINGCOATING

INTERFACE LAYERINTERFACE ROUGHNESS

SUBSTRATE SUBSTRATE

F i g u r e 2 . 9 : S c h e m a t i c r e p r e s e n t a t i o n o f s u r f a c e r o u g h n e s s w i t h a

d i s c r e t e l a y e r o f u n i f o r m t h i c k n e s s and t h e r m a l p r o p e r t i e s .

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100 un

9l .

□ 2 0SQRT. FREQUENCY

F i g u r e 2 . 1 0 : A m p l i t u d e andf r e q u e n c y o f a l a y e r e d s a m p l e c o n d u c t i v i t y . L a y e r t h i c k n e s s t h e r m a l c o n d u c t i v i t y o f 9 and

9

20

- 5O 4 0

SQRT. FREQUENCY

p h a s e a n g l e v a r i a t i o n w i t h r o o t e x h i b i t i n g s t e p c h a n g e s i n t h e r m a l i s 100 Fm. T h e s u b s t r a t e h a s a t h e s u r f a c e l a y e r o f 1 U) / ( m K ) .

Top d i a g r a m s hows t h e t h e r m a l c o n d u c t i v i t y v a l u e s when t h e 1 0 0 Fm l a y e r i s d i v i d e d i n 2>^+ and 8 e q u a l p a r t s . T h e h e a t c a p a c i t y o f a l l l a y e r s a r e e q u a l .

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(DEG

.

I B

13

10

- 2 40300 10 20

I B

1 3

Oiu□

10UJJozE

UJUJEI0_

- 2 40302 010SQ RT. F R E Q U E N C Y

F i g u r e 2 . 1 1 a and b : P h a s e a n g l e v e r s e s r o o t f r e q u e n c y p l o t s f o r a 10and 2 0 s u r f a c e r o u g h n e s s l a y e r w i t h s e v e r a l d i f f e r e n t t h e r m a lc o n d u c t i v i t y v a l u e s : 1) *+.*+, 2 ) 3 . 3 , and 3 ) 2 . 2 W / ( m K ) . T h e c o a t i n gm a t e r i a l i s a n i c k e l - c h r o m e c a r b i d e on 3 1 6 s t a i n l e s s s t e e l . T h e t o t a l

c o a t i n g t h i c k n e s s i n c l u d i n g t h e r o u g h s u r f a c e l a y e r i s a 1 0 0 Hm.

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SIG

NA

L

DIF

F

50

-504O4O

S Q R T . F R E Q U E N C Y S Q R T . F R E Q U E N C Y

F i g u r e 2 . 1 2 a a nd b : N o r m a l i s e d a m p l i t u d e a n d p h a s e a n g l e

v a r i a t i o n w i t h r o o t f r e q u e n c y f o r a i r - g a p t h i c k n e s s e s 1) 0 . 1 , 2 )

1 , 3 ) 10 a n d 4-) 1 0 0 Hm 0 . 5 mm b e l o w t h e s u r f a c e i n b u l k 3 1 6

s t a i n l e s s s t e e l . H e a t f l o w i s o n e d i m e n s i o n a l .

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SIG

NA

L

□IF

F.

50

-504O4O

S Q R T . F R E Q U E N C Y S Q R T . F R E Q U E N C Y

F i g u r e 2 . 1 2 c a nd d : N o r m a l i s e d a m p l i t u d e a n d p h a s e a n g l e

v a r i a t i o n w i t h r o o t f r e q u e n c y f o r t h e r m a l c o n t a c t r e s i s t a n c e s o f

1) 4 E - 6 , 2 ) 4 E - 5 , 3 ) 4E-4- a n d 4 ) 4 E - 3 mf~ K /W 0 . 5 mm b e l o w t h e

s u r f a c e i n b u l k 3 1 6 s t a i n l e s s s t e e l . H e a t f l o w i s o n e

d i mens i o n a 1 .

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F.

CD

EG

.50

r\

-50

5 0

EPOXY R E S I N

1,2

-501O

a l u m i n i u m

o 20SQRT. FREQUENCY SQRT. FREQUENCY

F i g u r e 2 . 1 3 : P h a s e a n g l e v a r i a t i o n w i t h r o o t f r e q u e n c y f o r a i r - g a p

t h i c k n e s s e s 1) 0 . 1 , 2 ) 1 , 3 ) 10 and 100 Hm 0 . 5mm b e l o w t h e

s u r f a c e i n b u l k a l u m i n i u m and e p o x y . H e a t f l o w i s o n e

d i mens i o n a 1 .

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PH

AS

E

DIF

F.

(DE

G

50

-501 .O

50

-50O 3

50

-50O lO

SQRT. FREQUENCY SQRT. FREQUENCY SQRT. FREQUENCY

F i g u r e 2 . 1 * + : A p h a s e d i f f e r e n c e v e r s e s r o o t f r e q u e n c y p l o t f o r

a i r - g a p t h i c k n e s s e s 1) 0 . 1 , 2 ) 1 , 3 ) 10 and *+) 1 0 0 Fm 0 . 5mm b e l o w

t h e s u r f a c e i n a ) a l u m i n i u m , b ) LC1B and c ) Y i t t r i a s t a b i l i s e d

Z i r c o n i a on s t a i n l e s s s t e e l . H e a t f l o w i s o n e d i m e n s i o n a l .

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RIGID FLAT SURFACE

RDUGH SURFACENORMAL DISTRIBUTION OF CONICAL PEAKS

F i g u r e 2 . 1 5 : C o n t a c t b e t w e e n r e a l s u r f a c e s m o d e l l e d a s b e i n g d u e

t o f l a t t e n i n g o f c o n i c a l p e a k s . C683

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£

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00 5O

C O N T A C T A R E A C O N T A C T A R E A

F i g u r e 2 . 1 6 : T h e c h a n g e i n t h e r m a l c o n t a c t r e s i s t a n c e w i t h

i n c r e a s i n g f r a c t i o n a l c o n t a c t a r e a . A= c o n t a c t i n a i r , V=

c o n t a c t i n v a c u u m . F i g u r e 2 . 1 6 a c o n t a c t i n m i l d s t e e l and 2 . 1 6 b

c o n t a c t i n z i r c o n i a .

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MILD STEEL

Frequency 14 Hz

3O

□LlI□v

IDJaz<LDU)<Ia.

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3

N O R M . L E N G T H N O R M . L E N G T H

F i g u r e 2 . 1 7 : P l o t s o f t h e t h e r m a l w a v e p h a s e a n g l e v a r i a t i o n w i t h

n o r m a l i s e d d e p t h a nd f r a c t i o n a l c o n t a c t a r e a o f 1) 0 . 1 , 2 ) 0 . 2 and

3 ) 0 . 5 o f p a r t i a l l y c o n t a c t i n g i n t e r f a c e s i n m i l d s t e e l , f i g .

2 . 1 7 a , a n d z i r c o n i a , f i g . 2 . 1 7 b , w i t h a r o u g h n e s s o f 1 Hm. A=

c o n t a c t i n a i r , V= c o n t a c t i n v a c u u m .

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F i g u r e 2 . 1 8 : A p l o t o f t h e c h a n g e i n t h e u l t r a s o n i c r e f l e c t i o n

c o e f f i c i e n t m a g n i t u d e w i t h f r a c t i o n a l c o n t a c t a r e a i n m i l d s t e e l

s a m p l e o f r o u g h n e s s 1 Fm and a n u l t r a s o n i c f r e q u e n c y o f 10 MHz .

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F - i g u r e 2 . 1 9 : S c h e m a t i c i l l u s t r a t i o n o f v a r i o u s r e s o l u t i o n l i m i t s i n P 1 R .

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C h a p t e r 3

E x p e r i m e n t a l D e s c r i p t i o n

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CHAPTER 3 EXPER I MENTA L D E S C R I P T I O N

3 . 1 PHOTOTHERMAL SYSTEM

A s t u d y o f f i g u r e 1 . 2 sho ws t h a t t h e r e a r e

e s s e n t i a l l y s i x b a s i c c o m p o n e n t s i n a m o d u l a t e d

p h o t o t h e r m a l NDT s y s t e m . A l a s e r s o u r c e ) a beam

m o d u l a t o r , an I R s e n s o r , a l o c k - i n a n a l y s e r , a

c o n t r o l l i n g c o m p u t e r and a s a m p l e ( o r l i g h t beam)

s c a n n i n g u n i t . T h e m e a s u r e m e n t s r e p o r t e d i n s e c t i o n

4 . 1 u s e d a 5 w a t t c o n t i n u o u s w a v e A r g o n i o n l a s e r C 7 6 ]

f o r s a m p l e h e a t i n g and a s e c t o r e d b l a d e m e c h a n i c a l

c h o p p e r f o r beam m o d u l a t i o n [ 7 7 3 . T h e h a r m o n i c t h e r m a l

e m i s s i o n f r o m t h e s a m p l e w e r e d e t e c t e d b y a M u l l a r d s

7GS p y r o e l e c t r i c d e t e c t o r [ 7 8 3 and d e m o d u l a t e d u s i n g a n

EG&G 5 2 0 6 t wo p h a s e l o c k - i n a n a l y s e r [ 7 9 3 . An IBM PC

XT m i c r o c o m p u t e r c o n t r o l l e d t h r o u g h a n I E E E 4 8 8

i n t e r f a c e , t h e d a t a a c q u i s i t i o n and s a m p l e t r a n s l a t i o n

[ 8 0 3 i n h o r i z o n t a l a nd v e r t i c a l d i r e c t i o n s u s i n g

i n t e r p r e t e d b a s i c c o m p u t e r c o d e . A r o t a t i n g t a b l e

p r o v i d e d m a n u a l c o n t r o l o v e r t h e a n g u l a r p o s i t i o n i n g o f

t h e s a m p l e . T h e I R d e t e c t o r , s a m p l e t r a v e l l i n g and

r o t a t i o n s t a g e s w e r e m o u n t e d on an o p t i c a l b e n c h and

t h e w h o l e s e t - u p , i n c l u d i n g p a r t o f t h e l a s e r h e a d ,

w e r e e n c l o s e d i n a l i g h t t i g h t box t o c o m p l y w i t h l a s e r

s a f e t y r e q u i r e m e n t s C 8 1 J .

To p r e v e n t t h e g e n e r a t i o n o f c o h e r e n t s i g n a l n o i s e

b y t h e a b s o r p t i o n o f s c a t t e r e d / r e f l e c t e d l a s e r l i g h t

a t t h e I R d e t e c t o r w i n d o w , a d i e l e c t r i c i n t e r f e r e n c e

f i l t e r [ 8 2 3 was u s e d t o s e l e c t i v e l y r e f l e c t a way t h e

i n c i d e n t l a s e r r a d i a t i o n and t r a n s m i t t h e I R . F i g u r e s

79

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3 . 1 a and b show t h e r e f l e c t a n c e and t r a n s m i t t a n c e

s p e c t r a o f t h i s i n t e r f e r e n c e f i l t e r and t h e d e t e c t o r

w i n d o w m a t e r i a l i n t h e o p t i c a l and I R r e g i o n .

3 . 2 DETECTOR SEL ECT I ON

The I R d e t e c t o r may b e c h o s e n a c c o r d i n g t o i t s

s p e c t r a l , t e m p o r a l , and n o i s e c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s , i t s

o p e r a t i n g t e m p e r a t u r e and r o b u s t n e s s . F o r room

t e m p e r a t u r e i n s p e c t i o n o f m a t e r i a l s , 3 0 0 K, t h e m a i n

s p e c t r a l r e q u i r e m e n t i s t h a t t h e I R d e t e c t o r e l e m e n t i s

s e n s i t i v e t o w a v e l e n g t h s g r e a t e r t h a n 3 Fm, as shown i n

f i g u r e 2 . 2 . T h e t e m p o r a l r e q u i r e m e n t s , e s p e c i a l l y f o r

e v a l u a t i n g l o w d i f f u s i v i t y m a t e r i a l s , a r e t h a t t h e

d e v i c e h a s l o w e l e c t r i c a l n o i s e a t l o w f r e q u e n c i e s (<

1 0 0 H z ) . T h e I R d e t e c t o r s h o u l d a l s o h a v e a

s u f f i c i e n t l y f a s t r e s p o n s e t i m e ( < 0 . 0 0 1 s e c o n d ) so t h a t

t h e d e t e c t e d s i g n a l f o l l o w s t h e m o d u l a t e d e m i s s i o n

s i g n a l . T h e f o r m e r r e q u i r e m e n t i s u n u s u a l f o r mo st

e l e c t r o n i c a p p l i c a t i o n s b u t i s n e c e s s a r y i n PTR a s l ow

m o d u l a t i o n f r e q u e n c i e s a r e r e q u i r e d f o r i n s p e c t i n g

t h i c k a n d / o r l o w t h e r m a l d i f f u s i v i t y c o a t i n g s . A l ow

n o i s e p r e a m p l i f i e r i s an e s s e n t i a l r e q u i r e m e n t o f t h e

I R d e t e c t o r .

T he n o i s e p r o p e r t i e s o f I R d e t e c t o r s a t a f r e q u e n c y

t a r e g i v e n by t h e n o r m a l i s e d D e t e c t i v i t y , D~ i n cm

Hz 1 /vs- W -l , w h i c h de t e r m i n e s t h e no i s e - e q u i va 1 e n t - p o w e r

NER C 0 3 1 :

( 3 . 1 ) N E P = ^ n " 2D

F o r t h e d e t e c t o r - s a m p 1e g e o m e t r y shown i n f i g u r e 3 . 2 ,

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t h e e x p r e s s i o n f o r t h e m i n i m u m d e t e c t a b l e t e m p e r a t u r e

c a n b e p u t i n t h e f o r m :

(3.2) 6 T ~ N E P . ----- ----- .------ —4 eoTlAr** T m( X ) s i n 3e o

T h i s e q u a t i o n a s s u m e s t h a t t h e I R d e t e c t o r i s

s e n s i t i v e t o a l l w a v e l e n g t h s . T h e f i r s t t e r m i n

e q u a t i o n 3 . 2 sh ows t h e d e p e n d e n c e o f d e t e c t o r

p a r a m e t e r s , t h e s e c o n d t e r m a c c o u n t s f o r t h e t o t a l

e m i s s i o n f r o m t h e s a m p l e a nd t h e t h i r d t e r m t h e IR

c o l l e c t i o n e f f i c i e n c y . H e n c e t o d e t e c t t h e s m a l l e s t

t e m p e r a t u r e p e r t u r b a t i o n , a l o w NEP v a l u e ( o r h i g h D *

) i s r e q u i r e d f o r t h e d e t e c t o r , h i g h e m i s s i v i t y f o r

t h e s a m p l e a n d h i g h c o l l e c t i o n e f f i c i e n c y f o r t h e I R

o p t i c s . I n t h i s s t u d y an e l l i p s o i d a l m i r r o r was

e v a l u a t e d t o a s s e s s t h e i m p r o v e m e n t i n t h e I R

c o l l e c t i o n e f f i c i e n c y a n d d e t e r m i n e a n y p r a c t i c a l

p r o b l e m s i n i t s u s a g e . I n t a b l e 3 . 1 a su mmar y i s

p r e s e n t e d o f t h e p r i n c i p l e c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s o f t h e A r g o n

i o n l a s e r , t h e I R d e t e c t o r and t h e e l l i p s o i d a l

c o 1 l e c t o r .

3 . 3 SEMI - CONDUCTOR LASER

I n a d d i t i o n t o t h e a b o v e e x p e r i m e n t a l s e t - u p , a

G a A l A s s e m i - c o n d u c t o r l a s e r was s t u d i e d f o r i t s

a p p l i c a t i o n a s a s a m p l e h e a t s o u r c e . F i g u r e 3 . 3 show

a s c h e m a t i c b l o c k d i a g r a m o f t h e l a s e r s y s t e m , M o d e l

7 2 0 0 - Y 2 , a c q u i r e d f r o m S p e c t r a P h y s i c s [ 8 5 ] . T h i s

u n i t c o n s i s t e d o f two o f t h e a b o v e l a s e r d i o d e s w i t h

t h e i r o u t p u t f e d i n t o a . 2 5 mm d i a m e t e r o p t i c a l f i b r e .

The l a s e r e m i s s i o n f r o m t h e d i o d e s l i e s i n t h e n e a r I R

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r e g i o n , 8 1 0 - 8 2 0 n m. C o u p l e d w i t h t h i s l a s e r

r a d i a t i o n t h e r e i s a l s o i n c o h e r e n t e m i s s i o n i n t h e

v i s i b l e r e d r e g i o n , 6 3 0 n m . A h i g h q u a l i t y c u r r e n t

s o u r c e d r i v e s t h e l a s e r d i o d e s and a t h e r m o e l e c t r i c

c o o l i n g s y s t e m i s e m p l o y e d t o p r e v e n t d i o d e da ma ge f r o m

o v e r h e a t i n g and s t a b i l i s e l a s e r e m i s s i o n . Th e

c o n t i n u o u s w a v e p o w e r o u t p u t e m e r g i n g f r o m t h e f i b r e

end c o u l d b e v a r i e d b e t w e e n z e r o and 0 . 5 w a t t .

P r o v i s i o n i s a l s o p r o v i d e d f o r e x t e r n a l l y m o d u l a t i n g

t h e l a s e r e m i s s i o n and t h e w h o l e a s s e m b l y i s p a c k a g e d

i n t o a s i z e no l a r g e r t h a n a n A t p a g e w i t h a d e p t h o f

10 cms .

The i n v i s i b i l i t y o f t h e l a s e r r a d i a t i o n p r e s e n t t wo

p r a c t i c a l p r o b l e m s i n i t s u s a g e ; l o c a t i n g t h e r a d i a t i o n

on t h e s a m p l e a nd o p e r a t o r s a f e t y . T h e f i r s t p r o b l e m

i s p a r t l y o v e r c o m e b y m a k i n g u s e o f t h e v i s i b l e " r e d "

e m i s s i o n f r o m t h e l a s e r . T h e r e d e m i s s i o n c a n be

r e a d i l y s e e n wh e n i t i s i n c i d e n t on a w h i t e s u r f a c e .

A l t e r n a t i v e l y a n I R f l u o r e s c e n t c a r d c a n a l s o b e u s e d .

The s e c o n d p r o b l e m o f o p e r a t o r s a f e t y i s d i s c u s s e d

b e l o w , b o t h f o r t h i s l a s e r a n d t h e a r g o n i o n l a s e r .

3. *» LASER SAFETY

S a f e t y r e q u i r e m e n t s o f l a s e r p r o d u c t s a nd s y s t e m s ,

and f o r u s e r s i s c o v e r e d b y t h e B S ^ 8 0 3 ( p a r t 1 , 2 and

3 , 1 9 8 3 ) r e g u l a t i o n . B o t h l a s e r r a d i a t i o n s i f v i e w e d

by t h e u n p r o t e c t e d e y e ( d i r e c t l y o r t h r o u g h s p e c u l a r

r e f l e c t i o n s ) c a n l e a d t o p e r m a n e n t b l i n d n e s s . T h i s i s

d i r e c t l y d u e t o t h e 10'",; f o l d i n c r e a s e i n e n e r g y d e n s i t y

f o c u s e d on t h e r e t i n a by t h e e y e . F o r t h e I R l a s e r t h e

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e y e d a ma g e c a n b e r e t i n a l b u r n s o r l e a d t o c a t a r a c t s .

U l i t h a r g o n i o n l a s e r r a d i a t i o n t h e r e i s p o t e n t i a l f o r

p h o t o c h e m i c a l a n d t h e r m a l r e t i n a l i n j u r y t o t h e e y e and

a l s o t o s k i n b u r n s a t h i g h l a s e r p o w e r s .

l o c o m p l y w i t h t h e s a f e t y r e q u i r e m e n t s f o r t h e two

l a s e r s , b o t h t h e s e l a s e r s w e r e o p e r a t e d i n a c l o s e d

room and p r o t e c t i v e e y e g o g g l e s w e r e w o r n t o a t t e n u a t e

t h e l a s e r r a d i a t i o n b y an o p t i c a l d e n s i t y o f 13 ( 10 13

r e d u c t i o n o f i n c i d e n t r a d i a t i o n ) .

3 - 5 SAMPLE AND MEASUREMENT D E T A I L S

T h e e x p e r i m e n t a l i n v e s t i g a t i o n r e p o r t e d i s d i v i d e d

i n t o t h r e e p a r t s * . An e v a l u a t i o n o f t h e p h o t o t h e r m a l

s y s t e m b a s e d on t h e A r g o n i o n l a s e r t o t h e s e n s i t i v i t y

o f t h e d e t e c t e d s i g n a l t o s a m p l e and d e t e c t o r s e t - u p ,

M e a s u r e m e n t s o n c o a t e d s a m p l e s t o a s s e s s t h e e f f e c t s o fand-

s u r f a c e r o u g h n e s s and s u b s u r f a c e d e f e c t s , ^ M e a s u r e m e n t s

o f c o a t i n g t h i c k n e s s u s i n g t h e s e m i - c o n d u c t o r l a s e r f o r

s a m p l e h e a t i n g .

Th e m a t e r i a l s s t u d i e d i n t h e s e i n v e s t i g a t i o n s a r e as

f o l l o w s . LC1B ( N i c k e l - c h r o m e c a r b i d e ) , f i n e and c o a r s e

p l a s m a s p r a y e d c o a t i n g s a nd h i g h d e n s i t y n u c l e a r

g r a p h i t e f o r s u r f a c e r o u g h n e s s s t u d i e s . As s p r a y e d and

s u r f a c e p o l i s h e d LC1B c o a t i n g s f o r d e f e c t d e t e c t i o n

s t u d i e s b y p h o t o t h e r m a l and u l t r a s o n i c m e t h o d s . A i r

gap d e f e c t s i n m i l d s t e e l / s t a i n l e s s s t e e l and m i l d

s t e e l / m i l d s t e e l d i f f u s i o n b o n d e d p l a t e s . C o n t a c t i n g

s u r f a c e d e t e c t i o n w i t h p r e s s e d a l u m i n i u m p l a t e s .

F i g u r e s 3 . ^ - 3 . 7 p r o v i d e a d e t a i l e d summary o f t h e

s a m p l e s u s e d i n t h e a b o v e t e s t s and t a b l e 3 . 2 l i s t s t h e

e x p e r i m e n t s u n d e r t a k e n .

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Tab le 3 .1 Laser » IR d e t e c t o r and e l l i p s o i d a l m i r r o r d e t a i I s

Argon ion l aser

Laser power

Wavelength range

l / e 2 beam diameter

Beam di vergence

IR de t e c t o r

Dimension

Sensing element

Element s i z e

Det ect or window

Respons i v i t y

Noise Eq u i va l e n t

Power

D* D e t e c t i v i t y

Operat ing v o l t a g e

0 to 6 Watt i n m u l t i - l i n e mode

^88 to 51*t nm

1. 3 mm

0 . 0 0 5 rad i an s

C y l i n d r i c a l shape 25 mm i n diameter

and 100 mm in l eng t h .

Ana l i ne doped t r i - g l y c i n e

su l pha t e

2 x 2 mm

Bloomed germanium 20 mm in

d i a m e t e r .

IE 5 v o l t s / w a t t

7 . 7 E - l l Wa t t / J Hz

2 . 6 E 9 cm / w a t t / -J Hz

9 v o l t s DC

E l l i p o s i d a l m i r r o r d e t a i l s ,

£

1 PRIMARY FDCUSa

abcde

12.1 mm25.4 mm59.2 mm74.4 mm 102,8 mm

2 SECONDARY FOCUS

84

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Table 3 . 5 : Exper im enta1 i n v e s t i q a t i o n summary.

System e v a l u a t i o n

E l i m i n a t i n g IR r a d i a t i o n from the l a s e r tube.

Signal and phase v a r i a t i o n wi t h l a s e r power and beam di ameter .

Signal and phase v a r i a t i o n wi t h sample or d e t e c t o r r o t a t i o n .

E f f e c t s o f r e f l e c t e d l aser l i g h t on s i gna l and phase

measurements.

Signal and phase v a r i a t i o n wi t h l a s e r power using the

e l l i p s i o d a l m i r r o r c o l l e c t o r

Sur face roughness study

Signal and phase measurements on LC1B f i n e and rough c o a t i n gs .

Signal and phase measurements on g r a p h i t e .

Defect study

Photothermal and u l t r a s o n i c measurements on LC1B "de f ec t "

samples.

Phase angle v a r i a t i o n wi th d e f e c t depth and width in d i f f u s i o n

bonded d e f e c t samples.

Phase angle measurements on p a r t i a l l y con t ac t i n g i n t e r f a c e s .

Semiconductor l aser study

Signal and phase angle measurements wi t h l ase r power

Signal and phase angle v a r i a t i o n wi th f i b r e head p o s i t i o n i n g .

Measurements o f coat i ng t h ickness on an LC1B coa t i ng .

85

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Z REFLECTION

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488 514 ^ 536 / nnLASER EMISSIDN LINES.

100

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WAVELENGTH / urn

F - i g u r e 3 . 1 : O p t i c a l and i n f r a r e d r e f l e c t a n c e and t r a n s m i t t a n c e

s p e c t r a a t t h e i n f r a r e d d e t e c t o r w i n d o w m a t e r i a l * c u r v e A , and t h e

i n t e r f e r e n c e r e f l e c t a n c e f i l t e r , c u r v e B.

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F i g u r e 3 . 2 : S c h e m a t i c i l l u s t r a t i o n o f t h e s a m p l e and I R d e t e c t o r

g e o m e t r y .

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F i g u r e 3 . 3 : A b l o c k d i a g r a m o f t h e l a s e r d i o d e s y s t e m m o d u l e and

beam c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s .i

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FIG, 3.4a FIG, 3,4b

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LC1B COATING

316 STAINLESS STEEL

F i g u r e 3 . 4 a : A s c h e m a t i c o f LC1B s t e p c o a t i n g t h i c k n e s s s a m p l e .

S a m p l e w i d t h 3 5 mm, s u b s t r a t e 3 mm t h i c k 3 1 6 s t a i n l e s s s t e e l and

l e n g t h 2 0 c m s . ( Th i c l ^c - ss *** T£tou&cindi'h i ^ c h . )

F i g u r e 3 . 4 b : A s c h e m a t i c i l l u s t r a t i o n o f s u b s u r f a c e s q u a r e d e f e c t s

i n LC1B c o a t e d s a m p l e . S p e c i m e n d i m e n s i o n a s a b o v e , c o a t i n g

t h i c k n e s s a r o u n d 2 0 0 Hm. D e f e c t s 10 mm s q u a r e a n d s e p a r a t e d b y 10

mm.

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F i g u r e 3 . 5 : G r a p h i t e r o u g h n e s s s a m p l e g e o m e t r y . S a m p l e 1

s q u a r e s e c t i o n b l o c k » 1 0 0 mm l o n g .

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F i g u r e 3 . 6 : S c h e m a t i c i l l u s t r a t i o n o f d i f f u s i o n b o n d e d d e f e c t t e s t

s a m p l e . S u b s t r a t e 10 mm t h i c k * 7 5 mm w i d e 1 5 0 mm l o n g . S u r f a c e

l a y e r d i f f u s i o n b o n d e d t o s u b s t r a t e a nd m a c h i n e d down t o r e q u i r e d

t h i c k n e s s .

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F i g u r e 3 . 7 : A s c h e m a t i c i l l u s t r a t i o n o f t h e s a m p l e s e t - u p u s e d t o

s t u d y t h e d e t e c t a b i l i t y o f c o n t a c t i n g s u r f a c e s b y t h e r m a l w a v e s .

L e f t , a 2 mm t h i c k a l u m i n i u m p l a t e p r e s s e d i n t o c o n t a c t w i t h a

m i c r o m e t e r p i n h e a d . R e a r s u r f a c e p o l i s h e d t o a 2 Fm a l u m i n a

f i n i s h . R i g h t , s u b s u r f a c e c o n t a c t w i t h i n a p a r t i a l l y f l a t b o t t o m

d r i l l e d h o l e i n a 5 mm t h i c k a l u m i n i u m p l a t e .

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C h a p t e r 4

E x p e r i m e n t a l R e s u l t s

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CHAPTER 4 EXPERI MENTAL RESULTS

4 . 1 SYSTEM E VALU AT I ON

F i g u r e 4 . 1 s h o w s a s c h e m a t i c i l l u s t r a t i o n o f t h e

g e n e r a l r a d i a t i o n s c e n e v i e w e d by an I R d e t e c t o r i n a

p h o t o t h e r m a l NDT s y s t e m . I n a d d i t i o n t o t h e o p t i c a l l y

g e n e r a t e d t h e r m a l e m i s s i o n a t t h e s a m p l e ) t h e r e c a n be

t h r e e o t h e r s o u r c e s o f I R r a d i a t i o n .

a) From the hot plasma tube o f the argon ion l a s e r .

b) S i gna l genera ted by r e f l e c t e d l a s e r l i g h t absorbed

a t the d e t e c t o r window/ o p t i c s .

c) N a t ur a l background thermal r a d i a t i o n f rom the

sample and sur roundi ngs .

S t e p s m u s t b e t a k e n t o e l i m i n a t e o r m i n i m i s e t h e

d e t e c t i o n o f t h e s e s o u r c e s . P h a s e s e n s i t i v e d e t e c t i o n

w i l l d i s c r i m i n a t e a g a i n s t t h e d e t e c t i o n o f i n c o h e r e n t

s i g n a l c o m p o n e n t s s u c h a s t h o s e a r i s i n g - f rom b a c k g r o u n d

v a r i a t i o n s i n t h e r m a l r a d i a t i o n . R e d u c t i o n o f t h e

o t h e r I R c o m p o n e n t s r e q u i r e s p e c i a l a t t e n t i o n and

m e t h o d s a v a i l a b l e t o p r e v e n t t h e i r d e t e c t i o n a r e

d e s c r i b e d i n s e c t i o n 4 . 1 . 1 . P h o t o t h e r m a l s i g n a l

v a r i a t i o n s w i t h l a s e r p o w e r , s a m p l e and d e t e c t o r s e t - u p

a r e d i s c u s s e d i n 4 . 1 . 2 - 3 . T h e f i n d i n g s o f t h e s y s t e m

e v a l u a t i o n a r e d i s c u s s e d i n 4 . 1 . 4 .

4 . 1 . 1 REMOVAL OF UNWANTED INFRARED S I G N A L SOURCES

INFRARED E M I S S I O N FROM THE LASER

W a t e r c o l u m n s o f l e n g t h 2 , 4 , 5 , 6 , 8 and 10 c e n t i m e t r e s

w e r e u se d t o i n v e s t i g a t e t h e r e d u c t i o n o f I R e m i s s i o n

f r o m t h e l a s e r b y a b s o r p t i o n . T h e e x p e r i m e n t a l

a r r a n g e m e n t u s e d i s shown s c h e m a t i c a 1 1 y i n f i g u r e 4 . 2 a .

L a s e r e m i s s i o n was p a s s e d t h r o u g h t h e w a t e r c o l u m n and

93

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a l l o w e d t o i l l u m i n a t e t h e d e t e c t o r w i n d o w / f i l t e r . The

i n c i d e n t l a s e r p o w e r u s e d was 3 w a t t and t h e m o d u l a t i o n

f r e q u e n c y 10 H z . T h e c h a n g e i n s i g n a l a m p l i t u d e and

p h a s e a n g l e w i t h i n c r e a s i n g w a t e r c o l u m n l e n g t h was

m o n i t o r e d and t h e r e s u l t s o b t a i n e d a r e sho wn i n f i g u r e

<^.2b. B o t h t h e s i g n a l a m p l i t u d e and p h a s e a n g l e

d e c r e a s e d w i t h i n c r e a s i n g w a t e r c o l u m n l e n g t h and

s a t u r a t e d a t c o l u m n l e n g t h s g r e a t e r t h a n A- cm. The

s a t u r a t i o n o f t h e p h a s e a n g l e w i t h i n c r e a s i n g w a t e r

c o l u m n l e n g t h s u g g e s t t h a t t h e d i r e c t I R c o m p o n e n t f r o m

t h e l a s e r t u b e h a s b e e n r e d u c e d o r e l i m i n a t e d . The

p r e s e n c e o f a r e s i d u a l s i g n a l e v e n when a l a s e r l i g h t

r e f l e c t i o n f i l t e r i s u s e d s t r o n g l y c o n f i r m t h e

g e n e r a t i o n o f a s e c o n d a r y s i g n a l a t t h e d e t e c t o r I R

o p t i c s . H e n c e t h e d i r e c t r e f l e c t i o n o f l a s e r r a d i a t i o n

on t o t h e I R o p t i c s mu s t b e a v o i d e d . I n a l l o f t h e

s u b s e q u e n t m e a s u r e m e n t s r e p o r t e d b e l o w a 5 cm w a t e r

c o l u m n was u s e d t o r e d u c e t h e I R r a d i a t i o n f r o m t h e

l a s e r .

REFLECTED LASER L I GH T

T h e g e n e r a t i o n o f a s e c o n d a r y c o h e r e n t s i g n a l b y t h e

a b s o r p t i o n o f r e f l e c t e d l a s e r l i g h t a t t h e d e t e c t o r

w i n d o w c a n b e r e d u c e d by r o t a t i n g t h e s a m p l e t o r e f l e c t

away t h e l a s e r l i g h t o r by e m p l o y i n g s u i t a b l e o p t i c a l

f i l t e r ( s ) t o s e l e c t i v e l y r e f l e c t a w a y t h e l a s e r l i g h t

and t r a n s m i t t h e I R . Th e e f f e c t o f s a m p l e s u r f a c e

r e f l e c t i v i t y i s i l l u s t r a t e d i n f i g . <4.3 a , w h i c h i s a

t r a c e o f t h e v a r i a t i o n o f t h e p h o t o t h e r m a l p h a s e a n g l e

a c r o s s a t e s t p i e c e c o m p r o m i s i n g o f l o w r e f l e c t i v i t y

9 4

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g r a p h i t e and h i g h r e f l e c t i v i t y t i t a n i u m . T h e s h a r p

d r o p o f 2 0 d e g r e e s i n t h e p h a s e a n g l e wh e n g o i n g f r o m

g r a p h i t e t o t i t a n i u m i s c a u s e d b y t h e h i g h r e f l e c t i v i t y

o f t h e t i t a n i u m s u r f a c e . I n t r o d u c i n g an i n t e r f e r e n c e

o p t i c a l f i l t e r t o r e f l e c t a wa y t h e l a s e r l i g h t t h e l i n e

t r a c e sh own i n f i g . ^ . 3b i s o b t a i n e d , s h o w i n g t h e

e x p e c t e d p h a s e a n g l e b e h a v i o u r on b o t h t y p e s o f

s u r f a c e s t o b e i n d e p e n d e n t o f s a m p l e o p t i c a l c o n d i t i o n .

I n f i g u r e ^ . 3c t h e i m p r o v e m e n t i n r e j e c t i n g t h e

r e f l e c t e d l a s e r l i g h t b y s a m p l e r o t a t i o n i s p r e s e n t e d

w i t h o u t t h e u s e o f a f i l t e r .

F r om t h e s e m e a s u r e m e n t s i t i s c l e a r t h a t t h e a b o v e

m e a s u r e s s i g n i f i c a n t l y r e d u c e s e c o n d s i g n a l g e n e r a t i o n

a t t h e d e t e c t o r and i n p r a c t i c e b o t h m e a s u r e s s h o u l d b e

t a k e n when i n s p e c t i n g r e f l e c t i v e s u r f a c e s .

*f. 1 . 2 LASER POUER LEVEL

F i g u r e 4- .^ sh ows t h e v a r i a t i o n o f t h e p h o t o t h e r m a l

s i g n a l w i t h i n c i d e n t l a s e r p o w e r . T h e m e a s u r e m e n t s a r e

made on a 2 5 0 Fm LC1B c o a t i n g a t a m o d u l a t i o n f r e q u e n c y

o f 10 H z . T h e i n t e r f e r e n c e f i l t e r was a l s o u s e d .

B e l o w l a s e r p o w e r s o f 3 w a t t t h e s i g n a l v a r i a t i o n i s

s e e n t o be l i n e a r . F o r l a s e r p o w e r s a b o v e 3 w a t t t h e

s i g n a l shows a n o n - l i n e a r v a r i a t i o n . A c u r v e f i t

a n a l y s i s p r e d i c t s t h a t t h e s i g n a l v a r i a t i o n f o l l o w s a

c u r v e o f t h e f o r m :

( 4 . 1 ) Signal ~ al 0 + cl Iw h e r e a , b , c a r e c o n s t a n t s and I 0 i s t h e i n c i d e n t l a s e r

p o w e r . T h i s e q u a t i o n f o l l o w s d i r e c t l y f r o m e q u a t i o n

2 . A- and t h e s u r f a c e t e m p e r a t u r e e x p r e s s i o n s d e v e l o p e d

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i n a p p e n d i x 2 . T h e p h a s e a n g l e a p p e a r s t o show l i t t l e

v a r i a t i o n w i t h l a s e r p o w e r w i t h i n t h e e x p e r i m e n t a l

n o i s e o f h a l f a d e g r e e . I t a l s o r e m a i n s u n c h a n g e d i n

t h e n o n - l i n e a r s i g n a l v a r i a t i o n r e g i o n . T he r i s e i n

p h a s e a n g l e a t l a s e r p o w e r o f 1 w a t t i s d u e t o a p o o r

s i g n a l t o n o i s e r a t i o a t t h i s p o w e r l e v e l .

T he v a r i a t i o n o f p h o t o t h e r m a l s i g n a l w i t h o p t i c a l

s p o t s i z e i s s hown i n f i g u r e ^ . 5 a f o r a . 2 5 0 Hm LC1B

c o a t i n g on s t a i n l e s s s t e e l a t a f r e q u e n c y o f 10 H z . A

c o n v e r g i n g l e n s o f f o c a l l e n g t h o f 2 5 cm was u s e d t o

v a r y t h e o p t i c a l s p o t s i z e . T h e m e a s u r e d p h a s e a n g l e

s h owe d a n a d v a n c e a s t h e l a s e r s p o t was b r o u g h t i n t o

f o c u s . T h e p h a s e a n g l e v a r i a t i o n s f o l l o w a p a t t e r n

s i m i l a r t o t h a t shown i n f i g u r e 2 . 3 d c u r v e 1 , w h i c h

p l o t s t h e t h e o r e t i c a l p h a s e v a r i a t i o n w i t h t h e

n o r m a l i s e d p a r a m e t e r o p t i c a l s p o t s i z e / t h e r m a l

d i f f u s i o n l e n g t h .

C h a n g e s i n t h e o p t i c a l s p o t s i z e w i l l a l s o a f f e c t

t h e p h a s e - t h i c k n e s s c a l i b r a t i o n c u r v e a n d h e n c e l e a d t o

i n c o r r e c t t h i c k n e s s m e a s u r e m e n t s . M e a s u r e m e n t s o f t h e

p h a s e v a r i a t i o n w i t h c o a t i n g t h i c k n e s s f o r d i f f e r e n t

beam d i a m e t e r s i s shown i n f i g u r e ^ . 5 b . T h e s a m p l e was

a LC1B c o a t i n g on s t a i n l e s s s t e e l , t h e t e s t f r e q u e n c y

10 Hz a nd a l a s e r p o w e r o f 3 w a t t . D e c r e a s i n g t h e

o p t i c a l s p o t s i z e n o t o n l y s h i f t s t h e p h a s e - t h i c k n e s s

c a l i b r a t i o n c u r v e i n t o an a d v a n c e b u t a l s o r e d u c e s t h e

m a g n i t u d e o f t h e o v e r a l l p h a s e c h a n g e . T h e e x p l a n a t i o n

f o r t h e p h a s e a d v a n c e h a s b e e n d i s c u s s e d a b o v e . The

r e d u c t i o n o f t h e t o t a l p h a s e c h a n g e i s r e l a t e d t o ; a )

t h e t h r e e d i m e n s i o n a l f l o w o f h e a t i n t h e s a m p l e w i t h

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small beam diameters and, b) changes in the thermal

p r o p e r t i e s o f t h e c o a t i n g . F i g u r e 4 . 5 c sh ows a

t h e o r e t i c a l p l o t o f t h e p h a s e a n g l e v a r i a t i o n w i t h

c o a t i n g t h i c k n e s s and d i f f e r e n t o p t i c a l s p o t d i a m e t e r s

f o r a LC1B c o a t i n g o n s t a i n l e s s s t e e l . The t h e r m a l

p r o p e r t i e s o f t h e c o a t i n g a r e a s s u m e d t o b e u n c h a n g e d

a t a l l t h e o p t i c a l s p o t d i a m e t e r s and t h e p h a s e v a l u e

p l o t t e d i s t h e v a l u e a t t h e c e n t r e o f t h e h e a t i n g b ea m .

T he g e n e r a l p h a s e v a r i a t i o n i n t h i s f i g u r e a g r e e

q u a l i t a t i v e l y w i t h t h o s e o b t a i n e d e x p e r i m e n t a l l y . T h e

m a i n d i s a g r e e m e n t b e t w e e n t h e t h e o r e t i c a l and

e x p e r i m e n t a l d a t a i s t h e m a g n i t u d e o f t h e t o t a l p h a s e

c h a n g e a t t h e s m a l l e r o p t i c a l s p o t d i a m e t e r . I n t h e

t h e o r e t i c a l p l o t t h i s p h a s e d i f f e r e n c e i s o n l y t wo

d e g r e e s c o m p a r e d t o n e a r l y t e n d e g r e e s f o r t h e

e x p e r i m e n t a l d a t a . T h i s l a r g e p h a s e d i f f e r e n c e i s

m o s t l i k e l y t o b e r e l a t e d t o c h a n g e s i n t h e c o a t i n g

t h e r m a l p r o p e r t i e s d u e t h e i n c r e a s e d l i g h t beam

i n t e n s i t y w i t h beam f o c u s i n g . T h i s v a r i e s f r o m a n

i n c i d e n t l a s e r p o w e r o f 3 w a t t d e p o s i t e d o n a s p o t o f 2

mm d i a m e t e r down t o a s p o t o f 0 . 4 mm d i a m e t e r . T h i s

c o r r e s p o n d , r o u g h l y , t o a s t e a d y s t a t e t e m p e r a t u r e

c h a n g e f r o m 2 0 t o 4 5 0 K, a s s u m i n g h e a t g e n e r a t i n g

e f f i c i e n c y o f u n i t y and 50*/. l i g h t a b s o r p t i o n .

E L L I P S O I D A L COLLECTOR

I n f i g u r e 4 . 6 t h e v a r i a t i o n o f t h e p h o t o t h e r m a l

s i g n a l w i t h i n c i d e n t l a s e r p o w e r c a n be s e e n u s i n g an

e l l i p s o i d a l m i r r o r c o l l e c t o r . C o m p a r i n g t h i s w i t h

f i g u r e 4 . 4 , u s i n g t h e m i r r o r c o l l e c t o r h a s r e s u l t e d i n

97

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a 3 0 f o l d i n c r e a s e i n t h e d e t e c t e d s i g n a l .

M e a s u r e m e n t s a t l a s e r p o w e r s down t o 5 0 m i l l i w a t t was posV»t).

w i t h a p h a s e n o i s e o f o n e d e g r e e . S i g n a l a m p l i t u d e

v a l u e s a t t h i s p o w e r l e v e l c o r r e s p o n d e d t o t h o s e

o b t a i n e d w i t h o u t t h e c o l l e c t o r a t a l a s e r p o w e r o f 1

w a t t . The p h a s e a n g l e s h o w e d l i t t l e v a r i a t i o n f o r

l a s e r p o w e r s g r e a t e r t h a n 2 w a t t s b u t was o b s e r v e d t o

f a l l b y 4 d e g r e e s w i t h d e c r e a s i n g l a s e r p o w e r . The

r e a s o n f o r t h i s l a r g e c h a n g e i n t h e p h a s e a n g l e a t l o w

p o w e r l e v e l s i s u n c l e a r .

A l t h o u g h t h e d e t e c t e d s i g n a l was g r e a t e r when u s i n g

t h e c o l l e c t o r t h e r e w e r e p r o b l e m s wh en r e f l e c t i v e

s u r f a c e s w e r e e x a m i n e d . F i g u r e A . 7 s h o ws t h e o b s e r v e d

p h a s e v a r i a t i o n w i t h s a m p l e r o t a t i o n f o r b u l k g r a p h i t e

and t i t a n i u m . T h e p h a s e a n g l e s f r o m b o t h s u r f a c e s a r e

n o t t h e same d e s p i t e t h e u s e o f t h e i n t e r f e r e n c e

r e f l e c t i o n f i l t e r . S a m p l e r o t a t i o n a p p e a r s t o h e l p

t h e p h a s e a n g l e on t h e t i t a n i u m s u r f a c e t o a p p r o a c h

t h a t on t h e g r a p h i t e s u r f a c e , b u t t h e r e i s s t i l l a

p h a s e d i f f e r e n c e o f n e a r l y 10 d e g r e e s b e t w e e n t h e

samp 1e s .

I n f i g u r e 4 . 8 t h e r e p r o d u c i b i 1 i t y o f t wo c o n s e c u t i v e

l i n e s c a n t r a c e s a r e p r e s e n t e d a c r o s s a t h i c k n e s s s t e p

on a n LC1B c o a t i n g u s i n g t h i s s y s t e m . T h e l a s e r p o w e r

was a 1 0 0 m i l l i w a t t and t h e c h o p p i n g f r e q u e n c y 10 H z .

I n f i g u r e 4 . 9 t h e p h a s e c h a n g e a c r o s s t h e t h i c k n e s s

s t e p w i t h v a r y i n g l a s e r p o w e r i s p r e s e n t e d s h o w i n g i t s

i n v a r i a n c e w i t h i n c r e a s i n g l a s e r p o w e r .

9 8

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4 . 1 . 3 SAMPLE AND DETECTOR R OTAT I ON

A f u r t h e r e x p e r i m e n t a l p a r a m e t e r t h a t n e e d s t o b e

e v a l u a t e d i s t h e a n g u l a r p o s i t i o n i n g o f t h e s a m p l e /

d e t e c t o r . I n f i g u r e 4 . 1 0 t h e v a r i a t i o n o f t h e

p h o t o t h e r m a l s i g n a l w i t h s a m p l e r o t a t i o n and f i x e d

d e t e c t o r p o s i t i o n i s s h o w n . ( M e a s u r e m e n t s w i t h o u t t h e

e l l i p s o i d a l c o l l e c t o r . ) A t t h e z e r o d e g r e e p o s i t i o n

t h e l a s e r beam i s n o r m a l t o t h e s a m p l e s u r f a c e . As

t h e s a m p l e i s r o t a t e d b o t h t h e s i g n a l a m p l i t u d e and

p h a s e a n g l e sho w a maximum b e t w e e n —2 0 and - 1 0 d e g r e e .

I n t h i s o r i e n t a t i o n t h e s a m p l e i s o b s e r v e d t o b e n o r m a l

t o t h e d e t e c t o r . T h e p h a s e a n g l e v a r i a t i o n a r o u n d t h e

p e a k i s l e s s t h a n o n e d e g r e e f o r a s a m p l e r o t a t i o n o f ±

2 0 d e g r e e s . F i g u r e 4 . 1 1 s h o w s t h e s i g n a l a m p l i t u d e

and p h a s e v a r i a t i o n w i t h d e t e c t o r r o t a t i o n . A g a i n t h e

p h a s e a n g l e c h a n g e s v e r y l i t t l e w h e n t h e d e t e c t o r i s

r o t a t e d b y a s much a s 2 5 d e g r e e s .

F i g u r e 4 . 1 2 a shows t h e p h a s e d i f f e r e n c e w i t h s a m p l e

r o t a t i o n a c r o s s a s t e p t h i c k n e s s c h a n g e on a LC1B

c o a t i n g s a m p l e f r o m 1 5 0 - 2 0 0 Fm. T y p i c a l l i n e s t r a c e s

a r e s hown i n f i g u r e 4 . 1 2 b f o r v a r i o u s s a m p l e r o t a t i o n

a n g l e s . T h e s e m e a s u r e m e n t s a l s o show t h a t w i t h i n t h e

e x p e r i m e n t a 1 n o i s e , t h e p h a s e s t e p s o b s e r v e d a r e

u n a f f e c t e d b y s a m p l e r o t a t i o n .

4 . 1 . 4 D I S C U S S I O N

The r e s u l t s r e p o r t e d a b o v e show t h a t many

n o n - t h e r m a l v a r i a b l e s i n f l u e n c e t h e p h a s e a n g l e o f t h e

d e t e c t e d s i g n a l .

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a) IR emission from the l a s e r .

b) Re f l e c t e d l ase r l i g h t .

c) Sample / d e t e c t o r r o t a t i o n .

d) O p t i c a l spot s i z e .

T h e s e v a r i a b l e s c a n make c a l i b r a t i o n c u r v e s u n r e l i a b l e

and h i n d e r q u a n t i t a t i v e a n a l y s i s . T h e f i r s t t wo

v a r i a b l e s l e a d t o a c o h e r e n t n o i s e s i g n a l and t h e l a s t

t wo a r e d e p e n d a n t on t h e e x p e r i m e n t a l s e t - u p . I n

4 . 1 . 1 s i m p l e m e a s u r e s w e r e o u t l i n e d t o r e d u c e o r

e l i m i n a t e p h a s e v a r i a t i o n s a s s o c i a t e d w i t h ( a ) and ( b ) .

I n a p r a c t i c a l s y s t e m s p e c i a l d i c h o r i c f i l t e r s w i l l

n e e d t o b e u s e d i n s e p a r a t i n g t h e o p t i c a l and I R

c o m p o n e n t f r o m t h e i l l u m i n a t i o n s o u r c e .

I n 4 . 1 . 2 - 3 t h e m a g n i t u d e o f p h a s e v a r i a t i o n s l i k e l y

t o b e e x p e c t e d w i t h o p t i c a l s p o t s i z e and s a m p l e /

d e t e c t o r p o s i t i o n i n g e r r o r s w e r e d e t e r m i n e d . T h e

r e l a t i v e p o s i t i o n i n g o f t h e s a m p l e / I R d e t e c t o r h a d

l i t t l e e f f e c t on t h e p h a s e a n g l e p r o v i d e d t h a t t h e

a n g u l a r p o s i t i o n i n g v a r i a t i o n s w e r e m a i n t a i n e d l e s s

t h a n 2 0 d e g r e e s . T h e l a r g e s t v a r i a t i o n s i n t h e p h a s e

a n g l e r e s u l t e d w i t h c h a n g e s i n t h e o p t i c a l s p o t s i z e a s

t h i s d i m e n s i o n be c a me c o m p a r a b l e w i t h t h e t h e r m a l

d i f f u s i o n l e n g t h , 2 0 0 pm. I t was n o t e d t h a t a s l o n g a s

t h e l a s e r beam d i a m e t e r i s i n e x c e s s o f 2 mm t h e p h a s e

a n g l e r e m a i n s c o n s t a n t .

T h e e m p l o y m e n t o f an e l l i p s o i d a l m i r r o r c o l l e c t o r

r e s u l t e d i n a 3 0 f o l d i n c r e a s e i n t h e I R d e t e c t i o n

e f f i c i e n c y . T h e l a r g e s o l i d a n g l e o f I R c o l l e c t i o n ,

0 . 6 ' 7 o f t h e c o l l e c t o r c o m p a r e d t o 0 . 0 0 1 6 o f t h e u n a i d e d

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d e t e c t o r , i s t h e p r i m a r y r e a s o n f o r t h e i n c r e a s e i n

d e t e c t i o n e f f i c i e n c y . T h e s e f i g u r e s s u g g e s t an

e x p e c t e d i n c r e a s e i n t h e d e t e c t e d s i g n a l o f n e a r l y ^ 0 0 .

T h i s h a s n o t b e e n r e a l i s e d d u e t o p o s s i b l e h i g h

r e f l e c t i o n l o s s e s a t t h e d e t e c t o r w i n d o w / f i l t e r f o r

r a d i a t i o n i n c i d e n t a t a n g l e s r e m o v e d f r o m t h e n o r m a l .

H e n c e o n l y a l i m i t e d f r a c t i o n o f t h e c o l l e c t e d I R

r a d i a t i o n i s f o c u s e d on t o t h e I R d e t e c t o r e l e m e n t . To

r e g a i n . t h e l o s t s i g n a l i t w i l l b e n e c e s s a r y t o

c o l l i m a t e t h e i n c i d e n t r a d i a t i o n so t h a t i t i s n o r m a l l y

i n c i d e n t a t t h e I R d e t e c t o r .

W i t h t h i s i m p r o v e m e n t i n I R d e t e c t i o n e f f i c i e n c y

l a s e r p o w e r s down t o 5 0 m i l l i w a t t w e r e s u f f i c i e n t f o r

t h i c k n e s s m e a s u r e m e n t s on L C1B t y p e c o a t i n g s . T h i s

p o w e r r a n g e i s w e l l w i t h i n t h e c a p a b i l i t i e s o f

c o m m e r c i a l l o w p o w e r e d g a s l a s e r s a n d r e c e n t l y , h i g h

p o w e r e d s e m i - c o n d u c t o r l a s e r . C u r r e n t t e c h n o l o g y

o f f e r s c o n t i n u o u s w a v e o u t p u t o f 1 w a t t C 8 5 1 . I n

s e c t i o n m e a s u r e m e n t s a r e p r e s e n t e d on t h i c k n e s s

g a u g i n g o f LC1B c o a t i n g u s i n g a n e a r I R l a s e r d i o d e f o r

s a m p l e h e a t i n g .

• 5 SURFACE ROUGHNESS

I n t h i s s e c t i o n m e a s u r e m e n t s a r e r e p o r t e d t o a s s e s s

t h e e f f e c t s o f s u r f a c e r o u g h n e s s on t h e p h a s e a n g l e o f

t h e p h o t o t h e r m a l s i g n a l . M e a s u r e m e n t s a r e f i r s t

r e p o r t e d f r o m a s - s p r a y e d ' f i n e 7 and ' c o a r s e 7 LC1B

c o a t i n g s t o d e t e r m i n e t h e m a g n i t u d e o f p h a s e a n g l e

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v a r i a t i o n s 1 . D a t a i s a l s o p r e s e n t e d f r o m b u l k h i g h

d e n s i t y n u c l e a r g r a p h i t e w i t h i t s s u r f a c e r o u g h e n e d

w i t h e m e r y p a p e r o r mesa c u t .

4 . 2 - 1 LC1B F I N E AND ROUGH COATI NGS

T h e e f f e c t s o f s u r f a c e r o u g h n e s s on t h e m e a s u r e d

p h a s e a n g l e on p l a s m a s p r a y e d LC1B c o a t i n g s w i t h

d i f f e r e n t t h i c k n e s s a r e s h o wn i n f i g u r e 4 . 1 3 a - d f o r

m o d u l a t i o n f r e q u e n c i e s o f 1 0 , 2 5 , 3 6 , and 6 4 Hz

r e s p e c t i v e l y . I n a l l c a s e s t h e p h a s e a n g l e m e a s u r e d on

t h e r o u g h c o a t i n g shows a p h a s e a n g l e a d v a n c e w i t h

r e s p e c t t o t h e v a l u e s o b t a i n e d on t h e s m o o t h c o a t i n g .

T h e p h a s e d i f f e r e n c e b e t w e e n t h e r o u g h a nd f i n e

s u r f a c e s r i s e s t o a p e a k a s t h e c o a t i n g t h i c k n e s s

i n c r e a s e s a n d a p p e a r s t o s a t u r a t e w i t h i n c r e a s i n g

f r e q u e n c y . I n f i g u r e 4 . 1 4 t h e p h a s e d i f f e r e n c e b e t w e e n

t h e r o u g h a n d s m o o t h s a m p l e a r e p l o t t e d a g a i n s t r o o t

f r e q u e n c y . T h e p h a s e m e a s u r e m e n t s a r e f r o m a 10 mm

l i n e a v e r a g e on a n o m i n a l 2 5 0 Hm c o a t i n g t h i c k n e s s . On

r e m o v i n g t h e s u r f a c e r o u g h n e s s b y p o l i s h i n g ( a 6 0 0

e m e r y p a p e r f i n i s h ) t h e p h a s e a n g l e m e a s u r e d on t h i s

s u r f a c e c o r r e l a t e d w e l l , s e e f i g . 4 . 1 5 , t o t h a t

m e a s u r e d o n t h e s mo o t h a s - s p r a y e d s a m p l e .

4 . 2 . 2 GR A P H I T E SAMPLES

I n f i g u r e 4 . 1 6 t h e p h a s e a n g l e d i f f e r e n c e w i t h r o o t

f r e q u e n c y f r o m a 2 0 0 g r i t f i n i s h and a mesa s a w - t o o t h

c u t g r a p h i t e s u r f a c e a r e p r e s e n t e d . T h e s e s a m p l e

s u r f a c e c o n d i t i o n s r e p r e s e n t t h e w i d e s t d i f f e r e n c e i n

1 F i n e and c o a r s e r e f e r t o t h e c o a t i n g p o w d e r t y p e u s e d t o d e p o s i t t h e c o a t i n g .

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the surface roughness and the surface thermal

p r o p e r t i e s . T h e p h a s e d i f f e r e n c e d a t a o f f i g u r e 4 . 1 6

i s o b t a i n e d f r o m l i n e t r a c e m e a s u r e m e n t s a c r o s s a f l a t

and r o u g h r e g i o n on a s a m p l e . S a m p l e l i n e t r a c e s

a c r o s s t h e s e s u r f a c e s a r e sh o wn i n f i g u r e 4 . 1 6 c f o r a

t e s t f r e q u e n c y o f 7 H z . F o r t h e s a w - t o o t h g r a p h i t e

s a m p l e t h e r o u g h n e s s p e a k s a p p e a r t o b e w e l l r e s o l v e d ,

□n f u r t h e r i n v e s t i g a t i o n i t was f o u n d t h a t t h e o p t i c a l

s p o t s i z e d e t e r m i n e d t h e m a g n i t u d e o f t h e p h a s e p e a k s

a n d t h e i r r e s o l u t i o n . To c o v e r t h e f r e q u e n c y r a n g e

shown i n t h e s e f i g u r e s a c a d m i u m m e r c u r y t e l l u r i d e

( CMT) I R d e t e c t o r w i t h a g e r m a n i u m l e n s was u s e d f o r

s i g n a l d e t e c t i o n . T h e i n c i d e n t l a s e r p o w e r was 5

w a t t s . As w i t h t h e LC1B c o a t i n g s s a m p l e s , t h e p h a s e

d i f f e r e n c e b e t w e e n t h e r o u g h s u r f a c e a n d f l a t ( l H

a l u m i n a f i n i s h ) s h o w s a n a d v a n c e . T h e p h a s e a d v a n c e i s

a l s o d e p e n d e n t o n t h e m o d u l a t i o n f r e q u e n c y . T h e p e a k

p h a s e a d v a n c e o b s e r v e d on b o t h s a m p l e i s a r o u n d 2 5 - 2 9

d e g r e e s . ( T h e e r r o r b a r s s hown i n t h e f i g u r e s a r e

t h o s e f r o m a l i n e a v e r a g e o f 15 mm on t h e r o u g h s u r f a c e

and a r e n o t a s s o c i a t e d w i t h e l e c t r o n i c n o i s e i n t h e

m e a s u r e m e n t s y s t e m ) .

The d a t a o f f i g u r e 4 . 1 6 b was f i t t e d t o t h e

t h e o r e t i c a l p h a s e c u r v e s g e n e r a t e d b y m o d e l l i n g t h e

s a w - t o o t h r o u g h n e s s p r o f i l e a s a l a y e r o f f i n i t e

t h i c k n e s s and d i f f e r i n g t h e r m a l p r o p e r t i e s . F i g u r e

4 . 1 7 shows t h e f i t t i n g o b t a i n e d . T h e l a y e r t h i c k n e s s

u s e d i s t h e r o o t mean s q u a r e s u r f a c e r o u g h n e s s and t h e

t h e r m a l p r o p e r t i e s a r e u s e d a s t h e f i t t i n g p a r a m e t e r s .

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A s s u m i n g t h a t t h e d a t a f i t s t h e t h e o r e t i c a l p h a s e c u r v e

f o r a r e f l e c t i o n c o e f f i c i e n t o f - 0 . 6 5 , t h e n t h e

e f f e c t i v e t h e r m a l p r o p e r t y v a l u e s i n d i c a t e d i n t h e

f i g u r e a r e o b t a i n e d . T h e mesa r o u g h n e s s p r o f i l e

b e h a v e s a s t h o u g h t h e t h e r m a l e f f u s i v i t y o f t h e s u r f a c e

h a s b e e n r e d u c e d by a f a c t o r o f 5 .

T h e p h a s e a d v a n c e on t h e s e g r a p h i t e r o u g h n e s s

s a m p l e s w e r e a l s o f o u n d t o b e d e p e n d a n t on l a s e r

p o w e r . W i t h i n c r e a s i n g l a s e r p o w e r t h e p h a s e a d v a n c e

on t h e s a m p l e i n c r e a s e d . S a m p l e r o t a t i o n h a d l i t t l e

e f f e c t on t h e o b s e r v e d p h a s e a d v a n c e on t h e s e g r a p h i t e

s a m p l e s . T h e s e o b s e r v a t i o n s a r e s u m m a r i s e d i n f i g u r e

4 . 1 8 .

* f . 5 . 3 D I S C U S S I O N

T h e a b o v e m e a s u r e m e n t s s ho w t h a t s u r f a c e r o u g h n e s s

i n d u c e s a p h a s e i n c r e a s e r e l a t i v e t o t h a t m e a s u r e d on

a n o m i n a l l y f l a t s u r f a c e . On a r o u g h LC1B c o a t i n g a

p h a s e a d v a n c e o f 2 - 3 d e g r e e s was m e a s u r e d . On a

r o u g h e n e d g r a p h i t e s u r f a c e t h e p h a s e a d v a n c e was a s

h i g h a s 2 5 - 3 0 d e g r e e s . T h e s e i n i t i a l o b s e r v a t i o n s

s u g g e s t t h a t t h e s c a l e o f t h e s u r f a c e r o u g h n e s s and i t s

t h e r m a l p r o p e r t i e s d i c t a t e t h e m a g n i t u d e o f t h e p h a s e

a d v a n c e . A d e t a i l e d s t u d y on t h e g r a p h i t e r o u g h n e s s

s a m p l e s a l s o showed t h a t t h e p h a s e a d v a n c e i s d e p e n d e n t

on t h e m o d u l a t i o n f r e q u e n c y , l a s e r p o w e r and s p o t s i z e .

P h a s e d a t a o b t a i n e d f r o m LC1B r o u g h n e s s s a m p l e s

sh owed a c l o s e s i m i l a r i t y t o t h e t h e o r e t i c a l p h a s e

v a r i a t i o n m o d e l l e d i n f i g u r e 2 . 1 1 i n w h i c h t h e s u r f a c e

r o u g h n e s s i s r e p r e s e n t e d by a f i n i t e l a y e r o f w e l l

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d e f i n e d t h i c k n e s s and r e d u c e d t h e r m a l c o n d u c t i v i t y . A

s i m i l a r a n a l y s i s o f t h e p h a s e d a t a f r o m t h e mesa

g r a p h i t e r o u g h n e s s s a m p l e was a l s o p o s s i b l e w i t h t h e

c o n c l u s i o n t h a t t h e r m a l e f f u s i v i t y o f t h e s u r f a c e l a y e r

ha d b e e n r e d u c e d by a f a c t o r o f f i v e .

T h i s s u r f a c e r o u g h n e s s s t u d y h a s r e v e a l e d t h e

a b s e n c e o f a p h a s e l a g a t a r o u g h s u r f a c e . A p h a s e

l a g may b e e x p e c t e d i f o n e c o n s i d e r p h a s e v a r i a t i o n s

f r o m t h e e d g e s , c o r n e r s a n d mesa s t r u c t u r e s o n t h e

s a m p l e s u r f a c e s a m p l e s C 8 6 J . A n u m e r i c a l a n a l y s i s i s

r e q u i r e d t o d e t e r m i n e w h e t h e r a p h a s e l a g o r a n a d v a n c e

i s e x p e c t e d a t a r o u g h s u r f a c e . A d i f f i c u l t y w i t h t h e

t e s t s a m p l e s u s e d a b o v e i s t h a t b o t h t h e s u r f a c e

t o p o g r a p h y and s u r f a c e t h e r m a l p r o p e r t i e s w e r e a l t e r e d

w i t h p o l i s h i n g / r o u g h e n i n g . T h i s m a k e s i t i m p o s s i b l e

t o c o r r e l a t e t h e o b s e r v e d p h a s e a n g l e c h a n g e s w i t h

s u r f a c e t o p o g r a p h y o n l y . F o r t h e s a m p l e s s t u d i e d h e r e

i t a p p e a r s t h a t t h e s u r f a c e t h e r m a l p r o p e r t i e s c h a n g e s

a r e c o n t r i b u t i n g s i g n i f i c a n t l y t o t h e p h a s e a d v a n c e s

o b s e r v e d .

. 3 DEFECTS

S u b s u r f a c e d e f e c t s h a v e a c h a r a c t e r i s t i c p h a s e

r e s p o n s e w i t h i n c r e a s i n g f r e q u e n c y n a m e l y a p h a s e

a d v a n c e a t l ow f r e q u e n c i e s t o a p h a s e l a g a t h i g h

f r e q u e n c i e s . I n t h i s s e c t i o n m e a s u r e m e n t s a r e

r e p o r t e d on m a n u f a c t u r e d d e f e c t s a m p l e s t o a s s e s s t h e

p h o t o t h e r m a l t e c h n i q u e f o r s u b s u r f a c e d e f e c t

c h a r a c t e r i s a t i o n and t h e d e t e c t i o n o f c o n t a c t i n g

i n t e r f a c e s . T h e p h o t o t h e r m a l s y s t e m i s a l s o c o m p a r e d

w i t h u l t r a s o n i c m e a s u r e m e n t s .

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* + . 3 . 1 SQUARE DEFECTS I N LC1B COATI NGS

PHOTOTHERMAL I N V E S T I G A T I O N

I n f i g u r e ^+.19 5 0 mm l i n e s c a n t r a c e s a r e p r e s e n t e d

a c r o s s t h e d e f e c t s i n p o l i s h e d a nd a s - s p r a y e d LC1B

c o a t i n g a t a f r e q u e n c y o f 8 H z . T h e l i n e t r a c e s a r e a t

t h e p o s i t i o n s i n d i c a t e d i n f i g u r e ^ . 2 0 . T a b l e . 1

p r o v i d e s a s u mma r y o f t h e p h a s e v a r i a t i o n o v e r t h e

d e f e c t r e g i o n s . I n b o t h s a m p l e s d e f e c t s A , B and D

w e r e r e a d i l y d e t e c t a b l e . D e f e c t C f a i l e d t o be

d e t e c t e d . A p h a s e i n c r e a s e o f a b o u t 1 . 5 d e g r e e s was

o b s e r v e d a t t h e d e f e c t s i t e s . T h e d e f e c t s f o u n d i n

t h e p o l i s h e d s a m p l e showed up m o r e s t r o n g l y t h a n t h o s e

d e t e c t e d o n t h e a s s p r a y e d s a m p l e . To d e t e r m i n e

w h e t h e r t h e p h a s e i n c r e a s e a t t h e d e f e c t s i t e i s d u e t o

a d h e s i o n d e f i c i e n c i e s a f r e q u e n c y r e s p o n s e o f d e f e c t A

i n t h e a s - s p r a y e d and B a n d D i n t h e p o l i s h e d s a m p l e s

w e r e e x a m i n e d . F i g u r e 4- . 21 s h o w s l i n e t r a c e s o f t h e

p h a s e v a r i a t i o n s o f t h e s e d e f e c t s w i t h f r e q u e n c y . Th e

a b s e n c e o f a p h a s e l a g w i t h i n c r e a s i n g f r e q u e n c y

s u g g e s t s t h a t t h e s e p h a s e v a r i a t i o n s a r e n o t d u e t o

s u b s u r f a c e a d h e s i o n d e f e c t s . T h e p h a s e a d v a n c e a t t h e

d e f e c t i s m o r e i n d i c a t i v e o f l o c a l i s e d s u b s u r f a c e

t h e r m a l p r o p e r t y c h a n g e p r o b a b l y d u e t o i n c r e a s e d

p o r o s i t y . T h i s a s s e r t i o n was v e r i f i e d by o p t i c a l

m i c r o s c o p y , f i g u r e * f . 2 2 , w h e r e s i g n i f i c a n t v a r i a t i o n i n

t h e l o c a l m i c r o s t r u c t u r e b e t w e e n s i t e s r e m o t e and

w i t h i n t h e d e f e c t r e g i o n s w e r e o b s e r v e d .

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ULT RASONI C I N V E S T I G A T I O N

An u l t r a s o n i c e x a m i n a t i o n CB7D o f t h e a s - s p r a y e d

d e f e c t s a m p l e was a l s o u n d e r t a k e n t o c o m p a r e i t s

p e r f o r m a n c e w i t h t h e p h o t o t h e r m a l t e c h n i q u e i n s e n s i n g

t h e s e d e f e c t s i t e s . M e a s u r e m e n t on t h e s a m p l e w e r e

made d i f f i c u l t d u e t o s a m p l e c u r v a t u r e n e a r t h e d e f e c t

r e g i o n s . F i g u r e 4 . 2 3 s h o ws l i n e s c a n t r a c e s o f s i g n a l

a t t e n u a t i o n a c r o s s t h e ’ d e f e c t 7 r e g i o n s i n t h e

p o l i s h e d , f i g . 4 . 2 3 a , a n d a s - s p r a y e d , f i g . 4 . 2 3 b ,

s a m p l e . O n l y d e f e c t s A a n d B i n t h e a s - s p r a y e d s a m p l e

s h o w e d s i g n i f i c a n t p e r t u r b a t i o n i n t h e s i g n a l v a r i a t i o n

a c r o s s t h e d e f e c t r e g i o n s . A d e c r e a s e i n s i g n a l

a t t e n u a t i o n r a t h e r t h e n a n i n c r e a s e was o b s e r v e d a c r o s s

t h e d e f e c t s i t e s . T h e d e c r e a s e i n s i g n a l a t t e n u a t i o n

may b e e x p l a i n e d a s b e i n g d u e t o t h e p r e s e n c e o f w a t e r

i n t h e p o r o u s m i c r o s t r u c t u r e w h i c h w i l l r e s u l t i n l o w e r

i m p e d a n c e m i s m a t c h l o s s e s o f t h e t r a n s m i t t e d u l t r a s o n i c

b e a m .

B o t h t h e p h o t o t h e r m a l a n d t h e u l t r a s o n i c

m e a s u r e m e n t s i n d i c a t e t h e a b s e n c e o f i n t e r f a c e d e f e c t s

i n t h e s e s a m p l e s . T h e r e i s h o w e v e r a l o c a l i s e d c h a n g e

i n t h e c o a t i n g m i c r o s t r u c t u r e .

4 . 3 . 2 D I F F U S I O N BONDED DEFECT SAMPLES

W i t h t h e d i f f i c u l t y i n p r o d d c i n g c o m p l e t e l y

d e l a m i n a t e d d e f e c t s i n p l a s m a s p r a y e d c o a t i n g s , d e f e c t s

i n d i f f u s i o n b o n d e d m i l d s t e e l / m i l d s t e e l ( M S / M S ) and

m i l d s t e e l / s t a i n l e s s s t e e l ( M S / S S ) s a m p l e s w e r e

s t u d i e d . D e t a i l s o f s a m p l e g e o m e t r y and d e f e c t s i z e s

a r e s u m m a r i s e d i n f i g u r e 3 . 6 .

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I n f i g u r e 4 . 2 4 l i n e s c a n t r a c e s t h r o u g h t h e c e n t r e

o f 10 and 5 mm d e f e c t i n MS/ MS s a m p l e ( s a m p l e n o . 4 )

a r e p r e s e n t e d a t s e v e r a l m o d u l a t i o n f r e q u e n c i e s . T h e

s a m p l e s u r f a c e was l i g h t l y d a r k e n e d w i t h s o o t f r o m a

c a n d l e f l a m e t o i n c r e a s e l i g h t a b s o r p t i o n and t h e r m a l

e m i s s i o n . T h e t r a c e s p r e s e n t e d show a p h a s e l a g a t t h e

d e f e c t . T h e m a g n i t u d e o f p h a s e l a g g o e s t h r o u g h a

maximum w i t h i n c r e a s i n g f r e q u e n c y and d i s a p p e a r s i n t h e

s a m p l e p h a s e n o i s e a t h i g h e r f r e q u e n c i e s . T h i s t y p e o f

p h a s e v a r i a t i o n i s c h a r a c t e r i s t i c o f s u b s u r f a c e

a d h e s i o n d e f e c t s .

F i g u r e 4 . 2 5 sh ows a p l o t o f t h e p h a s e d i f f e r e n c e 22

w i t h r o o t f r e q u e n c y o f t h e 5 and 10 mm d e f e c t d i a m e t e r

i n MS/MB f i t t e d t o t h e o r e t i c a l d e f e c t p h a s e l o c i u s i n g

l i t e r a t u r e v a l u e s f o r t h e t h e r m a l p r o p e r t i e s o f m i l d

s t e e l a n d a i r . T h e t h e o r e t i c a l c u r v e s a r e g e n e r a t e d

a s s u m i n g o n e d i m e n s i o n a l h e a t f l o w a nd a i r - g a p d e f e c t s

o f f i n i t e t h i c k n e s s . T h e d a t a a p p e a r s t o b e a g o o d f i t

a t h i g h m o d u l a t i o n f r e q u e n c i e s f o r b o t h d e f e c t

d i a m e t e r s , 5 a nd 10 mm. A t l o w f r e q u e n c i e s h o w e v e r ,

t h e r e i s a s i g n i f i c a n t d e p a r t u r e f r o m t h e o n e

d i m e n s i o n a l d e f e c t p h a s e l o c u s w i t h t h e 5 mm d i a m e t e r

d e f e c t . T h e i t e r a t i v e f i t t i n g t e c h n i q u e u s e d p r e d i c t s

t h e d e f e c t d e p t h t o b e a r o u n d 9 0 0 Hm and d e f e c t

t h i c k n e s s g r e a t e r t h a n o r e q u a l t o 1 0 0 Hm. T h e d e f e c t

d e p t h i s i n good a g r e e m e n t w i t h t h e t h i c k n e s s

m e a s u r e m e n t p r o v i d e d w i t h t h e t e s t s a m p l e o f 1 mm.

F u r t h e r l i n e t r a c e s f r o m d e f e c t s o f d i f f e r e n t

d i a m e t e r a r e p r e s e n t e d i n f i g u r e 4 . 2 6 a - d f o r a M S / SS

2 phase d i f f e r e n c e = phase at d e f ec t minus phase away from d e f e c t .

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s a m p l e ( s a m p l e n o . 3 ) and a c o m p o s i t e p h a s e d i f f e r e n c e

a g a i n s t r o o t f r e q u e n c y p l o t i s c o m p i l e d i n f i g u r e 4 . 2 7 .

U i t h d e c r e a s i n g d e f e c t d i a m e t e r t h e p h a s e d i f f e r e n c e a t

t h e d e f e c t b e c o m e s mo r e p o s i t i v e a n d t h e r e i s p o o r

c o r r e s p o n d e n c e o f t h e o b s e r v e d p h a s e m e a s u r e m e n t t o

t h a t o f t h e o n e d i m e n s i o n a l d e f e c t m o d e l . T h i s

d e p a r t u r e o f t h e e x p e r i m e n t a l d a t a f r o m t h e one

d i m e n s i o n a 1 d e f e c t p h a s e c u r v e i s d u e p r i n c i p a 1 l y t o

t h e t h r e e d i m e n s i o n a l d i f f u s i o n o f h e a t a t low

m o d u l a t i o n f r e q u e n c i e s . A t t h e s e l o w f r e q u e n c i e s t h e

t h e r m a l d i f f u s i o n l e n g t h b e c o m e s l a r g e ( f e w m i l l i m e t r e s

) and l a t e r a l h e a t d i f f u s i o n c a n no l o n g e r be

n e g l e c t e d . A t h r e e d i m e n s i o n a l h e a t d i f f u s i o n a n a l y s i s

p r o v i d e s t h e p h a s e l o c i s h o w n i n f i g u r e 4 . 2 8 f o r t h e

p h a s e a n g l e v a r i a t i o n a t t h e s u r f a c e o f t h e a b o v e

d e f e c t s a m p l e w i t h d i f f e r e n t o p t i c a l s p o t d i a m e t e r s 3 .

T h e d e p a r t u r e o f t h e p h a s e a n g l e a t l o w m o d u l a t i o n

f r e q u e n c i e s i s c l e a r l y s h o w n i n t h i s f i g u r e a s i s t h e

d e p e n d e n c e on h e a t i n g beam d i a m e t e r .

4 . 3 . 3 THERMAL CONTACT R E S I S T A N C E

I n f i g u r e 4 . 2 9 l i n e t r a c e s a r e p r e s e n t e d o f t h e

p h a s e d i f f e r e n c e b e t w e e n c o n t a c t i n g a n d n o n - c o n t a c t i n g

s u r f a c e s d e m o n s t r a t i n g t h e a b i l i t y o f p h o t o t h e r m a l

t e c h n i q u e i n d e t e c t i n g c o n t a c t i n g s u r f a c e s . The

c o n t a c t g e o m e t r y f o r b o t h f i g u r e s i s s hown f i g u r e 3 . 7 .

I n b o t h c a s e s t h e s u b s u r f a c e c o n t a c t i s r e a d i l y v i s i b l e

and t h e p h a s e c h a n g e a t t h e c o n t a c t i s p o s i t i v e . T h i s

c a n be e x p l a i n e d q u a l i t a t i v e l y a s i l l u s t r a t e d

3 In the phase p l o t o f f i g u r e ^ . 2 8 no a ccount has been taken o f hea t d i f f u s i o n around the d e f e c t .

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s c h e m a t i c a l l y i n f i g u r e 4 . 3 0 . U l i t h o u t c o n t a c t t h e

p h a s e a n g l e r e c o r d e d r e p r e s e n t s a d e f e c t o f i n f i n i t e

c o n t a c t r e s i s t a n c e . W i t h c o n t a c t ) t h e t h e r m a l c o u p l i n g

b e t w e e n t h e s a m p l e s s i g n i f i c a n t l y r e d u c e s t h i s

r e s i s t a n c e a n d t h e c o n t a c t p h a s e c u r v e i s f o r c e d i n t o

a n a d v a n c e r e l a t i v e t o t h e no c o n t a c t p h a s e l o c u s . I t

i s t h e d i f f e r e n c e o f t h e s e p h a s e c u r v e s w h i c h p r o v i d e s

t h e p o s i t i v e p h a s e c h a n g e s h own i n f i g u r e <+. 2 9 .

^ . 3 . ^ D I S C U S S I O N

T h e a b o v e i n v e s t i g a t i o n s show c l e a r l y t h e

s e n s i t i v i t y o f t h e t h e r m a l w a v e t e c h n i q u e f o r d e t e c t i n g

m a t e r i a l p o r o s i t y , i n t e r f a c e d e f e c t s a nd p r e s s e d

c o n t a c t s . A c o m p a r i s o n b e t w e e n u l t r a s o n i c and

p h o t o t h e r m a l m e a s u r e m e n t s a p p e a r t o s u g g e s t t h a t t h e

t h e r m a l w a v e t e c h n i q u e i s m o r e s e n s i t i v e i n d e t e c t i n g

a b n o r m a l s u b s u r f a c e c o n d i t i o n s t h e n u l t r a s o n i c s . T h i s

a s p e c t o f t h e s t u d y r e q u i r e s f u r t h e r i n v e s t i g a t i o n s a s✓

t h e u l t r a s o n i c r e s p o n s e o f t h e ' s q u a r e d e f e c t ' s a m p l e s

w e r e o n l y s t u d i e d a t o n e a r b i t r a r y t e s t f r e q u e n c y o f 5

MHz .

P h a s e a n g l e m e a s u r e m e n t s on t h e d i f f u s i o n b o n d e d

d e f e c t s a m p l e s o f v a r y i n g d i a m e t e r and d e p t h i l l u s t r a t e

t h e c a p a b i l i t y a n d l i m i t a t i o n s f o r q u a n t i t a t i v e

s u b s u r f a c e d e f e c t c h a r a c t e r i s a t i o n . To a n a l y s e t h e

p h a s e a n g l e d a t a a t l o w f r e q u e n c i e s a n u m e r i c a l m o d e l

n e e d s t o be d e v e l o p e d w h i c h t a k e s i n t o a c c o u n t t h e

f i n i t e w i d t h and t h i c k n e s s o f t h e d e f e c t , t h e o p t i c a l

h e a t i n g and I R d e t e c t i o n s p o t s i z e s on t h e s a m p l e .

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4 . 4 SEMI - CONDUCTOR LASER D I ODE SYSTEM EVALUATI ON

I t was n o t e d i n s e c t i o n 4 . 1 . 4 t h a t t h e u s e o f an

e l l i p s o i d a l m i r r o r c o l l e c t o r r e s u l t e d i n a 3 0 f o l d

i n c r e a s e i n t h e d e t e c t e d s i g n a l . I t was a l s o

d i s c u s s e d t h a t t h i s i m p r o v e m e n t i n t h e I R c o l l e c t i o n

e f f i c i e n c y w o u l d a l l o w much l o w e r l a s e r p o w e r s t o be

u s e d f o r s a m p l e h e a t i n g . I n t h e f o l l o w i n g s e c t i o n s

m e a s u r e m e n t s a r e r e p o r t e d on t h e u s e o f a n o p t i c a l

f i b r e c o u p l e d s e m i c o n d u c t o r l a s e r d i o d e f o r s a m p l e

h e a t i n g . F i g u r e 4 . 3 1 s h o ws a s c h e m a t i c i l l u s t r a t i o n o f

t h e e x p e r i m e n t a l s e t - u p u s e d f o r e v a l u a t i n g t h e l a s e r

d i o d e NDT s y s t e m .

4 . 4 . 1 LASER POUIER LEVEL STUDY

I n f i g u r e 4 . 3 2 t h e s i g n a l a m p l i t u d e a nd p h a s e

v a r i a t i o n w i t h l a s e r p o w e r i s s h o w n . T h e m o d u l a t i o n

f r e q u e n c y was 10 Hz a n d t h e s a m p l e a 2 5 0 Hm t h i c k LC1B

c o a t i n g on s t a i n l e s s s t e e l . A l i n e a r c h a n g e i n s i g n a l

a m p l i t u d e w i t h l a s e r p o w e r i s o b s e r v e d b e t w e e n 0 . 0 5 a n d

0 . 3 W a t t . S i g n a l l e v e l s r e c o r d e d a r e r o u g h l y a f a c t o r

o f 3 l o w e r when c o m p a r e d w i t h t h e v a l u e s o b t a i n e d w i t h

t h e a r g o n i o n l a s e r . T h e p h a s e a n g l e sh o ws a s m a l l

v a r i a t i o n w i t h l a s e r p o w e r a n d t h e p h a s e n o i s e i s l e s s

t h a n 0 . 5 d e g r e e s f o r l a s e r p o w e r a b o v e 0 . 1 5 W a t t .

S I GN AL AMPLI TUDE AND PHASE ANGLE V A R I A T I O N

WITH F I B R E HEAD P O S I T I O N I N G

W i t h o p t i c a l f i b r e c o u p l i n g o f l a s e r e m i s s i o n t h e

h e a t e d s p o t on t h e s a m p l e s u r f a c e c a n b e l o c a t e d i n a

v a r i e t y o f p o s i t i o n w i t h r e s p e c t t o t h e a r e a s e n s e d by

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t h e I R d e t e c t o r . An a s s e s s m e n t i s t h e r e f o r e n e c e s s a r y

t o d e t e r m i n e t h e e f f e c t s o f f i b r e p o s i t i o n i n g on t h e

d e t e c t e d p h o t o t h e r m a l s i g n a l . I n f i g u r e 4 . 3 3 t h e

s i g n a l a m p l i t u d e and p h a s e v a r i a t i o n w i t h t h e d i s t a n c e

o f t h e f i b r e h e a d f r o m t h e s a m p l e i s p l o t t e d . The

s i g n a l a m p l i t u d e i n i t i a l l y r i s e s a nd t h e n f a l l w i t h

i n c r e a s i n g d i s t a n c e a s t h e f i b r e h e a d i s moved away

f r o m t h e s a m p l e s u r f a c e . T h e i n i t i a l r i s e o f t h e

s i g n a l i s d u e t o t h e d e t e c t o r b e i n g a b l e t o ’ s e e ’ mo r e

o f t h e h e a t e d a r e a a s t h e f i b r e h e a d i s r e t a r d e d . The

s i g n a l d e c a y a n d i n c r e a s i n g p h a s e l a g a s t h e f i b r e h e a d

i s f u r t h e r r e t a r d e d f r o m t h e s a m p l e s u r f a c e i s m a i n l y

d u e t o i n c r e a s e s i n t h e l a s e r s p o t d i a m e t e r on t h e

s a m p l e s u r f a c e a s a r e s u l t o f beam d i v e r g e n c e . A t v e r y

s h o r t d i s t a n c e s f r o m t h e s a m p l e s u r f a c e t h e s p o t s i z e

c a n b e e x p e c t e d t o b e t h a t o f t h e o p t i c a l f i b r e

d i a m e t e r ) 2 5 0 Fm. T h i s d i a m e t e r i s a p p r o x i m a t e l y e q u a l

t o t h e t h e r m a l d i f f u s i o n l e n g t h i n t h e c o a t i n g o f 2 0 0

Fm a t 10 H z . A s i m i l a r p h a s e b e h a v i o u r was a l s o n o t e d

i n s e c t i o n 4 . 1 . 2 , f i g u r e 4 . 5 , w h e r e t h e a r g o n i o n l a s e r

beam d i a m e t e r i s v a r i e d .

F i g u r e 4 . 3 4 shows t h e v a r i a t i o n o f s i g n a l a m p l i t u d e

and p h a s e a n g l e a s t h e f i b r e h e a d i s moved t h r o u g h t h e

I R d e t e c t i o n s p o t h o r i z o n t a l l y . T h e s i g n a l a m p l i t u d e

c h a n g e i s s y m m e t r i c a b o u t t h e d e t e c t i o n s p o t b u t t h e

p h a s e a n g l e c h a n g e i s a s y m m e t r i c . T h e r e a s o n f o r t h i s

i s d u e t o a c o v e r i n g o f t h e d e t e c t i o n s p o t b y t h e

o p t i c a l f i b r e h e a d as i t i s moved o v e r t h e r e g i o n

s a m p l e d by t h e I R d e t e c t o r ( s e e f i g . 4 . 3 1 ) . M o v i n g t h e

f i b r e h e a d i n a v e r t i c a l d i r e c t i o n t h r o u g h t h e

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d e t e c t i o n s p o t , t h e d a t a sho wn i n f i g u r e 4 . 3 5 a r e

o b t a i n e d . I n t h i s c a s e b o t h s i g n a l a m p l i t u d e and p h a s e

a n g l e show t h e e x p e c t e d s y m m e t r i c d i s t r i b u t i o n a b o u t

t h e d e t e c t i o n s p o t .

• 3 LC1B COATING TH I CKN ESS MEASUREMENTS

I n f i g u r e 4 . 3 6 a and b p h a s e a n g l e l i n e s c a n t r a c e s

a r e p r e s e n t e d f o r m e a s u r e m e n t s on LC1B c o a t i n g s a t 10

a n d S5 H z , r e s p e c t i v e l y , u s i n g a l a s e r p o w e r o f . 3

W a t t . A l s o s h o w n a n t h e s e f i g u r e s a r e t h e

c o r r e s p o n d i n g t r a c e s o b t a i n e d w i t h a r g o n i o n l a s e r

h e a t i n g . T h e l a t t e r t r a c e s a r e s l i g h t l y d i s p l a c e d

v e r t i c a l l y f o r c l a r i t y . T h e r e i s e x c e l l e n t

r e p r o d u c i b i 1 i t y w i t h c o n s e c u t i v e t r a c e s o b t a i n e d w i t h

t h e s e m i c o n d u c t o r l a s e r a nd a l s o a c l o s e m a t c h t o t h e

d a t a o b t a i n e d w i t h t h e a r g o n i o n l a s e r s y s t e m . T h e

’ n o i s y 7 a p p e a r a n c e o f t h e l i n e t r a c e s o b t a i n e d w i t h t h e

s e m i c o n d u c t o r l a s e r i s b e l i e v e d t o b e a s s o c i a t e d w i t h

t h e f i n e r s p o t s i z e u s e d f o r s a m p l e h e a t i n g .

4 . 4 . 4 D I S C U S S I O N

T h e s e i n i t i a l m e a s u r e m e n t s w i t h t h e l a s e r d i o d e

s y s t e m c l e a r l y d e m o n s t r a t e t h e s u c c e s s i n u s i n g s u c h a

l a s e r s o u r c e f o r s a m p l e h e a t i n g . T h e t h i c k n e s s

m e a s u r e m e n t s o b t a i n e d a r e v e r y s i m i l a r t o t h o s e

o b t a i n e d w i t h t h e a r g o n i o n l a s e r . W i t h t h e f o c u s e d

I R d e t e c t i o n s y s t e m u s e d h e r e a c a r e f u l c o n t r o l o v e r

t h e I R d e t e c t i o n and t h e i l l u m i n a t i o n s p o t on t h e

s a m p l e i s r e q u i r e d . T h e r e r e l a t i v e p o s i t i o n s on t h e

s a m p l e n ee d t o b e m a i n t a i n e d f i x e d t o a v o i d p h a s e a n g l e

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v a r i a t i o n s o f t h e t y p e i l l u s t r a t e d i n f i g u r e s

4 . 3 3 - 4 . 3 5 .

A p r a c t i c a l d i f f i c u l t y i n t h e u s a g e o f t h e l a s e r

s y s t e m was t h e a l i g n m e n t o f t h e l a s e r i l l u m i n a t i o n

( w h i c h i s i n v i s i b l e w i t h p r o t e c t i v e e y e g o g g l e s ) w i t h

t h e I R d e t e c t i o n s p o t on t h e s a m p l e . T h e l a t t e r i s

d e t e r m i n e d by m a x i m i s i n g t h e d e t e c t e d p h o t o t h e r m a l

s i g n a l w i t h f i n e a d j u s t m e n t s o f t h e v e r t i c a l and

a n g u l a r p o s i t i o n i n g o f t h e I R d e t e c t o r . F o r a

p r a c t i c a l s y s t e m a s e t - u p i n w h i c h t h e o p t i c a l and I R

d e t e c t i o n s p o t a r e c o i n c i d e n t i s v e r y d e s i r a b l e .

4 . 5 INFRARED DETECTOR E V A L U A T I O N .

I n t h e f o l l o w i n g p a r a g r a p h s m e a s u r e m e n t s a r e

p r e s e n t e d o f t h e i n f r a r e d d e t e c t o r f r e q u e n c y r e s p o n s e ,

t h e p h o t o t h e r m a l f r e q u e n c y r e s p o n s e o f b u l k t i t a n i u m

a n d a LC1B c o a t i n g a n d t h e p h a s e a n g l e n o i s e o f t h e

d e t e c t i o n s y s t e m .

4 . 5 . 1 INFRARED DETECTOR FREQUENCY RESPONSE.

F i g u r e 4 . 3 7 a and b show r e s p e c t i v e l y , t h e s i g n a l

a n d p h a s e r e s p o n s e w i t h f r e q u e n c y o f t h e p y r o e l e c t r i c

TGS i n f r a r e d d e t e c t o r o b t a i n e d when v i e w i n g c h o p p e d

t h e r m a l r a d i a t i o n f r o m a s o l d e r i n g i r o n a t a

t e m p e r a t u r e o f 2 0 0 C t h r o u g h a 10 mm a p e r t u r e . The

f r e q u e n c y r a n g e c o v e r e d i s f r o m 10 t o 8 8 0 H z . A t

f r e q u e n c i e s l e s s t h a n 2 5 Hz t h e s i g n a l v a r i a t i o n

a p p e a r s t o s a t u r a t e . W i t h i n c r e a s i n g f r e q u e n c y t h e

s i g n a l d e c a y s v e r y r a p i d l y a t a r a t e a p p r o x i m a t e 1 y

p r o p o r t i o n a l t o i n v e r s e c u b e f r e q u e n c y . T h e p h a s e

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a n g l e v a r i a t i o n a l s o s hows a l a r g e c h a n g e . T h e r a t e o f

c h a n g e b e i n g r a p i d b e t w e e n 10 and 5 0 0 Hz a nd t e n d i n g t o

s a t u r a t e f o r f r e q u e n c i e s g r e a t e r t h a n 5 0 0 H z .

4 . 5 . 2 PHOTOTHERMAL FREQUENCY RESPONSE .

T h e a b o v e f r e q u e n c y m e a s u r e m e n t s c a n be u s e d t o

o b t a i n t h e p h o t o t h e r m a l f r e q u e n c y r e s p o n s e o f a t e s t

s a m p l e . F i g u r e s ^ . 3 B a and b show r e s p e c t i v e l y , t h e

n o r m a l i s e d s i g n a l and p h a s e v a r i a t i o n o f a 10 mm t h i c k

t i t a n i u m and a 2 5 0 Hm t h i c k LC1B c o a t i n g on s t a i n l e s s

s t e e l . T h e i n c i d e n t l a s e r p o w e r was 4 w a t t a n d t h e I R

d e t e c t o r was s c r e e n e d b y t h e l a s e r l i g h t r e f l e c t i o n

f i l t e r . T h e n o r m a l i s e d s i g n a l d a t a was o b t a i n e d b y

e v a l u a t i n g t h e r a t i o o f t h e o b s e r v e d s i g n a l v a l u e t o

t h a t o f t h e d e t e c t o r f r e q u e n c y r e s p o n s e s i g n a l . The

p h a s e d a t a i s o b t a i n e d b y a s u b t r a c t i o n o f t h e m e a s u r e d

s a m p l e p h a s e a n g l e w i t h t h a t o f t h e d e t e c t o r p h a s e a t

t h e c o r r e s p o n d i n g f r e q u e n c y . T h e n o r m a l i s e d s i g n a l

v a r i a t i o n f o r b o t h s a m p l e s show t h a t t h e p h o t o t h e r m a l

d e c a y s a s i n v e r s e l y p r o p o r t i o n a l t o s q u a r e r o o t

f r e q u e n c y . T h e p h a s e a n g l e v a r i a t i o n i s s e e n t o b e

f l a t a t h i g h f r e q u e n c i e s and i n c r e a s e s a t l o w

f r e q u e n c i e s .

4 . 5 . 3 PHASE ANGLE NOI SE

F i g u r e 4 . 3 9 sho ws t h e o b s e r v e d p h a s e n o i s e w i t h

f r e q u e n c y m e a s u r e d a t a s p o t on a LC1B c o a t i n g f r o m 2 0 0

m e a s u r e m e n t s i n a t i m e p e r i o d o f 5 m i n u t e s . T h e p h a s e

n o i s e i s s e e n t o be b e t w e e n 0 . 1 and 0 . 5 d e g r e e s and

i n c r e a s e s w i t h i n c r e a s i n g f r e q u e n c y . I n t h e s e

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m e a s u r e m e n t s i t was n o t e d t h a t f o r s i g n a l v a l u e s b e l o w

0 . 2 m i l l i v o l t s t h e p h a s e n o i s e c a n b e i n e x c e s s one

d e t e c t a b l e s i g n a l o f a p p r o x i m a t e l y 5 0 m i c r o v o l t s c o u l d

be m e a s u r e d b y t h e l o c k - i n a m p l i f i e r . I n t h i s c a s e t h e

p h a s e n o i s e r e c o r d e d u s i n g a 3 s e c o n d t i m e c o n s t a n t was

i n e x c e s s o f 5 d e g r e e s .

4 . 5 . 4 D I S C U S S I O N .

T h e s h a r p v a r i a t i o n s o f t h e d e t e c t o r f r e q u e n c y

r e s p o n s e i s d u e t o t h e c l o s e m a t c h o f t h e t i m e

c o n s t a n t s o f t h e d e t e c t o r s i g n a l r e s p o n s i v i t y C 7 8 , 8 3 3 .

A b a s i c e x p r e s s i o n f o r s i g n a l f r e q u e n c y r e s p o n s e o f a

p y r o e l e c t r i c d e t e c t o r e x c l u d i n g p o s t d e t e c t i o n

e l e c t r o n i c a m p l i f y i n g c i r c u i t s t a k e s t h e f o r m :

w h e r e t e a nd t -t a r e r e s p e c t i v e l y , t h e e l e c t r i c a l and

t h e r m a l t i m e c o n s t a n t s f o r t h e i n f r a r e d d e t e c t o r C 8 3 3 .

' A * i s a c o n s t a n t f o r t h e d e t e c t o r a nd r e p r e s e n t s t h e

p y r o e l e c t r i c , t h e r m a l and p h y s i c a l p r o p e r t i e s o f t h e

f r e q u e n c y , a s i g n a l v a r i a t i o n i n v e r s e l y p r o p o r t i o n a l t o

p o s s i b l e r e a s o n f o r t h i s d i s c r e p a n c y may be d u e t o t h e

n e g l e c t i n e q u a t i o n 4 . 2 o f t h e m o d i f i c a t i o n o f t h e

d e g r e e . U i t h o u t a n y l a s e r i l l u m i n a t i o n no s i g n a l was

d e t e c t a b l e b y t h e l o c k - i n a m p l i f i e r . A mi n i mum

(4.2) Signal« A to

d e t e c t o r e l e m e n t . T h i s e q u a t i o n p r e d i c t s a t h i g h

f r e q u e n c y . T h e i s i n d i s a g r e e m e n t w i t h t h e o b s e r v e d

s i g n a l d e c a y r a t e o f i n v e r s e c u b e f r e q u e n c y . A

s i g n a l f r e q u e n c y r e s p o n s e w i t h a s s o c i a t e d s i g n a l

a m p l i f y i n g c i r c u i t s . T h e s e c i r c u i t s a r e w i d e l y u s e d

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t o b o o s t t h e v o l t a g e r e s p o n s i v i t y o f t h e i n f r a r e d

d e t e c t o r s a t t h e e x p e n s e o f a l i m i t e d f r e q u e n c y

r e s p o n s e C7 BD .

T h e i n v e r s e s q u a r e r o o t f r e q u e n c y v a r i a t i o n o f t h e

p h o t o t h e r m a l s i g n a l f o r t h e t i t a n i u m and LC1B c o a t i n g

i n d i c a t e s t h a t t h e s e s a m p l e a r e b e h a v i n g a s

s e m i - i n f i n i t e o p a q u e m e d i a . T h i s f r e q u e n c y v a r i a t i o n

o f t h e p h o t o t h e r m a l s i g n a l f o l l o w s t h a t p r e d i c t e d , s e e

t a b l e 2 . 2 , b y t h e o n e h e a t d i f f u s i o n t h e o r y . A n o t h e r

p r e d i c t i o n o f t h i s t h e o r y i s p h a s e a n g l e i n d e p e n d e n c e

w i t h f r e q u e n c y . T h i s b e h a v i o u r a p p e a r s t o b e

s a t i s f i e d w i t h t h e e x p e r i m e n t a l d a t a a t f r e q u e n c i e s

a b o v e H z . A t f r e q u e n c i e s l o w e r t h a n t h i s t h e

n o r m a l i s e d p h a s e a n g l e d a t a sh o ws a n i n c r e a s e . T h e s e

i n c r e a s e a r e d u e t o t wo d i f f e r e n t r e a s o n s . F o r t h e

t i t a n i u m s a m p l e t h e p h a s e i n c r e a s e i s r e l a t e d t o t h r e e

d i m e n s i o n a l h e a t d i f f u s i o n e f f e c t s , i n p a r t i c u l a r w i t h

t h e i n c r e a s e i n t h e t h e r m a l d i f f u s i o n l e n g t h w i t h

d e c r e a s i n g f r e q u e n c y r e l a t i v e t o t h e l a s e r s p o t s i z e .

F o r t h e c o a t i n g s a m p l e t h e p h a s e i n c r e a s e d u e t o

t h e r m a l w a v e i n t e r f e r e n c e i n t h e c o a t i n g . As d i s c u s s e d

i n s e c t i o n 2 . 4 - a p h a s e a n g l e i n c r e a s e w i l l b e o b t a i n e d

f r o m c o a t i n g s y s t e m s i n w h i c h t h e c o a t i n g / s u b s t r a t e

r e f l e c t i o n c o e f f i c i e n t i s n e g a t i v e , i . e a c o a t i n g w i t h

i t s t h e r m a l e f f u s i v i t y l o w e r t h a n t h a t o f t h e

s u b s t r a t e .

117

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LASER ILLUMINATION

R E F L E C T E D

V I S I B L E

A N D I R

R A D I A T I D N

(VISIBLE AND INFRARED CDMPDNENTS)

V 7

INFRAREDDETECTOR

EMMITED IR RADIATION

SECOND SIGNAL GENERATION

DETECTORELEMENTDETECTOR WINDOW '

BACKGROUNDTHERMALRADIATION

TEST SPECIMEN

THERMAL DIFFUSION ZONE

F i g u r e ^ . 1 : R a d i a t i o n s c e n e v i e w e d b y t h e i n f r a r e d d e t e c t o r .

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SIG

NA

L

/ m

v

■0

5

-B----

□-2 12

1 4 0

a•

OUJ□

UJJ□z<UJ(/)<I0.

8 012

COLUMN OF WATER / cm COLUMN OF WATER / cm

F i g u r e 4 . 2 : T o p : A t r a n s m i s s i o n p h o t o t h e r m a l s e t - u p . 1 ) A r g o n i o nL a s e r , 2 ) L i g h t c h o p p e r , 3 ) w a t e r i n r e c t a n g u l a r c o n t a i n e r , and 4 )i n f r a r e d d e t e c t o r .B o t t o m : M e a s u r e d s i g n a l a n d p h a s e v a r i a t i o n w i t h w a t e r c o l u m n l e n g t h f o r l a s e r l i g h t n o r m a l l y i n c i d e n t on t h e d e t e c t o r w i n d o w ( A ) , and on t h e i n t e r f e r e n c e r e f l e c t a n c e f i l t e r < B ) .

Page 138: An evaluation of the technique of photothermal radiometry ... · An evaluation of the technique of photothermal radiometry for the non-destructive testing and characterisation of

co

0■*"

Graphife Tifanium

0■*-

Graphife Tifanium

CO

0

Graphife Tifanium

F i g u r e ^ . 3 a : P h a s e a n g l e t r a c e a c r o s s a g r a p h i t e and

t i t a n i u m s u r f a c e w i t h o u t l a s e r l i g h t s c r e e n i n g .

b ) As a b o v e b u t w i t h i n t e r f e r e n c e f i l t e r f i t t e d t o t h e

i n f r a r e d d e t e c t o r .

c ) As f i g . ^ . 3 a a b o v e b u t w i t h s a m p l e r o t a t e d t o r e f l e c t

a way t h e s c a t t e r e d l a s e r l i g h t f r o m t h e i n f r a r e d

d e t e c t o r .

120

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SIG

NA

L

/ m

V

1 2

6O

L A S E R POW ER / W a t t

F i g u r e 4-. ^ : P h o t o t h e r m a l s i g n a l v a r i a t i o n w i t h i n c i d e n t l a s e r

p o w e r on a LC1B c o a t i n g s a m p l e on 3 1 6 s t a i n l e s s s t e e l a t a

m o d u l a t i o n f r e q u e n c y o f 10 H z .

PHASE ANGLE

(PE

G.)

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SIG

NR

L

(MV

)

1 0

0

1 nn“ffl- •

V ’ - ® -4 mm

50 100 150 200 250C O R T IN G T H IC K N E S S ( U M )

0IN C R E R S IN G DEFOCUS

11B 1 2 5 r

“DIILT)m

izorm

120

ouP 11!

UJ J0 n o zc

UJ(J) 10E1 (L

100

F i g u r e 4 . 5 a : P h o t o t h e r m a l s i g n a l v a r i a t i o n w i t h i n c r e a s i n g o p t i c a l

s p o t s i z e .

F i g u r e 4 . 5 b : P h a s e a n g l e v a r i a t i o n w i t h c o a t i n g t h i c k n e s s and

o p t i c a l s p o t s i z e . T e s t f r e q u e n c y 10 H z .

300

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PH

AS

E

AN

GLE

C

DE

G

35

/ \

-5500Q

T H I C K N E S S / um

F i g u r e ^ . 5 c : T h e o r e t i c a l p h a s e a n g l e v a r i a t i o n w i t h c o a t i n g t h i c k n e s s and o p t i c a l s p o t s i z e . O p t i c a l s p o t s i z e 1 ) 0 . ^ , 2 ) 1 , 3 ) 2 , and *+) ^mm. M o d e l l e d s a m p l e i s a LC1B c o a t i n g on 3 1 6 s t a i n l e s s s t e e l and a m o d u l a t i o n f r e q u e n c y o f 10 H z . ( N o t e no a c c o u n t h a s b e e n t a k e n o f

s i g n a l a v e r a g i n g b y t h e I R d e t e c t o r o v e r t h e d e t e c t i o n a r e a . )

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SIG

NA

L

7- 1

LASER POWER / w a t t

F i g u r e * + . 6 : S i g n a l a m p l i t u d e and p h a s e a n g l e v a r i a t i o n w i t h l a s e r

p o w e r u s i n g t h e e l l i p s o i d a l m i r r o r c o l l e c t o r .

PHASE ANGLE

CDEG

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1 i o _

- f + + ■

MCJ1

0111avy

UJCO<XfL

9 0- 3 0 3 0

S A M P L E R O T A T I O N C D E G - >

F i g u r e 4 . 7 : P h a s e a n g l e v a r i a t i o n w i t h s a m p l e r o t a t i o n

g r a p h i t e and t i t a n i u m s a m p l e . I n f r a r e d d e t e c t i o n w i t h

c o 1 l e c t o r .

f o r a

mi r r o r

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PH

AS

E

AN

GLE

C

OE

G

10

50O

D I S T A N C E I N MM

F i g u r e * + . 8 : C o n s e c u t i v e 5 0 mm l i n e s t r a c e a c r o s s a 1 5 0 - 2 0 0 Hm t h i c k n e s s

s t e p on a LC1B c o a t i n g . I n c i d e n t l a s e r p o w e r i s 0 . 1 w a t t , t h e

m o d u l a t i o n f r e q u e n c y o f 10 Hz a nd i n f r a r e d d e t e c t i o n w i t h m i r r o r

co 1 l e c t o r .

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7

N>vj

r \

6LU□

U.Llw□

liiU)<IQ-

O

L A S E R POWER / W a t t

F i g u r e 4-. 9 : A p l a t o f t h e p h a s e a n g l e c h a n g e w i t h i n c i d e n t l a s e r

p o w e r f o r a 1 5 0 - 2 0 0 Hm t h i c k n e s s s t e p o n a LC1B c o a t i n g a t a

m o d u l a t i o n f r e q u e n c y o f 10 Hz and i n f r a r e d d e t e c t i o n w i t h m i r r o r

c o l l e c t o r .

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SIG

NR

L

(MV

)

3 5

S I G N R L

2 5

++ oo

1 5

P H R S E//

- 5 0 - 7 0 - 5 0 - 3 0 - 1 0 1 0 3 0 5 0 7 0 3 0R O T A T I O N A N G L E C D E G . )

3 2

3 1

3 0 A>z3 3 U

IID

8 8 Wm J

(EB7 ID Z2 00 H3 5 r inm

3 5 Adm

8 4 oV

8 3

8 2

1 3 53 5

3 01 3 4'

2 5

1 3 320

1 5

10P H R S E

1 3 01 0 2 0 3 0 4 0 5 0 5 0 7 0 8 0 3 00

D E T E C T O R A N G L E (D E C . )

F i g u r e 4 . 1 0 : P h o t o t h e r m a l s i g n a l v a r i a t i o n w i t h s a m p l e r o t a t i o n .

F i g u r e 4 . 1 1 : P h o t o t h e r m a l s i g n a l v a r i a t i o n w i t h d e t e c t o r r o t a t i o n .

PH

RS

E

RN

GL

E

CD

EG

.

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8

roCD

0LU□

U.IL

LlJ U)<I Q_

- 7 0

SA MP LE R O T A T I O N C D E G - >

J7 0

F i g u r e <=+.12a: P h a s e a n g l e v a r i a t i o n a c r o s s a t h i c k n e s s s t e p on a

LC1B c o a t i n g s a m p l e f o r v a r i o u s r o t a t i o n a n g l e s

Page 148: An evaluation of the technique of photothermal radiometry ... · An evaluation of the technique of photothermal radiometry for the non-destructive testing and characterisation of

SIGN

AL

/ nV

20

P H R S E0

0 20DISTANCE IN MM

10

V \

VJ

20

w v / v

0

10

DISTANCE IN MM 20

20

200 DISTANCE IN MM

10

0

F i g u r e 4 . 1 P b : P h a s e a n g l e l i n e t r a c e s a c r o s s a s t e p

t h i c k n e s s c h a n g e o n a L C l t ) c o a t i n g s a m p l e a t v a r i o u s

s p e c i m e n r o t a t i o n a n g l e s .

130

PHASE ANGLE

CDEG.)

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PHRSE

RNGLE

(DEC.

2064 Hz36 Hz25 Hz10 Hz

s;t Ts'K ,h|+

280 2800 0COATING THICKNESS (/am)

F i g u r e 4 . 1 3 : P h a s e a n g l e m e a s u r e m e n t s o n f i n e < ) and

c o a r s e ( ------------ ) LC1B c o a t i n g s o n 3 1 6 s t a i n l e s s s t e e l a t m o d u l a t i o n

f r e q u e n c i e s o f a ) . 10> b ) 25» c ) 3 6 and d ) 6 4 H z .

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132

7

CD UJ□v

LlLlw□

LU<I Q_

- 3□ 2 4

S QR T. F R E Q U E N C Y C / H z 1

F i g u r e 4 . 1 * + : A p l o t o f t h e p h a s e d i f f e r e n c e w i t h s q u a r e r o o t

f r e q u e n c y b e t w e e n c o a r s e a nd f i n e LC1B c o a t i n g o f n o m i n a l

t h i c k n e s s 2 5 0 Fm.

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130

1 28

126

124

“ 3 6 H Z 122

_l 120

2 0 M MD I S TflNCE0

13010

128

POLISHED126S

/Hv 124 |

1223 6 H Z

120D I S T A N C E 25 MM0

13 0

128

126

122

120D I S T A N C E0 10 M M

130

128

126S/MV

122

120D I S T A N C E0 10 M M

F i g u r e ^ . 1 5 : P h a s e a n g l e l i n e t r a c e s on c o a r s e and f i n e LC1B

c o a t i n g b e f o r e and a f t e r p o l i s h i n g . Top f i g u r e , p h a s e on c o a r s e

s a m p l e and b o t t o m f i g u r e on f i n e c o a t i n g s a m p l e .

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PH

AS

E

CH

AN

GE

(D

EC

)30

27

21

15

30241 012

0uQ

UJ02CCru

UJincx(L

SQRT. FREQUENCY

30

27

21

1 0

15

12

3 025I S

SQRT FREQUENCY

2010

F i g u r e 4-. 1 6 : P l o t s o f t h e p h a s e d i f f e r e n c e ( m e a s u r e d r e l a t i v e t o a

f l a t g r a p h i t e s u r f a c e ) w i t h r o o t f r e q u e n c y f o r a ) a n s a n d p a p e r

r o u g h e n e d and b ) a s a w - t o o t h c u t g r a p h i t e s u r f a c e .

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SIGN

AL

/ m

V

10 4 0

PHASE

SIGNAL

UUIHI!U»IUlUllUiHU!>U»lllU)IU»IHill,>lll II,‘

2 50 DISTANCE IN MM

13X3>(Arn3>Zcnrmr \fc*mpv

20 4 0

PHASE

i—i SIGNAL

o 2 5DISTANCE IN MM

F i g u r e A . 1 6 c : S i g n a l a n d p h a s e a n g l e l i n e t r a c e a c r o s s t h e

r o u g h e n e d and s a w - t o o t h c u t g r a p h i t e r o u g h n e s s s a m p l e a t a

m o d u l a t i o n f r e q u e n c y o f 7 H z . I n c i d e n t l a s e r p o w e r i s 5 w a t t

w i t h i n f r a r e d d e t e c t i o n b y a CMT p h o t o c o n d u c t i v e d e t e c t o r and

i n f r a r e d c o l l e c t i o n b y a g e r m a n i u m l e n s .

PHASE ANGLE

CDEG.)

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PHAS

E AN

GLE

CDEG

. 6 5

PROPERTY BULK SURFACE

DENSITY 1940

SPECIFICHEAT 630

THERMALCONDUCTIVITY 150 113

THERMALD IFFU SIV ITY

1 2 3 x l0 E -6 L 5 4 8 x l0 E -6

THERMALEFFU SIVITY

1.35xl0E 4 2,872

PHYSICAL PROPERTY VALUES IN S I UNITS.

F i g u r e <4 . 17 : F i t t i n g o f t h e e x p e r i m e n t a l d a t a o f f i g u r e 4 . 1 6 b t o

a l a y e r o n a s u b s t r a t e t y p e s t r u c t u r e u s i n g e q u a t i o n S . 11 t o

g e n e r a t e t h e t h e o r e t i c a l p h a s e c u r v e s .

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PHA

SE

(DE

G.

25

7O

15 _

rst

ULlJ□v

LlJU)<I0.

J_______L J ; I_______I_______I

L A S E R POWER / W

- 5 2 5S A M P L E ROT- CDEG- >

F i g u r e 4 . 1 8 : P h a s e a n g l e v a r i a t i o n w i t h l a s e r p o w e r a nd s a m p l e

r o t a t i o n o n g r a p h i t e r o u g h n e s s s a m p l e s .

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i 1-------1-------1— ~i------ 1-------1------ r

A B

F i g u r e < + . 19 a : 5 0 mm p h a s e a n g l e

' s q u a r e ’ d e f e c t s a m p l e .

>v V A V V y V ^

3 p H * M w y ^

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139

0 50 nm1 J l i i I I I 1 I 1 |

0 50 nm1 i i i i i i i i i 1 ■ j

C D

F i g u r e 4 . 1 9 b : 5 0 mm p h a s e a n g l e l i n e t r a c e s on a s - s p r a y e d L.C1B

’ s q u a r e 7 d e t e c t s a m p l e .

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140

SAMPLE

DEFECTSPOSITION

25 mm

mm

5911131517

21

F i g u r e 4 . 2 0 : D e t a i l s o f 5 0 mm l i n e t r a c e l o c a t i o n on t h e s q u a r e

d e f e c t p o l i s h e d and a s - s p r a y e d LC1B c o a t i n g s a m p l e .

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POSITIONPOLISHED SURFACE AS--SPRAYED SURFACE

PHASE CHANGE (DEGREES)

PH0T0-THERMAL

A B C D A B C D123456 7

.8

.511

1.32.5 2,03.02.51.0 1.0

1.01.01.02.02.02.02.0

1.51.0.751.0.5

1.01.0.75.5.5

.5

.5

.51.0.5

ATTENUA1riON Ch ANGE (dB>5 mm — - — — — — — -

ULTRA­ 13 nn - _ -3 -2 — —SONICS 21 mm - — — 4 — —

T a b l e 4 . 1 : Summar y o f t h e p h a s e a n g l e a n d u l t r a s o n i c a t t e n u a t i o n c h a n g e a c r o s s t h e s q u a r e d e f e c t LC1B c o a t i n g s a m p l e s .

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AS

E

CD

EG

.

/ \

Q

1

4

w /H Y ty v y u w/ V

1

A ". 1 II.1 ll 111 k .M il H iI I l

1 1 • i

2 5 mm L I N E T R A C E S

F i g u r e 4 - . 2 1 a : P h a s e a n g l e l i n e t r a c e s a t v a r i o u s f r e q u e n c i e s f o r

d e f e c t A i n t h e a s - s p r a y e d s a m p l e .

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PHAS

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GLE

<DEG

.>

10

D 1ST ftNCE

10

4 Hzo

D I S T A N C E

10 10

8 Hzo

D I S T A N C E

10

D I S T A N C E

10

15 Hz

D 1ST A N C E

10

D 1S T A N C E

10

25 Hz

0 i i i i i i i i iD I S T A N C E

F i g u r e 4 . 2 1 b : P h a s e a n g l e l i n e t r a c e s a t v a r i o u s f r e q u e n c i e s

f o r d e f e c t B a n d L) i n t h e p o l i s h e d s a m p l e .

143

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F i g u r e * * . 2 3 : O p t i c a l m i c r o g r a p h s o f d e f e c t B i n p o l i s h e d s a m p l e .

a ) a wa y f r o m t h e d e f e c t ; 6 mm f r o m t o p e d g e o f s a m p l e , and

b ) w i t h i n t h e d e f e c t r e g i o n ; 12 mm f r o m t o p e d g e o f s a m p l e .

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145

5 d B

T

M

B

T

M

B

F i g u r e < + . 2 3 a : 5 0 mm u l t r a s o n i c a t t e n u a t i o n l i n e t r a c e s o n p o l i s h e d

LC1B ’ s q u a r e ’ d e f e c t s a m p l e . T and B a w a y f r o m t h e d e f e c t a r e a

a n d M t h r o u g h t h e m i d d l e r e g i o n o f t h e d e f e c t .

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5 d B

T

M

B

T

M

B

i g u r e ^ . 2 3 b : 5 0 mm u l t r a s o n i c a t t e n u a t i o n l i n e t r a c e s on

s - s p r a y e d LC1B ’ s q u a r e * d e f e c t s a m p l e . T a n d B a w a y f r o m t h e

e f e c t a r e a and li t h r o u g h t h e m i d d l e r e g i o n o f t h e d e f e c t .

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SIG

NA

L

lOO

A

CDLlJ□\s

UJJGZ<

UJCO<ICL

16

M S / M S

25

M S / m s

25O

D I S T A N C E / mm D I S T A N C E / mm

Figure ^.2^a: Signal and phase angle line traces at variousfrequencies through the 5 mm circular defect in mild steel/ mildsteel diffusion bonded sample.

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SIG

NA

L

/ m

vlOO

M S / M S

16 V V SI

□ 3 0

m s / m s

3 0O

D I S T A N C E / mm D I S T A N C E / mm

F i g u r e 4 . 2 4 b : As f i g . 4 . 2 4 a b u t a c r o s s a 10 mm d i a m e t e r d e f e c t .

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PH

AS

E

DIF

F.

CD

EG

2 0

5 m m

6O

2 0

10 m m

6□

S Q R T . F R E Q U E N C Y S Q R T - F R E Q U E N C Y

F i g u r e <+ . 25 : F i t t i n g o f t h e e x p e r i m e n t a l p h a s e d i f f e r e n c e d a t a

w i t h r o o t f r e q u e n c y t o t h e t h e o r e t i c a l a i r - g a p d e f e c t p h a s e c u r v e s

u s i n g t h e o n e d i m e n s i o n a l s u r f a c e t e m p e r a t u r e e x p r e s s i o n i n t a b l e

2 . 2 .

a ) 10 mm a n d b ) 5 mm d i a m e t e r d e f e c t . S o l i d c u r v e s 1) 0 . 1 , 2 ) 1,

3 ) 10 and 4 ) 1 0 0 Hm a i r - g a p t h i c k n e s s .

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SIG

NA

L

>E

\

O

M S / S S

r 2

64

2 5

lOO

6UJ□V

LUJ□Z<UJI/)<Q.

64M S / S S

2 5D I S T A N C E / mm D I S T A N C E / mm

Figure 4.E6a: Signal and phase angle line traces at variousfrequencies through the 5 mm circular defect in mild steel/stainless steel diffusion bonded sample.

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SIG

NA

L

1 □

M S / SS

>E

\

r 3

64

3 0o

1 o o

r \

6Hi□

UJJoz<LlJin<itL

64

M S / S S

3 0O

D I S T A N C E / mm D I S T A N C E / mm

F i g u r e * t . 2 6 b : As f i g . 2 6 a b u t d e f e c t d i a m e t e r 10 mm

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50

A(JUJ□\yUJJ□z<UJw<IQ_

MS/SS

2 0O

D IS T A N C E / mm

F i g u r e 4 . 2 6 c : 2 0 mm p h a s e a n g l e l i n e t r a c e s a c r o s s a 3 mm d e f e c t

d i a m e t e r a t v a r i o u s f r e q u e n c i e s . M i l d s t e e l / s t a i n l e s s s t e e l

d i f f u s i o n b o n d e d s a m p l e .

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SIGN

AL50

r\I

ULlJ□

111Joz<UJ(/)<IQ-

20O

2 0

>E\

20O

D I S T A N C E / mm D I S T A N C E / mm

F i g u r e 4 . E 6 d : S i g n a l a n d p h a s e a n g l e l i n e t r a c e s a t v a r i o u s

f r e q u e n c i e s t h r o u g h t h e 2 mm c i r c u l a r d e f e c t i n m i l d s t e e l /

s t a i n l e s s s t e e l d i f f u s i o n b o n d e d s a m p l e .

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15

s\MS / S S

go

S Q R T . F R E Q U E N C Y

F i g u r e . 2 7 : A p h a s e d i f f e r e n c e v e r s e s r o o t f r e q u e n c y p l o t f o r

t h e 1 0 , 5 3 a nd 3 mm d i a m e t e r d e f e c t s i n m i l d s t e e l / s t a i n l e s s

s t e e l s a m p l e .

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154

2 0

s\

CD LU□\y

ILLlw□LU(/)<I fL

- 5 0

3 D

oS Q R T . F R E Q U E N C Y

F i g u r e 4 . 2 8 : A t h e o r e t i c a l p l o t of" t h e p h a s e v a r i a t i o n d u e t o

s u b s u r f a c e a i r - g a p d e f e c t 1 0 0 J4fn t h i c k and 1 mm b e l o w t h e s u r f a c e

i n b u l k m i l d s t e e l . P h a s e c u r v e s a r e p l o t t e d f o r h e a t d i f f u s i o n

i n o n e a n d t h r e e d i m e n s i o n a l . L a s e r beam d i a m e t e r 1 . 5 mm.

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onCJI

8

PHASE

S/M

SIGNAL

3DISTANCE

8

PHASE

S/MV

SIGNAL

8DISTANCE 25 HH

F i g u r e ^ . 2 9 : a ) S i g n a l an d p h a s e d i f f e r e n c e l i n e t r a c e when

c o n t a c t i s made b e t w e e n a f l a t a l u m i n i u m p l a t e a n d a m i c r o m e t e r

p i n h e a d , l e f t * a n d r i g h t * when c o n t a c t i s made i n s i d e a

p a r t i a l l y d r i l l e d s u b s u r f a c e h o l e i n a n a l u m i n i u m p l a t e . ( C o n t a c t

g e o m e t r y s h o w n i n f i g u r e 3 . 7 )

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156

THERMAL THICKNESS .

WITHCONTACT \

1 / no/ CONTACT

X (INFINITETHERMAL CONTACT

J RESISTANCE)

PHASE CHANGEWITH SAMPLECONTACT

F i g u r e * + . 3 0 : A s c h e m a t i c i l l u s t r a t i o n o f t h e p h a s e c h a n g e

a no c o n t a c t a n d c o n t a c t s i t u a t i o n .

b e t w e e n

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1 57

IR DETECTION SPOT SIZE

LASERSPOTELLIPSOIDAL

COLLECTOR

INFRAREDDETECTOR

OPTICAL FIBRE CABLE TO LASER SOURCE

SAMPLESURFACE

INFRAREDTRANSMITTINGFILTER

AND & MICROMETER TRANSLATION AND ROTATION

F i g u r e ^ . 3 1 : A s c h e m a t i c i l l u s t r a t i o n o f t h e I R d e t e c t o r , s a m p l e

a n d o p t i c a l f i b r e h e a d s e t - u p f o r m e a s u r e m e n t s t a k e n w i t h t h e

s e m i - c o n d u c t o r l a s e r .

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cnoo

>E

\

J<Z□w0)

lO

O

8

“0X>COm>z(Drm/~\omco

L A S E R POWER / W a t t

F i g u r e 4 . 3 2 : P h o t o t h e r m a l s i g n a l v a r i a t i o n w i t h l a s e r p o w e r a t a

m o d u l a t i o n f r e q u e n c y o f 10 H z . T h e t e s t s a m p l e i s 2 5 0 Fm LC1B

c o a t i n g o n s t a i n l e s s s t e e l .

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15

r\

□lli□

LlIJGZ<LlJ(/)<Xa.

61

i □

>E

\

J<Zg

61

D I S T A N C E / mm D I S T A N C E / m m

F i g u r e * + . 3 3 : P h o t o t h e r m a l s i g n a l v a r i a t i o n a s t h e o p t i c a l f i b r e

h e a d i s r e t a r d e d f r o m t h e s a m p l e s u r f a c e .

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SIG

NA

L

/mV

153

LiJJCDZ<hiCO<IQ-

13816164

D I S T A N C E / m m D I S T A N C E / m m

F i g u r e 4 . 3 4 : P h o t o t h e r m a l s i g n a l v a r i a t i o n a s t h e o p t i c a l f i b r e

h e a d i s moved t h r o u g h t h e i n f r a r e d d e t e c t i o n r e g i o n f r o m t h e r i g h t

t o l e f t , ( s e e f i g . 4 . 3 1 ) .

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SIG

NA

L

/mV

150

A

6LlI□

UJJCDz<UJ(/)<I0.

1401 42

1 □

142D I S T A N C E / m m D I S T A N C E / mm

F i g u r e ^ . 3 5 : P h o t o t h e r m a l s i g n a l v a r i a t i o n a s t h e o p t i c a l f i b r e

h e a d i s moved v e r t i c a l l y d o w n w a r d s t h r o u g h t h e i n f r a r e d d e t e c t i o n

r e g i o n .

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PH

RS

E

RN

GLE

(D

EC

)

20

RRGON ION LRSER

SC LRSER

LRSER POWER 300 mW FREQUENCY 10 Hz

o 200

D I S T R N C E I N MM

F i g u r e ^ . 3 6 a : A 2 0 0 mm p h a s e a n g l e l i n e t r a c e a c r o s s a s t e p

t h i c k n e s s LC1B c o a t i n g s a m p l e a t a f r e q u e n c y o f 10 Hz w i t h o p t i c a l

h e a t i n g b y t h e G a A l A s l a s e r d i o d e a nd a r g o n i o n l a s e r a t a l a s e r

p o w e r o f 3 0 0 mW.

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PH

RS

E

AN

GLE

C D

EG

)20

LRSER POWER 300 mW FREQUENCY 25 Hz

RRGON ION LRSERSC LRSER

2000

D I S T A N C E I N MM

F i g u r e ^ . 3 6 b : As f i g . A-. 3 6 a b u t a t a f r e q u e n c y o f 2 5 H z .

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Sign

al

/ m

V

1E3 = 5 =

TGS Infrared Detector

2 -

1E2 = 5 =

1E1

1E01E1 2 5 1E2 2 5 1E3 2

Frequency/ HzF i g u r e 4 . 3 7 a : TGS d e t e c t o r s i g n a l r e s p o n s e w i t h f r e q u e n c y .

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Phas

e An

gle

(deg

.)TGS Infrared Detector

-100

150

-200

-250

-300

-3501E3 21E2 55 21E1

Frequency/ Hz

F i g u r e 4 . 3 7 b : TGS d e t e c t o r p h a s e a n g l e r e s p o n s e w i t h f r e q u e n c y .

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Norm

alis

ed

Sign

al2

1E2

5

2

1E1

5

2

1E01E1 2 5 1E2 2 5

Frequency/ HzF i g u r e ^ . 3 8 a : N o r m a l i s e d s i g n a l v a r i a t i o n w i t h f r e q u e n c y f o r 1 ) a

0 . 2 5 mm t h i c k LC1B c o a t i n g on a 3 mm t h i c k s t a i n l e s s s t e e l

s u b s t r a t e a n d 2 ) a 10 mm t h i c k t i t a n i u m b l o c k . I n c i d e n t l a s e r

p o w e r w as 3 W a t t .

1 LC1B coating

Titanium

J J 1 J _ L L 1

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Nor

m.

Phas

e A

ngle

34 -2 Titanium

1 LC1B coating

1E1 2 5 1E2 2 5Frequency/ Hz

F i g u r e 4 . 3 8 b : N o r m a l i s e d p h a s e a n g l e v a r i a t i o n w i t h f r e q u e n c y f o r

1 ) a 0 . 2 5 mm t h i c k LC1B c o a t i n g on a 3 mm t h i c k s t a i n l e s s s t e e l

s u b s t r a t e a n d 2 ) a 10 mm t h i c k t i t a n i u m b l o c k . I n c i d e n t l a s e r

p o w e r w as 3 W a t t .

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Phas

e Er

ror

(deg

.)1

0.5 -

0 -

LC18 coating

1E1 2 5 1E2 2 5Frequency/ Hz

F i g u r e ^ . 3 9 : A p l o t o f t h e p h a s e a n g l e e r r o r w i t h f r e q u e n c y f o r

s p o t m e a s u r e m e n t s o n an LC1B c o a t i n g w i t h a n i n c i d e n t l a s e r p o w e r

o f 3 w a t t a n d a l o c k - i n i n t e g r a t i o n t i m e c o n s t a n t o f 3 s e c o n d s .

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C h a p t e r 5

D i s c u s s i o n

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CHAPTER 5 D I S C U S S I O N

5 . 1 SYSTEM PERFORMANCE

ARGON ION LASER VERSES LASER DIODE PTR SYSTEM

B o t h l a s e r s o u r c e s p r o v e d s a t i s f a c t o r y i n p r o v i d i n g

s u f f i c i e n t o p t i c a l h e a t i n g f o r p h o t o t h e r m a l NDT o f

p l a s m a s p r a y e d c o a t i n g s . F r o m t h e p r a c t i c a l e x p e r i e n c e

g a i n e d i n u s i n g b o t h t h e s e l a s e r s y s t e m s t a b l e 5 . 1

c o m p a r e s a n d c o n t r a s t s t h e i r p e r f o r m a n c e . P a r t i c u l a r

a t t e n t i o n i s g i v e n t o t h e p o r t a b i l i t y o f t h e l a s e r

s y s t e m , i t s m a i n t e n a n c e r e q u i r e m e n t s and t h e n e c e s s i t y

o f a n y a u x i l i a r y e q u i p m e n t . T h e c o m p a c t n e s s o f t h e

l a s e r d i o d e s y s t e m f a v o u r s i t s u s a g e i n a p o r t a b l e

i n s p e c t i o n s y s t e m . F u r t h e r a d v a n t a g e s o f t h i s l a s e r

s y s t e m o v e r t h e a r g o n i o n l a s e r i n c l u d e l i m i t e d

m a i n t e n a n c e c o s t s , e l i m i n a t i o n o f w a t e r c o o l i n g and

s p e c i a l p o w e r s u p p l y r e q u i r e m e n t s , l o n g e r l a s e r l i f e

and d i r e c t m o d u l a t i o n o f l a s e r beam i n t e n s i t y . T h e

m a i n t e n a n c e c o s t s o f t h i s l a s e r s y s t e m a r e lo w b e c a u s e

o n l y e l e c t r o n i c c i r c u i t s a r e r e q u i r e d t o b e m a i n t a i n e d .

T h e n e e d f o r a s p e c i a l m a i n t e n a n c e c o n t r a c t f o r t h e

l a s e r i s n o t n e c e s s a r y .

I h e m a i n d e f i c i e n c i e s o f t h e l a s e r d i o d e s y s t e m a r e

t h e i n v i s i b i l i t y o f t h e l a s e r r a d i a t i o n , i t s l i m i t e d

p o w e r r a n g e and t h e h i g h beam d i v e r g e n c e ( f o r t h e

s y s t e m p r e s e n t l y e v a l u a t e d ) . T h e a r g o n i o n l a s e r

s y s t e m d o e s n o t s u f f e r f r o m t h e s e p r o b l e m s . H o w e v e r

d u e t o i t s p h y s i c a l s i z e and c o n s t r a i n t s im p o s e d by

w a t e r c o a l i n g a t e s t s y s t e m b a s e d on t h i s l a s e r s o u r c e

w o u l d b e m o r e s u i t a b l e f o r i n s p e c t i n g c o m p o n e n t s w h i c h

c a n be b r o u g h t t o t h e l a s e r r a t h e r t h a n v i c e v e r s a . I f

169

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t h e l a s e r p o w e r r e q u i r e m e n t w as b e l o w h a l f a w a t t t h e n

a i r c o o l e d a r g o n i o n l a s e r c o u l d b e c h o s e n t o b e u s e d

i n a p o r t a b l e i n s p e c t i o n s y s t e m .

O v e r t h e f i v e y e a r s i n u s i n g t h e a r g o n i o n l a s e r

s y s t e m s e v e r a 1 p r o b 1ems r e l a t e d t o w a t e r c o o l i n g w e r e

n o t e d . S c a l e b u i l d up a r o u n d t h e l a s e r t u b e p r e s e n t s a

p o t e n t i a l l y s e r i o u s p r o b l e m . I f t h e s c a l i n g i s n o t

r e m o v e d t h e n o v e r h e a t i n g o f t h e l a s e r t u b e c a n l e a d t o

i t s f r a c t u r e . A l t h o u g h r e p l a c e m e n t s t u b e s a r e

a v a i l a b l e , t h e y a r e e x p e n s i v e , up t o £ Q , 0 0 0 . A n o t h e r

p r o b l e m w i t h t h e w a t e r c o o l i n g s y s t e m i s t h e f r e q u e n t

n e c e s s i t y o f c l e a n i n g w a t e r f i l t e r s w h i c h w o u l d make a

c o n t i n u o u s o p e r a t i o n o f t h e t e s t s y s t e m d i f f i c u l t .

B o t h t h e s e p r o b l e m s c a n b e o v e r c o m e b y u s i n g a s p e c i a l

w a t e r s u p p l y s y s t e m .

T h e l a s e r p o w e r r e q u i r e m e n t f o r i n s p e c t i n g s p r a y e d

c o a t i n g s c a n r a n g e f r o m a f e w w a t t s f o r a n u n a i d e d I R

d e t e c t o r t o a f e w h u n d r e d m i l l i w a t t s f o r a w e l l

o p t i m i s e d I R d e t e c t i o n s y s t e m . U s i n g a l o w e r l a s e r

p o w e r a l s o p r o v i d e s f u r t h e r a d v a n t a g e s f o r t h e

i n s p e c t i o n s y s t e m . A w i d e r a n g e o f a l t e r n a t i v e lo w

p o w e r e d l a s e r s o u r c e s c a n b e u s e d f o r s a m p l e h e a t i n g .

T h e l a s e r h a z a r d r i s k t o t h e o p e r a t o r and r e l a t e d

p e r s o n n e l a r e r e d u c e d . I t may a l s o b e e a s i e r f o r t h e

i n s p e c t i o n s y s t e m t o mee-t t h e l a s e r s a f e t y r e g u l a t i o n s

f o r i n d u s t r i a l u s a g e .

INFRARED DETECTOR

T h e c o n v e n i e n c e o f o p e r a t i n g t h e p y r o e l e c t r i c TGS IR

d e t e c t o r a t a m b i e n t t e m p e r a t u r e s , i n a l m o s t a n y

o r i e n t a t i o n , i t s s h o r t p h y s i c a l s i z e and h i g h

170

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s e n s i t i v i t y i d e a l l y s u i t e d i t s u s a g e i n t h e

pho t o t h e r m a l t e s t i ng s y s t e m . T h i s d e t e c t o r w as a 1 so

o b s e r v e d t o h a v e e x c e l l e n t low f r e q u e n c y e l e c t r o n i c

n o i s e w h i c h was an e s s e n t i a l r e q u i r e m e n t i f lo w

d i f f u s i v i t y c o a t i n g s w e r e to b e i n s p e c t e d . One s h o r t

c o m i n g o t t h e s e n s o r was i t s l o n g t e r m s t a b i l i t y . I t

was o b s e r v e d t h a t o v e r a p e r i o d o f 18 m o n t h s t h e

d e t e c t o r g r a d u a l l y b e c a m e i n s e n s i t i v e and n o i s y . I t

b e c a m e n e c e s s a r y t o r e p l a c e t h e d e t e c t o r . T h e p r o b l e m

w i t h t h e s e n s o r a p p e a r s t o b e m o i s t u r e p i c k - u p b y t h e

TGS e l e m e n t 1 .

5 . 2 A P P L I C A T I O N TO NDT OF SURFACE COATINGS

The e x p e r i m e n t s r e p o r t e d i n c h a p t e r ** d e m o n s t r a t e s

t h e c a p a b i l i t y o f p h o t o t h e r m a l m e t h o d f o r t h i c k n e s s

g a u g i n g and d e f e c t d e t e c t i o n . T a b l e 5 . 1 s u m m a r i s e s

s t u d i e s r e p o r t e d i n t h i s r e s e a r c h w o r k a n d i n t h e

p u b l i s h e d l i t e r a t u r e o f m e a s u r e m e n t s o n p l a s m a s p r a y e d

c o a t i n g s made w i t h t h e p e r i o d i c o p t i c a l h e a t i n g

ct e c h n i q u e w i t h i n f r a r e d d e t f ^ t i o n .

F o r t h i c k n e s s m e a s u r e m e n t s t h e f o l l o w i n g

r e q u i r e m e n t s a r e e s s e n t i a l .

1) A s i g n i f i c a n t th e rm a l impedance mismatch between the

c o a t i n g and t h e s u b s t r a t e .

2) The e x p e r i m e n t a l phase a n g l e n o i s e a vera ged o ve r a f i n i t e

a rea on th e t e s t sample i s l e s s than t h e r e q u i r e d

t h i c k n e s s r e s o l u t i o n .

T he f i r s t c o n d i t i o n i s n e c e s s a r y f o r t h e r m a l w a v e

i n t e r f e r e n c e e f f e c t s t o o c c u r and h e n c e m ake t h i c k n e s s

m e a s u r e m e n t s t h e o r e t i c a 1 1 y p o s s i b l e . T h e s e c o n d

1 llanuf a c t u r e s r e po r t , lvlul lard , S o u t h a m p t o n .

171

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c o n d i t i o n s e t s t h e m in im u m t h i c k n e s s t h a t c a n be

r e l i a b l y m e a s u r e d w i t h t h e s y s t e m . T h e t h i c k n e s s

s e n s i t i v i t y o f t h e t h e r m a l i n t e r f e r e n c e t e c h n i q u e

i m p r o v e s a s t h e m a g n i t u d e o f t h e t h e r m a l wa ve

r e f l e c t i o n c o e f f i c i e n t i n c r e a s e s . R e s u l t s p r e s e n t e d i n

t h e p r e v i o u s c h a p t e r h a v e i n d i c a t e d t h a t t h i c k n e s s

s e n s i t i v i t i e s b e t t e r t h a n 2 5 Hm/ d e g r e e a r e r e a d i l y

a t t a i n a b l e f o r LC1B c o a t i n g on s t a i n l e s s s t e e l ( s e e

f i g u r e s 4 . 3 6 ) . T h e m in im u m d e t e c t a b l e t h e r m a l wav e

r e f l e c t i o n c o e f f i c i e n t m a g n i t u d e w i t h t h e a r g o n i o n

b a s e d t e s t s y s t e m d e v e l o p e d i n t h i s w o r k w o u l d b e

a b o u t O . l j a s s u m i n g t h a t t h e p h a s e n o i s e o f t h e t e s t

s a m p l e i s l e s s t h a n 1 d e g r e e .

C o a t i n g p r o p e r t i e s t h a t l i m i t a c c u r a t e t h i c k n e s s

m e a s u r e m e n t s i n c l u d e s u r f a c e r o u g h n e s s * t h i c k n e s s

f l u c t u a t i o n s a n d c h a n g e s i n t h e s u b s u r f a c e t h e r m a l

m i c r o s t r u c t u r e r e s u l t i n g f r o m p o r o s i t y * f o r e i g n

i n c l u s i o n s e t c . P h a s e a n g l e m e a s u r e m e n t s o n f i n e and

r o u g h a s - s p r a y e d LC1B c o a t i n g s h a v e sh o w n t h a t t h e

p h a s e i s p e r t u r b e d b y t h e s u r f a c e r o u g h n e s s . T h u s

s h o w i n g t h a t c a r e m u st b e t a k e n i n u s i n g c a l i b r a t i o n

c u r v e s f o r t h i c k n e s s m e a s u r e m e n t s o n r o u g h s u r f a c e s .

A c c u r a t e t h i c k n e s s v a l u e s w i l l o n l y b e o b t a i n e d f r o m

s a m p l e o f s i m i l a r s u r f a c e r o u g h n e s s .

A v a r i e t y o f s u b s u r f a c e c o n d i t i o n s h a v e b e e n

d e t e c t e d w i t h t h i s p h o t o t h e r m a l t e c h n i q u e : p o r o s i t y *

p a r t i a l c o n t a c t b e t w e e n c o a t i n g a nd s u b s t r a t e and

c o m p l e t e l y s e p a r a t e d i n t e r f a c e s . D e f e c t s as

r e p r e s e n t e d b y t h e l a t t e r tw o e x a m p l e s h a v e a

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c h a r a c t e r i s t i c p h a s e l o c u s w i t h i n c r e a s i n g m o d u l a t i o n

f r e q u e n c y : a p h a s e a d v a n c e g o i n g t o a p h a s e l a g . T he

v i s i b i l i t y o f s u b s u r f a c e d e f e c t s was d i s c u s s e d

t h e o r e t i c a l l y i n c h a p t e r 2 . F o r t h i n l a m i n a r d e f e c t

p a r a l l e l t o t h e s u r f a c e , t h e p h a s e c o n t r a s t was

p r e d i c t e d t o b e l a r g e w h e n t h e d e f e c t i s s a n d w i c h e d i n

a h i g h t h e r m a l e f f u s i v i t y m a t e r i a l . S u b m i c r o n d e f e c t

t h i c k n e s s e s w e r e a l s o p r e d i c t e d t o b e r e a d i l y

d e t e c t a b l e . T h e v i s i b i l i t y o f d e f e c t s a t d e p t h s

g r e a t e r t h a n 1 . 5 t h e r m a l d i f f u s i o n l e n g t h o f t h e

s u r f a c e l a y e r i s p o o r f o r a l l d e f e c t t h i c k n e s s e s . I n

sum m ary t h e m a i n r e q u i s i t e s f o r d e f e c t d e t e c t i o n a r e

g i v e n b e l o w .

1) The modula t ion f requency must make the thermal d i f f u s i o n

length l a r g e r than th e d e f e c t depth .

2) Severa l f requency measurements a re made to d i s t i n g u i s h the

observed phase an g le v a r i a t i o n s from t h ick n e ss and

m i c r o s t r u c t u r e r e l a t e d changes.

3) The sample phase ang le no is e i s less than the minimum

d e f e c t th ickn ess to be sensed.

F o r d e f e c t s o f f i n i t e w i d t h s i t h a s b e e n t h e o r e t i c a l l y

shown t h a t t h e y may b e d e t e c t a b l e up t o a d e p t h e q u a l

t o i t s d i a m e t e r C 7 1 J . T h i s p r e d i c t i o n a p p e a r s t o

v a l i d f o r t h e d i s c s h a p e d d e f e c t s t e s t e d i n 4 . 3 . 2 .

5 . 3 FURTHER DEVELOPMENTS

Two i n t r i n s i c l i m i t a t i o n s o f m o d u l a t e d PTR a r e t h e

s l o w i n s p e c t i o n r a t e , t y p i c a l l y f e w s e c o n d s / p o i n t and

t h e n e c e s s i t y o f m a k i n g s e v e r a l f r e q u e n c y m e a s u r e m e n t s

t o d i f f e r e n t i a t e b e t w e e n t h i c k n e s s and d e f e c t r e l a t e d

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p h a s e c h a n g e s . As n o t e d i n s e c t i o n 1 . 3 . 1 , s u r f a c e

i n s p e c t i o n r a t e s may b e i n c r e a s e d b y e m p l o y i n g a n a r e a

w i d e l o c k - i n d e t e c t i o n t e c h n i q u e . To o v e r c o m e t h e

s e c o n d d i f f i c u l t y M a n d e l i s e t a l C B 8 ,8 9 D h a v e r e c e n t l y

sh o w n t h a t b y a p p l y i n g a f r e q u e n c y c h i r p e x c i t a t i o n f o r

p h o t o t h e r m a l h e a t i n g , b o t h t h e f r e q u e n c y and t i m e

d o m a i n r e s p o n s e o f l a y e r e d s a m p l e s c a n b e o b t a i n e d

s i m u l t a n e o u s l y i n a r e l a t i v e l y s h o r t p e r i o d o f t i m e .

O t h e r a d v a n t a g e s o f t h i s e x c i t a t i o n m e t h o d i n c l u d e :

a) co n ven t ion a l l o c k - i n s i n g l e f requency measurements

can a ls o be measured w i th the same equipment,

b) a pulsed la s e r is not r e q u i r e d to o b t a i n t r a n s i e n t

thermal propagat ion i n f o r m a t i o n , and

c) reduced sample hea t in g due to s e q u e n t ia l d e p o s i t io n

o f l a s e r energy.

T h i s a l t e r n a t i v e e x c i t a t i o n t e c h n i q u e a p p e a r s t o h a v e a

g r e a t e r p o t e n t i a l f o r f u l l q u a n t i t a t i v e m a t e r i a l s

c h a r a c t e r i s a t i o n and N D T . B o t h t h e s e c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s

a r e u r g e n t l y s o u g h t a f t e r i n f u t u r e i n s p e c t i o n s y s t e m s .

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Tab le 5 . 1 : A summary o f PTR measurements on plasma spyayed

coat i n q s .

MEASUREMENT

Coat i n g /

S u b s t ra te

System

Frequency

Hz

Th ickness

Fm

Thermal

D i f f u s i v i ty

x l 0 -tf> me / s

D efec ts REF.

Mo 15 200-610 6 . 5 24

N i A l / MS 28 15-490 4 . 4 24

A l / MS i CD O 490 I n t e r f a c e 66

A l e03 / MS 16i

0 -400 2 . 2 I n t e r f a c e 8

2 r 0 a - Y c 03 /

N ic k e l

s u p e r a l l o y

0 . 3 5 50-1000 0 . 1 90

LC1B/ SS 10 ,25 50-250

j

ru 0- I n t e r f a c e ,

P o r o s i t y

22

WC + Co/ Ti 36 50 -400 3 91

. MS M i ld S te e l

. SS S t a i n l e s s S tee l

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Table 5 . 5 : A comparsion and performance o f the gas and

semiconductor 1asers f o r sample h e a t i n q .

Argon ion la se r GaAlAs Laser Diode

Laser beam

v i s i b i 1i t y

Ves No

Laser power

range

(W at t )

0 to j 0 . 0 5 to 0 . 3

Usefu l l i f e

t ime

Up to 1500 hrs 10 ,000 hrs

S p ec ia l

requ irements

F i l t e r e d water

supply ,

water c o o l in g , and

3 phase power

supply .

None

Laser system

p o r t a b i l i t y

No Yes

Maintenance

costs

High

(Replacement tube)

Low

System c o s t /

mW8x th e Argon

ion system

Sig na l

Magnitude

3x the Laser diode

Phase angle

noise

( a t 0 . 3 Wat t )

< 0 .5 degrees < 0 . 5 degrees

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A p p e n d i x

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Append i x 1

1 THERMAL HAVE REFLECTION AND TRANSMISSION COEFFICIENTS.

Assume t h a t t h e b o u n d a r y s e p a r a t i n g tw o m e d i a < 1 * 2 )

i s t h e p J a n e x = 0 , and t h a t t h e i n c i d e n t j r e f l e c t e d and

t r a n s m i t t e d p l a n e t h e r m a l w a v e m a kes t h e a n g l e ft 4. , ft,

and f t h w i t h r e s p e c t t o t h e x - a x i s , a s shown i n f i g u r e

I . L e t t h e e x p r e s s i o n f o r t h e p l a n e t h e r m a l w a v e s ,

Tj , t ,- and T t i t h e i n c i d e n t , r e f l e c t e d a nd t r a n s m i t t e d

w a v e s b e g i v e n b y :

w h e r e A i s t h e i n i t i a l a m p l i t u d e o f t h e i n c i d e n t

t h e r m a l w a v e ; R and T a r e t h e t h e r m a l w a v e r e f l e c t i o n

and t r a n s m i s s i o n c o e f f i c i e n t a t t h e i n t e r f a c e x = 0 .

F o r t h e c o n t i n u i t y o f t e m p e r a t u r e a t t h e i n t e r f a c e

x = 0 , we h a v e :

S i n c e t h i s c o n d i t i o n m u st b e t r u e f o r a l l y p o s i t i o n ,

t h e e x p o n e n t s i n t h e a b o v e e q u a t i o n m u s t b e a l l e q u a l .

I h u s we h a v e

- a jx CQsnt~a sin /lt+ /cut

T r « ARea j x cos Clr - a jy sin £lr+/cot

- a 0x cos Clt~ a 2y sin Clt+/cut

(2) <r, y sin Cl a x y sin £1 a ^y sin Clt

( 3 ) cr1y s i n / 3 ( = cr1y s i n / } r = 0 2y s i n i 2 tf r o m w h i c h t h e l a w o f r e f l e c t i o n and r e f r a c t i o n

follows:

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(3a) Dl = Dr law of reflection(3b) cr xy sin = a 2y sin D t Snells/au;

F o r c o n t i n u i t y o f f l u x a t t h e i n t e r f a c e t h e

f o l l o w i n g e q u a t i o n i s o b t a i n e d :

( 4 ) fcjCT, cos D t - R k ! a t cos jQr - T k 2a 2cos D t

a s £2,,. =42,.. and I = ( 1 - R ) ( a t y = 0 ) , t h e t h e r m a l w ave

r e f l e c t i o n and t r a n s m i s s i o n c o e f f i c i e n t c a n b e w r i t t e n

a s :

k i o j cos £21 — A: 2 <72 cos(Ca) R-- --------- — ---------- —k i a i cos u t -+- k 2 o 2 cos ii t

c o s /3 , -b c o s i2 t CG b > T T - T ----- r Tc o s j R, + O C O S i l j

2 k 2o^cosDt(5c) T = k\0 j cos.Q£-*- fc2o 2cosDt

2 b c o s D t(Gd) T =cosDt + bcosDr

w h e r e b = k^cr^ / k :l a x . F o r n o r m a l l y i n c i d e n t t h e r m a l

w a v e s , S2i=0, t h e r e f l e c t i o n and t r a n s m i s s i o n

c o e f f i c i e n t s a t x = 0 r e d u c e t o :

„ l-b 2 b(6 ) 2? = - — and 7 = -— -1 + 6 1 + 6

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1

A p p e n d i x d

ONE DIMENSIONAL COMPLEX SURFACE TEMPERATURE DERIVATION.

1 . 1 T H I N O P T IC A L L Y ABSORBING LAYER ON A NON-ABSORBING

S E M I - I N F I N I T E SUBSTRATE.

C o n s i d e r a p l a n e p e r i o d i c o p t i c a l s o u r c e

i l l u m i n a t i n g a l a y e r e d s a m p l e w i t h i n t e n s i t y 10 a t an

a n g u l a r f r e q u e n c y w:

(1) / = [ l + Gxp(ycoO]-

I h e s u r f a c e t e m p e r a t u r e o f t h e s a m p l e c a n t h e n b e

w r i t t e n a s t h e sum o f t h r e e t e m p e r a t u r e s :

V ) T = T a+ T dc+ T acw h e r e I c. , Td c a n d r « c a r e , r e s p e c t i v e l y , t h e a m b i e n t ,

s t e a d y s t a t e and p e r i o d i c t e m p e r a t u r e o f t h e s a m p l e .

To d e r i v e t h e p e r i o d i c s u r f a c e t e m p e r a t u r e o f a t h i n

o p t i c a l l y a b s o r b i n g l a y e r o n a n o n a b s o r b i n g

s e m i —i n f i n i t e s u b s t r a t e we p r o c e e d a s f o l l o w s . L e t r ,

(2 , and n b e t h e s u r f a c e r e f l e c t i v i t y , t h e b u l k o p t i c a l

a b s o r p t i o n c o e f f i c i e n t and t h e 1 i g h t - t o - h e a t c o n v e r s i o n

e f f i c i e n c y , r e s p e c t i v e l y , o f m e d iu m 1 . Assume t h a t

h e a t f l o w i s o n e d i m e n s i o n a l a n d t h a t t h e s u r f a c e l a y e r

i s i n p e r f e c t t h e r m a l c o n t a c t w i t h t h e s u b s t r a t e .

L e t k t , C i , «i. a nd a b e t h e t h e r m a l c o n d u c t i v i t y , t h e

s p e c i f i c h e a t , t h e r m a l d i f f u s i v i t y and t h e r m a l

w a v e v e c t o r o f m a t e r i a l i , i = 0 , l and 2 , ( s e e f i g . 2 ) .

The t h e r m a l d i f f u s i o n e q u a t i o n i n e a c h o f t h e m e d i a

t a k e t h e f o r m :

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(3)d * T i( x , t ' ) _ 1 d T t{ x , t )

d x 7 a, dt

f i ( x . t )layer

* \

~ 0 la y e r 0 , 2

w h e r e H i s t h e n e t h e a t d e n s i t y p r o d u c e d a t a p o i n t x

i n t h e s a m p l e . I f l i g h t i s e x p o n e n t i a l l y a b s o r b e d i n

t h e s a m p l e ( B e e r ’ s Law ) t h e n H i s g i v e n b y :

( 4 ) R (x = - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -- - - - - - - -Ro[ 1 e x p (Jcu £ ) ]

S i n c e I and h e n c e I a r e h a r m o n i c i n t i m e ;

(5) T , ( x , t ) = T , ( x ) e x p ( J u } f )

t h e a b o v e t h e r m a l d i f f u s i o n e q u a t i o n s c a n b e r e w r i t t e n

a s :

l a y e r 0

- } 2 T 0 ( x , c o ) f ' j c u )( 6 a ) - - - - - - i>— — ' - | T 0 ( x , w ) - 0 x > 0

J x a V a „ J

d2T t( x , a > ) ( j a > \ _ t f ( x , a > )

l a y e r 1

(6b) ----- ---------i - i— r,(x.tB)-’ -----i - L < x < 0d x 2 V “ i 1 * ,

l a y e r d

, , . y 2 T j ( x . t o ) ( j u j(6 c ) .............. ....... ....... ... T . , ( x . u . ' ) - 0 x < - L

J x 2 V J

180

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I he e q u a t i o n s 6 a - 6 c a r e c o u p l e d v i a t h e b o u n d a r y

c o n d i t i o n s o f t e m p e r a t u r e a n d h e a t f l u x c o n t i n u i t y a t

a l l t h e i n t e r f a c e s :

(7?.) T t\ u j , boundary ) = T } { to , boundary )

a;*, b o u n d a r y ) T A t o , b o u n d a r y J(7b) k t d - “ k j d --------------------------d x d x

I h e t i m e d e p e n d a n t s o l u t i o n s t o e q u a t i o n 6 f o r t h e

p e r i o d i c t e m p e r a t u r e d i s t r i b u t i o n i n t h e s a m p l e a r e

g i v e n b y t h e e q u a t i o n s :

l a y e r 0

(8a) T 0(x,o))--C1exp(-cr0.v)

layer 1(8 b ) T i ( x , c o ) - C 2e x p ( c r l x ) + C 3e x p ( - c r I x )

(1 - r )/t,exp(ff tx) 2 k l { a i - p i )

1 a y e r c!

( 8 c ) T 2 ( x ,co) - C 4 c x p ( a 2 x )

I h e q u a n t i t y o f i n t e r e s t i s t h e f u n c t i o n f o r t h e

t e m p e r a t u r e f i e l d a t t h e s u r f a c e o f m ed iu m 1» f i ( w , O ) .

T h i s c a n b e d e t e r m i n e d by e v a l u a t i o n t h e c o e f f i c i e n t C.a

s u b j e c t t o t h e b o u n d a r y c o n d i t i o n s o f e q u a t i o n 7 , w h i c h

y i e l d t h e f o l l o w i n g m a t r i x e q u a t i o n :

181

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(9)

1 - 11

0 X "

0 X ' 1

-bX

0

0

- y

- x - b . r- 1

" c r - Ec 2 b<,r i £

C 3 EB

L C 4_ _ r i E B _

(9a) o r r , 4 ] [ C ] = [ £ ]

and

( 10)k i Cf i

k (-1 & t- li- 1,2

( 1 1 ) X ” e x p j ^ i Z i ) and K - exp(cf2I1)

( 12)

The s o l u t i o n o f t h e m a t r i x e q u a t i o n 9 i s

( 1 3 )

f r o m w h i c h t h e p e r i o d i c s u r f a c e t e m p e r a t u r e , 1 . , ^ ,

f o l l o w s on e v a l u a t i n g t h e c o e f f i c i e n t C.t 1 :

( 1 4 ) T -(1 -r)r?£/0

2 kf f { l - r0re-2aL)

+ Te/? + o’ /? -c r

1 t h e s u f f i x 1 r e f e r r i n g t o t h e s u r f a c e l a y e r m a t e r i a l p r o p e r t i e s h a s b e e n r e l a x e d .

182

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w h e r e P i s t h e t h e r m a l w a v e r e f l e c t i o n c o e f f i c i e n t a t

t h e l a y e r / s u b s t r a t e i n t e r f a c e , P= ( 1 -be*,. ) / ( l + b a i ) and

r’e t h e r e f l e c t i o n c o e f f i c i e n t a t t h e l a y e r / a i r

i n t e r f a c e , r<> = u n i t y f o r s o l i d - a i r i n t e r f a c e . F o r an

o p t i c a l l y o p a q u e s u r f a c e l a y e r , ft x L .1 > > 1 , e q u a t i o n 14

r e d u c e s t o :

( 1 - r)/(15) Tac =2 k a

1 + f e ' 2 " 1

1 - T e - 2 a L

1 > 2 THERMAL CONTACT R E S IS T A N C E .

T h e a b o v e s o l u t i o n f o r t h e p e r i o d i c s u r f a c e

t e m p e r a t u r e a p p l i e s t o a t h i n o p t i c a l l y a b s o r b i n g

l a y e r i n p e r f e c t t h e r m a l c o n t a c t w i t h a n o n a b s o r b i n g

t h e r m a l l y t h i c k s u b s t r a t e . I f t h e l a y e r / s u b s t r a t e

i n t e r f a c e i s p a r t i a l l y b o n d e d t h e n t h e i n t e r f a c e w i l l

p r e s e n t a t h e r m a l r e s i s t a n c e t o h e a t f l o w . T h e

p e r i o d i c s u r f a c e t e m p e r a t u r e m u s t now b e o b t a i n e d b y

i n t r o d u c i n g a ’ t h e r m a l c o n t a c t r e s i s t a n c e * t e r m , R , t o

t h e t e m p e r a t u r e c o n t i n u i t y b o u n d a r y c o n d i t i o n o f

e q u a t i o n 7 a :

(16) T l ( - L l . w ) = T 2( - L l , a j ) * R % 2i T ^ L “ CU'>Z x

T h e s o l u t i o n f o r t a k e s t h e same f o r m a s e q u a t i o n 14

b u t w i t h T r e p l a c e d w i t h :

1 - b 1 + Rk 2 On( 1 7 ) r = 1 b { + Rk 2 (J

183

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h e n c e m a k i n g t h e l a y e r / s u b s t r a t e t h e r m a l w ave

r e f l e c t i o n c o e f f i c i e n t b o t h c o m p l e x and f r e q u e n c y

d e p e n d a n t .

1 . 3 A I R GAP DEFECT.

I f t h e l a y e r / s u b s t r a t e i n t e r f a c e i s l o c a l l y

s e p a r a t e d s u c h t h a t an a i r g a p i s s a n d w i c h e d b e t w e e n

t h e l a y e r a n d t h e s u b s t r a t e , t h e n t h e p e r i o d i c s u r f a c e

t e m p e r a t u r e c a n be o b t a i n e d b y s o l v i n g t h e h e a t

d i f f u s i o n e q u a t i o n w i t h p e r i o d i c b o u n d a r y c o n d i t i o n s o f

t e m p e r a t u r e a nd f l u x c o n t i n u i t y a t t h e a i r / l a y e r

, l a y e r / a i r and a i r / s u b s t r a t e i n t e r f a c e s , s e e f i g u r e

3 . T h e s o l u t i o n f o r t h e s u r f a c e t e m p e r a t u r e r e q u i r e s

t h e s i m u l t a n e o u s s o l u t i o n o f s i x e q u a t i o n s w h i c h on

s o l v i n g g i v e s f o r t h e s u r f a c e t e m p e r a t u r e :

w h e r e r i s d e f i n e d a s :

(1 8 )T a c 2 k l a l

_ „ - 2 ar i + I 2e(19 ) r

i + r l r 2e~2,’ zL:‘

1 - b i 1 - b 2

( 2 0 ) r ‘ = r r r 7 a n d =

T h i s r e p r e s e n t a t i o n f o r I mc i s i d e n t i c a l i n f o r m t o t h e

s u r f a c e t e m p e r a t u r e e x p r e s s i o n f o r a n o p t i c a l l y o p a q u e

1 8 4

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l a y e r o n a s e m i - i n f i n i t e s u b s t r a t e , s e e e q u a t i o n 1 5 .

A l s o , a s w i t h t h e t h e r m a l c o n t a c t r e s i s t a n c e m o d e l , a

c o m p l e x and f r e q u e n c y d e p e n d a n t t h e r m a l w a v e r e f l e c t i o n

c o e f f i c i e n t i s o b t a i n e d f o r t h e i n t e r f a c e d e f e c t .

1 STEADY STATE TEMPERATURE:

OPAQUE S E M I - I N F I N I T E LA Y ER .

T h e s t e a d y s t a t e , T d ^ , t e m p e r a t u r e r i s e o f t h e

s a m p l e c a n a l s o b e o b t a i n e d i n a s i m i l a r m a n n e r a s t h a t

f o r a n a b s o r b i n g l a y e r o n a t r a n s p a r e n t s u b s t r a t e b y

p u t t i n g w=0 i n e q u a t i o n 6 a n d t h e n s o l v i n g t h e t i m e

i n d e p e n d e n t h e a t d i f f u s i o n e q u a t i o n s u s i n g t h e b o u n d a r y

c o n d i t i o n s o f t e m p e r a t u r e an d f l u x c o n t i n u i t y . T h e

s o l u t i o n f o r t h e s t e a d y s t a t e t e m p e r a t u r e i s t h e n g i v e n

b y t h e e x p r e s s i o n :

F o r an o p a q u e i n s u l a t o r on a c o n d u c t i n g s u b s t r a t e t h i s

e q u a t i o n s i m p l i f i e s t o :

(21)

(22)

185

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Append i x 3

1 E F F E C T I V E THERMAL C O N D U C T I V I T Y OF A GAS TRAPPED

BETWEEN NARROWLY SPACED PARALLEL PL A T E S .

T h e r e a r e two d i s t i n c t modes o f g a s h e a t c o n d u c t i o n ;

t h e m o l e c u l a r h e a t t r a n s f e r and c o n t i n u u m h e a t

t r a n s f e r . I n t h e m o l e c u l a r r e g i m e , c o l l i s i o n s o c c u r

b e t w e e n g a s m o l e c u l e s much l e s s f r e q u e n t l y t h e n b e t w e e n

t h e g a s m o l e c u l e s and t h e ' h o t ’ o r ’ c o l d ’ s u r f a c e s .

I n t h i s r e g i m e m o l e c u l a r h e a t t r a n s f e r i s d i r e c t l y

p r o p o r t i o n a l t o t h e s y s t e m p r e s s u r e and i s a l s o

i n f l u e n c e d b y t h e a c c o m m o d a t i o n c o e f f i c i e n t , oc, w h i c h

c a n b e d e f i n e d a s t h e e n e r g y e x c h a n g e d b e t w e e n a

m o l e c u l e a n d a s u r f a c e w i t h r e s p e c t t o t h e maximum

e n e r g y e x c h a n g e p o s s i b l e .

I n t h e c o n t i n u u m r e g i m e h e a t c o n d u c t i o n i s

r e l a t i v e l y i n d e p e n d e n t o f p r e s s u r e a n d a l s o h a s t h e

maximum t h e r m a l c o n d u c t i v i t y . T h e b a s i c e q u a t i o n f o r

t h e t h e r m a l c o n d u c t i v i t y o f a g a s i s 4 :

(1) K„ = €TjCu

e = ( 9 6 - 5 ) / 4

77 = p v \ / 2

C 0= R J M { y - 1)

w h e r e

€ i s a c o n s t a n t ,

n i s t he v i s c o s i t y c o e f f i c i e n t ,

Cs, i s t he s p e c i f i c h e a t .

7 i s t he s p e c i f i c h e a t r a t i o ,

9 i s t he d e n s i t y ,

v i s t he mean speed,

1 N . V . l ' s e d e r b e r g . T h e r m a l c o n d u c t i v i t y o f g a s e s and l i q u i d s . ( M . I . T . P r e s s , 1 9 6 b ) C h a p . I V .

186

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X is the mean f r e e p a th ,

R0 is the u n i v e r s a l gas c o n s t a n t , and

M i s the molecu lar mass.

By s u b s t i t u t i o n ,

(2) K ff= s p C v vk/2.D e f i n i n g t h e mean f r e e p a t h X a s ;

(3) k =( j _ \

L u J1

I-1

w h e r e Xp i s t h e p a r t i c l e t o p a r t i c l e p a t h l e n g t h ( =

k T / T 2 cr P ) , k i s t h e B o l t z m a n n c o n s t a n t , a i s t h e

c o l l i s i o n c r o s s - s e c t i o n , a n d L t h e s y s t e m

c h a r a c t e r i s t i c d i m e n s i o n s ( v o l u m e / a r e a ) .

By s u b s t i t u t i o n ,

e p C 0v(4) K — —

3 2 ( 1/ A p + 1 /L)T h i s e q u a t i o n a l l o w s c a l c u l a t i o n o f t h e g a s t h e r m a l

c o n d u c t i v i t y o v e r t h e r a n g e f r o m m o l e c u l a r t r a n s f e r

r e g i m e t o c o n t i n u u m . E q u a t i o n a s s u m e s a n

a c c o m m o d a t i o n c o e f f i c i e n t o f 1 f o r a l l t h e s u r f a c e s .

I n g e n e r a l a l i e s i n t h e r a n g e 0 t o 1 . To a c c o u n t

f o r t h i s c o e f f i c i e n t , t h e f a c t o r F i s i n t r o d u c e d a s

f o 1 l o w s :

(5)^ epCav

3 2(1 /kp+F/L)

F r e p r e s e n t s a a c c o m m o d a t i o n f a c t o r r e s e m b l i n g t h e

e m i s s i v i t y f a c t o r i n r a d i a t i v e h e a t t r a n s f e r . F o r

p a r a l l e l p l a t e s o f e q u a l s i z e , F i s g i v e n b y

(6) c- 1 1 ,F = — + -------- 1a i a 2

2 H.M. S t r o n g etal. J. App 1 . Phys. 3_1_ p<43 (1960)

187

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F ro m e q u a t i o n ^ o r 5 i t c a n b e s e e n t h a t f o r l a r g e

s e p a r a t i o n , L» t h e t h e r m a l c o n d u c t i v i t y a p p r o a c h e s

t h a t o f t h e b u l k v a l u e . When g a s i s t r a p p e d b e t w e e n

s u r f a c e s w i t h s e p a r a t i o n a p p r o a c h i n g t h e mean f r e e p a t h

, t h e n t h e t h e r m a l c o n d u c t i v i t y o f t h e g a s c a n b e

r e d u c e d s i g n i f i c a n t l y . F o r e x a m p l e f o r L = 0 . l H m > and

oc =a = 0 . 5 , t h e g a s t h e r m a l c o n d u c t i v i t y i s r e d u c e d b y

£5*/. f r o m i t s b u l k v a l u e :

188

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REFLECTED THERMAL WAVE

TRANSMITTED THERMAL WAVE

MEDIUM 1

INCIDENTTHERMALWAVE

MEDIUM 2X=0 .

F i g u r e I s R e f l e c t i o n a n d r e f r a c t i o n o f p l a n e t h e r m a l

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AIR

CDATINGC 1 K1 ? !

C KSUBSTRATE 2 2

F i g u r e E : M o d e l l e d c o a t i n g / s u b s t r a t e s y s t e m .

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191

CDATING

* , AIR-GAP

3 SUBSTRATE

F ig u re 3: a) A i r gap and b)

CDATING THERMAL CONTACT RESISTANCE < R'>

SUBSTRATE

thermal co n ta c t r e s i s t a n c e i n t e r f a c e d e f e c t s .

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R e f e r e n c e s

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E s p r i t 1984: S ta tu s r e p o r t o f ongoing work.

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29 N. M ikosh ib a , H.Nakamura and T.Tsubouchi

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p hotoacoust ic and photothermal r a d i a t i o n microscopes ."

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30 S . 3. Sheard.

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31 R. V a n z e t t i , A.C. Traub and A.A. Richard

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32 S.O. Kanstad and P . - E . N o rd a l .

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33 J. Marx, C. D r o u l l e , M. Egee, E. Van S c h e l , F . P o t l e r and G.

Potron

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34 P . - E . Nordal and S.O. Kanstad

" V i s i b l e l i g h t spectroscopy by photothermal rad io m et ry using

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35 W.P. Leung and A.C. Tam

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36 Eds, S.G. Burnay, T .L . W i l l i a m s and C .H .N . Jones.

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Pub. I n s t , o f Phys. ISBN 0 - 8 5 2 7 4 - 4 2 1 - 8 (1988)

37 J . T . Luxon and D.E. Parker

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38 D.P. Almond and P.M. Pa te l

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39 J . L . Beaudoin, E. Merienne, R. Danjoux and M. Egee.

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subsurface c o n t r o l of m a t e r i a l s by photothermal r a d io m e t r y . "

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AO P .K . Kuo, Z . J . Feng, T. Ahmed, L .D . Favro , R.L . Thomas and J.

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A1 D.R. Green, C.R. Wadl ing, M.D. Schmel le r and R.A. S u l i t

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HEDL-SA-2986

A2 D.R. Green, J.W. Voyles and J . H . P r a t i

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HEDL -SA-3517-FP (March 1986)

A3 R. T r a v i s , C. G in ther and C. Z an is

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A5 R.E. T a ly o r and K.D. M ag l ic .

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E d . , K.D. M a g l ic , A. C e z a i r l i y a n and V .E . P e le t s k y .

Plenun P ress , ISBN 0-306-A1A2A-A (198A)

A6 P. C i e l o and S. D a l l a r i e

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47 D.R. Maley

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48 E . J . Kubiak

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49 P.K. Kuo, I . C . Oppenheim, L .D . Favro , Z . J . Feng and R .L .

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50 I . Kaufman, P. Chang, A.K. Choundry, R .L . Choudary, D. Shyang

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51 F . E . A lzofon

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52 P .E . Nordal and S.O. Kanstad

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53 F .C . Incropera and D.C, De W i t t

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56 A. Rosencwaig and A. Gersho

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57 C.A. B ennet ,J r and R.R. P a t t y

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59 H.C. Chow

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60 F. L ep o u tre , B.K. Bein and L . J . I n g l e h a r t .

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61 M.V. I ravami and H.K. Wickramasinghe

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62 M. Beyfuss, R. T i l g n e r and J . Baumann

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63 R.C. P ro g e lh o f , J . L . Thorne and R.R. Ruetsch

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64 J. Baumann and R. T i lg n e r

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65 F. Lepoutre , D. Four iner and A.C. Boccara.

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66 P.M. P a t e l , D.P. Almond and H. R e i t e r

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67 P.M. P a t e l , D.P. Almond and H. R e i t e r

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Sp r in g er s e r i e s in U p t i c a l sc iences 58 p^30-434 (1987 )

68 F. Tsukizoe and T. Hisakado

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69 N .F . Haine

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70 L . J . I n g l e h a r t , K.R. G r i c e , L .D . Favro , P.K. Kuo and R .L .

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71 F .A . McDonald.

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72 G.C. Wetsel J r , and F .A . McDonald

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J. App l . Phys. 5 6 (11 ) p3081-3085 (Dec 198^)

73 F.A McDonald, G.C. Wetsel J r . , and S.A. S t o t t s

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7^ F .A . McDonald and G.C. W etse l , J r . •

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75 A. Mandel is

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76 Coherent (UK) L td , Cambridge Sc ience Park , Cambridge, England.

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77 EG&G Instrum ents L t d , Doncast le House, B r a c k n e l l , B e rk s h i re ,

England.

7B M ul la rds Southampton, M i l l b r o o k I n d u s t r i a l E s t a t e s ,

Southampton, England.

79 EG&G Ins t rum ents L t d , Doncast le House, B r a c k n e l l , B e rk s h i re ,

Eng land.

80 Ea l in g E l e c t r o - o p t i c s P i c . , Greycaine Rd, W at ford , H e r t . ,

England.

81 BS4803 P a r t 1 ,8 and 3 . (19B3) .

R a d ia t io n s a f e t y o f Laser Products and Systems.

82 QCLI O p t ic a l C oat ings L t d , H i len d In d . Pa rk , D u n ferm i ln e ,

F i f e , S co t la n d .

83 J .P . B ent le y

" P r i n c i p l e s o f measurements systems,

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Pub.: Longmans Group L t d , London (1983 )

ISBN 0 - 5 8 2 - 3 0 5 0 6 - 3

84 M e l les G r i o t L t d , Culdrose House, A l d e r s h o t , Hampshire,

England

85 S p e c t ra -P h y s ic s L t d , Boundary way, Hemel Hempstead, H e r t s ,

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86 L.C. Ammodt and J .C . Murphy

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87 M. Moghisi and D .P . Almond

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88 A. Mandel is

"Frequency modulated (FM) t ime d e la y photoacoust ic and

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89 J. F . Power and A. Man d e l i s

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VO D.P. Almond, P.M. P a te l and H. R e i t e r

"The t e s t i n g o f plasma sprayed c o a t in g s by thermal wave

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91 J. M o r r i s , P.M. P a t e l , D.P. Almond and H. R e i t e r

" Ih e in f lu e n c e o f coa t ing p r o p e r t i e s on the s e n s i t i v i t y o f

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