MARITIME, DISCOVERYAND PORTS

An Australian Discussion

Cassie Madden

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MARITIME, DISCOVERY AND PORTS: AN AUSTRALIAN

DISCUSSION

Author: Cassie Madden

EBook first distributed in 2017

Designed for Educational Use

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Acknowledgements

Thank you to all friends, family, and colleagues for your support, help and encouragement with

writing this mini book over the time I have been working on it.

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Sources

All the written sources used to gather information for this book are listed in the reference material

and further readings section. There are a lot of talented historians, researchers and writers out there

providing the world with interesting books about the maritime world and Australian history. If you are

interested in certain topics or areas of this eBook I highly recommend that you take a look at this

reference list of books and websites and go exploring.

In addition, a lot of the information is known to the author from traveling and visiting museums and

places to learn about the history over the last 4 years.

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CONTENTS

Acknowledgements................................................................................................................... ii

Sources ................................................................................................................................... iii

Chapter 1: An introduction ............................................................................................................ 1

Chapter 2: Indigenous Maritime .................................................................................................... 4

Chapter 3: European discovery ...................................................................................................... 9

Chapter 4: Australia’s maritime world from 1788 ......................................................................... 17

Chapter 5: Ports ......................................................................................................................... 23

New South Wales.................................................................................................................... 23

Tasmania ................................................................................................................................ 28

Queensland ............................................................................................................................ 30

Western Australia ................................................................................................................... 38

Victoria .................................................................................................................................. 41

South Australia ....................................................................................................................... 44

Northern Territory .................................................................................................................. 46

Chapter 6: The Future and Conclusions ........................................................................................ 49

References and Further Readings ................................................................................................ 51

Books and Articles................................................................................................................... 51

Websites ................................................................................................................................ 52

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TABLE OF IMAGES

IMAGE 2.A – RAFT 6

IMAGE 2.B – BARK CANOE 7

IMAGE 3.A MAP OF NEW HOLLAND – DUTCH DISCOVERIES 12

IMAGE 3.B MAP SHOWING THE EAST COAST 14

IMAGE 4. A ARRIVAL OF THE FIRST FLEET 18

IMAGE 5.A THE GAS WORKS AND INDUSTRY AT DARLING HARBOUR 25

IMAGE 5.B SYDNEY IN 1888 SHOWING DARLING HARBOUR 25

IMAGE 5.C PHOTO OF PORT KEMBLA FROM AFAR 27

IMAGE 5.D PHOTOGRAPH OF A PAINTING OF HOBART TOWN IN 1829 28

IMAGE 5.E IMAGE OF THE BRISBANE RIVER IN 1880 31

IMAGE 5.F AN EARLY PHOTO OF ABBOT POINT 33

IMAGE 5.G EARLY PHOTO OF THE BOWEN WHARFS 35

IMAGE 5. H EARLY PHOTOS OF FREEMANTLE HARBOUR 39

IMAGE 5.I EARLY SHIPPING AT PORT OF MELBOURNE 42

IMAGE 5.J PORTLAND HARBOUR IN THE 1900S 43

IMAGE 5.K HISTORICAL PORT ADELAIDE 44

IMAGE 5.L EARLY DARWIN JETTY AROUND 1900 47

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CHAPTER 1: AN INTRODUCTION

“The sea, once it casts its spell, holds one in its net of wonder forever”

Jacques Y Cousteau

The sea is a vast and wondrous place and part of Australia’s Island culture. Australia being an island

relies heavily on the sea to transport goods and services around the world. In addition, Australia is

responsible for looking after the sea, its reefs, fishing to provide food and sharing the sea with the

world. Australian’s love the beaches and live predominately around the coast in cities where ports are

constructed to provide for the people.

Even before European settlement the Indigenous Australian’s who lived along the coast relied on the

sea for fishing and trade with their northern neighbours. As an example, the Indigenous Australian’s

in the north traded with their Macassan and Papua New Guinea neighbours and had a complex trade

network across time and space. Indigenous Australians used the harbours to explore coastal

waterways and the sea to go fishing for a variety of marine life that provided them with an abundance

of food. Australia was an exciting place back then, just as today and we have a lot to learn from the

Indigenous Australians and their culture and understanding of the sea.

One question often asked by highly experienced researchers is just how the early Australian

inhabitants reach Australia in the first place? And although there has been a lot of debate about this

and what type of craft they used, the consensus is that they had ocean going rafts that enabled them

to paddle their way from Sulawesi and other island chains to northern Australia as far back as 60,000

to 40,000BP (Before Present). It can be proposed that people in prehistory had the skills to navigate

across bodies of open Ocean to get to their new and exciting destinations. This is certainly the case

with the Indigenous Australians.

Moving closer to the present day, it wasn’t until much later in the piece that explorers from distant

shores started traveling towards Australia. It has even been discussed that that the Chinese, Spanish

and Portuguese could have ‘discovered’ Australia before the Dutch and British. Seafarers in these

cultures were very advanced navigators during the 14th, 15th and 16th centuries, so nothing is off limits.

Researchers have suggested that Portuguese and Spanish shipwrecks of galleons have been found

along the east coast and even the southern coast in Victoria. The Chinese also are said to have

discovered the coastal land of Australia in the 15th century, in fact some researchers have said even

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earlier than these timeframes. The Chinese were great star navigators and their ships called Junk’s

were known for their ocean going abilities. This is a very interesting supposition.

The Dutch discovered northern and western Australia in the 1600’s. In 1606 Willem Janszoon, a

captain working for the Dutch East India Company (VOC) sailed a ship named Duyfken from Banda,

Indonesia to find any trade opportunities south, and whilst exploring for this trade he discovered

Australia. Captain Janszoon set down near the town of Weipa and mapped the Gulf of Carpentaria,

Australia. And in 1616 his Dutch colleague, Dirk Hartog had discovered parts of the western coast of

Australia. Hartog mapped part of the coast and today has an island named after him, Dirk Hartog

Island. The Dutch were also noted for other explorers who sailed the length of the Western Australia

coast and beyond, including Frederick de Houtman, Abel Tasman and Willem De Vlamigh. Abel Tasman

had discovered the southern coast of Tasmania. The Dutch even today, are extremely talented

seafarers and navigators.

The British too had many famous explorers who set up camp in Australia and navigated along its

remarkable shores. William Dampier was one such explorer. He was able to circumnavigate the oceans

three times and during his adventures explored the western Australian coastline previously explored

by the Dutch, writing about his interesting discoveries and naming places along the way. One of the

most famous explorers is Captain James Cook who discovered parts of the east coast of Australia in

his ship the Endeavour. During his first voyage in 1770, he discovered many places along the east coast

including, Botany Bay, 1770 and Cooktown. He had contact with the Gweagal people south of Sydney

and when passing through the Great Barrier Reef he ran aground and had to make major repairs. He

was a talented navigator and explorer. These explorations by cook, gave rise to the idea of colonising

the east coast of Australia and in 1788 Captain Arthur Phillip and the first fleet, full of sailors, civil

officers and convicts, sailed to and established a penal settlement at port Jackson. This was the starting

point of the British settlement and establishment of a colony in Australia.

What these early discoveries have shown is that the Australian people are a very hardy bunch and the

coast and the sea holds a significance. If it was not for humans being brave and curious Australia might

be very different today. Seafarers, both historic peoples and more recent explorers, were very brave

risking ocean crossings not knowing what lay ahead of them or if they would even survive and that is

an amazing achievement. As in all history, not all history is good and not all bad but it is our history.

When Australia was explored by European settlers they needed harbours to dock their ships, receive

and send supplies, and make any ship repairs. This was the start of harbour development in Australia.

Without harbours and ports shipping would be impossible. In Sydney, we had the port of Darling

harbour that was a working port with wharfs and shipyards. Sea trade was extremely important to the

early European settlers as it had been to the First Australians, and the whole Sydney foreshore was

used for maritime activities, transport, fishing, and trading.

Once Australia began its expansion of new colonies across the length and breadth of the continent,

coastal areas were selected for and ports to be developed. Bays that allowed the ships to be protected

from the elements were a natural selection for decision makers. With the first penal colonies, ports

were needed for convict transport and receiving goods to start towns and receive supplies to feed

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themselves. Commerce developed around these new towns, were ship building, trade and commercial

pursuits were embraced by the talented townsmen. In regional coastal areas in states and territories

of Australia, ports were developed specifically for the export of resources gathered from the land or

sea and resources from farming. As an example, the export of meat, wool and later iron ore and coal

to name a few, became the reasons to build ports so companies on behalf of communities could share

these resources with the world for a fee.

It is interesting to look back and see just how the ports themselves evolved and how Australia

developed to become the country it is today. Ports will continue to evolve as will shipping, as new

technologies and innovations are developed the way we do shipping and trade with the world will

change. Australia being a dot on the globe and part of a large globalisation movement, will continue

to move forward and change in the maritime world. This book is a brief glimpse into Australia’s

maritime past.

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CHAPTER 2: INDIGENOUS MARITIME

“The true adventurer goes forth aimless and uncalculating to meet and greet unknown fate” O. Henry

Around 60,000BP the first people arrived in Australia. They had traversed far distances over many

generations to reach the Australian continent. The question remains, how did they arrive in Australia

as they had to successfully navigate over ocean? This question is discussed to this day. Crossing over

the sea in order to reach the island continent was a big feat for anyone. It would have taken bravery,

especially when they did not know what lay ahead. Even if they could see birds flying or could see

smoke from distant islands, or see the islands from afar, they had no knowledge of what they had to

expect when they arrived. Would they have a food supply? What would be safe to eat? Then there

was the large megafauna unique to the Australian mainland that they would encounter upon their

arrival. These and many more questions were unknown’s to the Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islanders.

They were a very adventurous and skilled group of people.

It is believed that they came across the island chains near Sulawesi or Timor, coming originally from

the China region, as the sea levels were much lower around 60,000 years ago. Having lower sea levels

meant, there were additional islands and land and that the distance between each of these islands

and land masses was as low as 90 to 110km, and that made sea crossings easier. If coming via Sulawesi,

the first people would arrive in Papua New Guinea (PNG) and come south to Australia over land, as

PNG was connected to Australia via land at that time in history. If they had come via islands

surrounding Timor, they would arrive in northern Western Australia. Both of these routes are viable.

They could have arrived in different journeys over a prolonged timeframe.

Then the next question is what vessels did they use to reach Australia? Indigenous people were known

to use bark canoes along the coast for fishing. Did they use these bark canoes to hop across the islands

to reach Australia that far back in history? These canoes were sewn together and had ribbing to make

them stronger and for buoyancy. It was possible that the first people used these vessels to reach

Australia and then continued to use them throughout history. However, these were not designed for

sea voyages. It could also be that they used rafts to navigate to Australia. Josephine Flood in her book

‘Archaeology of the dreamtime’ mentions they may have used a light double raft made of mangrove

wood or bamboo. This raft was light and enabled the people to travel over ocean with less opportunity

for their raft to soak up too much water and sink.

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No matter how they reached Australia, they did and they were brave in doing so. They had the

knowledge to travel on small wooden craft and travel over the ocean to reach new islands and the big

continent, Australia. At a time in history when it is believed that other cultures are not venturing very

far at all the first Australian’s had discovered a continent on the other side of the world.

When they reached Australia they slowly dispersed throughout the continent. The Indigenous peoples

make up over 250 cultural groups with varying languages and culture. And they traded with each

other. The coastal people had different types of vessels they used to navigate rivers, and coastal

oceans for fishing, trading goods and navigating their way to visible islands. After the sea receded, the

land linking PNG to the Australian mainland became islands that were populated by the Torres Strait

islanders, who had connections to the Papuan’s. Living on islands gave them even more extensive

knowledge of the sea and they navigated between the islands to trade goods including those they

farmed.

The types of watercraft the different Indigenous tribes used varied depending on their location, their

need, and cultural influences. Culture’s that were living on islands needed more knowledge of ocean

navigation than Indigenous peoples relying on fishing in harbours and lakes for example. Also, the

northern Australian’s were influenced by other cultures later on in the piece, such as the Macassan

traders.

How do we know what types of watercraft the first people used? The first Australian’s kept their

culture and canoe making alive, and there are stories and rock art to help assist Archaeologists

understand prehistoric maritime culture. Indigenous groups painted images of their boats on rocks in

caves and their descendants looked after those sacred images that have helped modern day

historians, researchers, archaeologists and the first people themselves understand their maritime

past. Trees also show the Archaeologists what types of bark canoes the first Australian’s made, by the

scaring on the trees. When the people’s cut out their bark canoes from a tree it left a scar on that tree.

This is a fantastic way to see what size of craft, what materials and where they were making these

vessels.

Firstly, let us explore their rafts. Logs were tied together using bark or rope to form rafts. It was these

rafts that were used to paddle to islands, across rivers and to gather food supplies. The paddles they

used were also made of the local timbers. A raft suited its purpose. It enabled people a means of

transport across water, for fishing and trade. These rafts were made out of local light times, including

mangroves. Some were a few logs tided together, while others were double rafts, two rafts one on

top of the other and lashed together to make them stronger (see the image over the page as an

example). These double lashed rafts were mentioned as possibly being used for longer distance sea

travel and for reaching Australia.

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Image 2.A – Raft Taken by Dr Herbert Basedow in 1916, courtesy of the National Museum Australia

http://www.nma.gov.au/kspace/teachers/kimberley/learning/aboriginal

In areas along the east and west coast the Indigenous peoples used bark canoes. The outer layer, the

bark, of a tree was cut away and shaped into a canoe. In some cases, fire was used to shape the canoe

at each end. The fire made the ends easier to bend and shape and tie with bark rope. Also, to

strengthen the canoe ribbing, pieces of wood, were placed across the canoe. It has been noted that

in Northern Queensland the first people would sew the ends of their bark canoes to strengthen their

canoes and make them more seaworthy to travel to islands. These bark canoes were built for a

temporary purpose, to fish and traverse waterways to reach destinations. When they had finished

with the bark canoe they could leave it and if needed later on build another one.

These canoes were a great example of Indigenous Australian’s ability to use the environment and

natural resources around them in a very sustainable way. The only took a small portion of the tree,

leaving the remainder to live and grow. A picture of one of these bark canoes is exhibited below.

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Image 2.B – Bark Canoe Bark canoe from Victoria in 1850 using some modern materials, metal. Image courtesy of Museum

Victoria https://museumvictoria.com.au/treasures/collDetails.aspx?pid=34

In addition to the bark canoes, the communities from northern Australia had seen and had inter

relations with the traders from Makassar, Indonesia. The Macassan’s with their ships called Perahu,

their trading practices and culture, had taught the first Australian’s many things. The first Australian’s

traded with them, married them, learned from them and taught the Macassan’s about their culture

as well. It was a good two way relationship for the most part. The Macassan traders were in the

northern Australian water’s searching for pearl, fish and the sea cucumber, also known as bêche-de-

mer and trepang. The Macassan’s shared with the first Australian’s their maritime skill of fishing and

boat building. They taught the Indigenous people about the dugout canoe and turning it into an

outrigger. These boats may have also been shared with the First Australian’s from Papuan’s, either

way the sharing of boat building technology enabled for shipping developments and changes to take

place.

A dugout canoe is exactly what it sounds like, a log is shaped and carved to form a canoe. In more

detail, a tree is cut down and the log of the tree is shaped on the outside and the inside is cut away to

form a space for the mariner to sit in the boat. A dugout canoe was relatively fast to construct and

more sturdy for the Indigenous Australian’s to use at sea for fishing big terrestrial species, the dugong

is one example. They used a variety of trees that were softwood and could be shaped and the trees

they did used varied by their location and what they had available to them.

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These dugouts had outriggers added to them. An outrigger canoe has wooden floats on one or both

sides of the canoe to provide additional stability and helped in longer sea voyages from the mainland

to the islands. The wooden supports are lashed to the dugout canoe using wood and bark rope. These

were used for fishing and helped in gathering larger sea life, including turtles and dugongs. The

support helped in bad weather and to make the canoe easier to navigate.

Irrespective of the boats the first people’s used, they had ties with the sea and the lakes and rivers

and used various types of boats to travel and explore. The sea, rivers and lakes provided the people

with a valuable source of nutritious food. The freshwater lakes also provided the people with a water

supply allowing them to explore inland.

In addition to the boats the first Australian’s also interacted with the sea from the shore. There are

various shell middens scattered along the Australian coastline showing how the first people would

camp along the shore and catch oysters and eat them on the beaches and discard the shells. These

shell middens help the Archaeologists understand trade, travel, fishing and other factors. These places

hold significance to the Indigenous people and show a history of their culture and ties to the sea and

harbours. The Indigenous people also established stone fishing traps to catch and keep fish. They built

elaborate stone structures around the shore so the fish would swim into the stone structures and be

trapped. They were trapped by lower water tides or the Indigenous people would cover the entrance

of the stone traps with more stone so the fish could not get away. It was an ingenious way to catch

fish and keep the fish for later use and shows the in-depth knowledge of the sea and fishing.

Furthermore, they also used the dolphins to help round up the fish into the traps or to the shore. They

sang to the dolphins who would see schools of fish and drive them towards to shore where they would

be trapped. This arrangement was collaboration at its best, the humans and dolphins helping each

other gather food. These are a few of the wonderful examples of how the first Australian’s interacted

with the sea and had detailed knowledge developed over an extended timeframe.

What we have had a glimpse at here is the rich maritime history of the first Australian people. They

had a clear link to the sea. They interacted with the sea and it incorporated into their culture. So many

unique and exciting stories throughout Australia exist of the first people’s interactions with the sea.

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CHAPTER 3: EUROPEAN DISCOVERY

“The real voyage of discovery consists not in seeking new landscapes, but in having new eyes.” Marcel Proust

The English had in mind to go exploring to see what vast distant lands lay ahead that they could use

and colonise. Most importantly, exploration would give them knowledge about other cultures, lands

and the world. When Captain James Cook and Sir Joseph Banks came back from their adventures with

stories of a distant land to the south in the 1770’s, this started the course of history that has formed

the reality of today. The vast and different environmental surroundings that Banks had come across

in his travels made the British curious. They had overpopulation, their gaols were full and exploding

onto Prison hulks in the Thames. The British were using prisoner hulks, repurposed ships, to house the

overabundance of criminals. It has to be remembered what was considered criminal was different

back then. If you were caught stealing, today you might just be given a slap on the wrist and a small

fine, back then would get you 7 years imprisonment or more. Mixed in with the petty thieves were

the murderers. Also, the living conditions were harder in 18th Century Britain, for the working class

food was scarce and people were starving hungry and not always able to work. Jobs may not have

been available or the jobs were not paying much money and therefore it was very difficult to live. It

was a tough time and the penalties much harsher for all.

But let’s go back even further in history before we delve into the exciting history of British exploration

to Australia. Other maritime cultures were also exploring the worlds vast and distance oceans, and

mapping lands as they saw them for the first time. People were, as they are today, curious and wanted

to know what lay around the corner and they also wanted land to claim to expand their empires and

have trading partners. When you have talented mariners coming back telling stories of what they have

seen and experienced it must of sounded exciting and like something out of a story book, a curiosity

for the people of the day.

The Chinese in the 1400’s were great traders and navigators. They had large sailing ships called Junk’s.

These ships were often built of soft pliable wood, such as pine, they were extremely sturdy, and had

rotatable sails that allowed the ships to effectively sail into the wind. Junk’s also had watertight bulk

heads that added an element of safety to their ships that helped their many successful sea voyages.

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Did the Chinese reach Australia? Did they explore Australia? Gavin Menzies is his book ‘1421, the year

China discovered the world’ indicates that the Chinese discovered and explored the east coast of

Australia under the emperor Zhu Di. Here, Menzies believes that historic maps such as the Dieppe

map provide evidence the Eastern coast of Australia was mapped before Cook, and that it was the

Chinese who mapped it. The Dieppe Map shows an unknown southern land mass to the south under

Java called Jave La Grande, that Menzies believes proves the Chinese discovery and that Jave La

Grande was a representation of Australia.

A lot of the evidence of what we know about the rediscovery of Australia by various cultural groups,

comes down to us via oral traditions, artefacts, genetics and drawings, which include maps. If we do

not have any written documented evidence then we are left to rely on other evidence that can be

hard to know the context or prove its reliability. Oral traditions are a fantastic way to delve into the

history of a culture and give us a fantastic starting point in any research project. If artefacts are out of

situ then that can bring with it challenges with proving its authenticity.

The Dieppe Maps for example were written in French and Portuguese. Where did the French get the

idea of a vast continent to the south called Jave La Grande? Research varies, some indicating it was a

fictitious island, others indicate its mapping from French discoveries of exploration as they were keen

explorers too, and some say it was from Portuguese explorers who gave that information to the

French. Not to mention Gavin Menzies’ idea that the map was developed from Chinese maps and their

discoveries and information. The maps and the large vast continent that the Europeans were

envisioning in the south was an interesting concept indeed.

The Portuguese and Spanish were also believed to have reached Australia pre Cook. They were

extremely talented seafarers during the 15th and 16th century and beyond and were out trading and

exploring the unknown oceans and lands. There are reported sightings of shipwrecked galleons, along

the eastern and southern coast of Australia that could be either Spanish or Portuguese. One example,

is the Stradbroke Island galleon researched by Greg Jefferies. The wreck of a galleon is believed to be

located in a swamp that is very difficult to access on Stradbroke Island near Brisbane in Australia. With

this wreck, artefacts have been found including a coin and a mast head that show evidence of a

shipwreck being in that location. In addition, it was suggested that the survivors of that wreck stayed

and intermixed with the local Indigenous population. Other similar wrecks have been reported

including one at Warrnambool. It is extremely challenging to prove these wrecks are galleons and their

full authenticity, when they are difficult to access and have been wrecked for a very long time

undergoing natural deterioration. What we can see here is the Spanish and Portuguese were talented

seafarers and could have been to Australia prior to Cook.

Many Melanesians and pacific Islanders had been exploring the vast oceans of the pacific and it is not

impossible that other cultures from all around the world were not exploring as well. Our

understanding of our ancestor’s seafaring is that they had boats that were not seaworthy, or that they

did not explore the oceans of the world. There were waves of exploration and population in different

areas of the world. It is certainly an interesting area of study. What we do know is that the Spanish

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and Portuguese were present in the northern waters of Australia in the 16th century and there is every

possibility they explored beyond in the south.

Now we move to the Dutch and their explorations around the Australian coast. The Dutch had set up

the Dutch East India Company (VOC) for the trading of spices. VOC had set up a company trading

centre in Java and from their Java trading centre they sent their seafarers south to discover trade

opportunities and to explore a land that was titled Nova Guinea. That is when in 1606, Willem

Janszoon, the captain of the Duyfken, meaning little dove, sailed south and discovered the north of

Australia in the Gulf of Carpentaria. The Duyfken anchored at the Pennefather River along the coast

north of modern day Weipa. From there Janszoon sailed south to a place called Cape Keerweer,

anchored and met some Indigenous Wik people in order to make contact and trade. There he came

into conflict with them as his men tried to take a Wik women. Janszoon lost nine of his crew, turned

around and sailed back to Bantam, Java. Janszoon had discovered northern Australia and did not

realise it. He did not know that Australia was a separate continent from PNG at this point in time as

he did not sail through the Torres Strait.

Following on from this 1606 discovery the Dutch had many more to come. They had a talented bunch

of navigators and seafarers who were able to explore even more parts of the Northern and Western

Australia coastlines. In 1616 Dirk Hartog a Dutch explorer working for VOC was on his way to Java in a

ship called the Eendracht and was blown off course and as a result he and his crew discovered the

western coast of Australia, Dirk Hartog Island and the Shark Bay area. Hartog and crew set anchor for

two days and then sailed north, and in the process mapped the west coast of Australia. Dirk Hartog

left a plate on the Dirk Hartog Island marking his visit. The Eendracht was built in 1615, was a 700

tonne vessel and could hold under 200 men on board. Being blown off course resulted in the

exploration and charting of a large section of the Australian Continent and it has brought many

benefits for latter sailors and explorers who were now aware of the western Australia coast line.

The Dutch mariners working for VOC continued to travel and discover. In 1619 the Dutch explorer

Fredrick De Houtman and his companions including, Jacob D’Edel discovered the coast near Perth on

the western coast of Australia. Houtman was travelling for VOC in the ship called Dordrecht. This area

around Perth and Swan River was named d’Edelsland. Houtman continued to travel north and mapped

areas of the coast of Western Australia on his Journey. Here we can see segments of the Western

Australian coastline being mapped by Dutch mariners as they went along their shipping journeys. Each

mariner contributed to the larger body of knowledge about the new land coming into view.

The mapping of Australia continued under Abel Tasman who discovered the south of Tasmania and

the northern coast of Australia from the west all the way to the Gulf of Carpentaria. In 1642 Tasman

set sail in charge of two ships to explore the oceans and it is in his first voyage that he discovered the

southern coast of Tasmania. Then in his second voyage in 1644 he sailed along the northern coast of

Australia, including the top end of Western Australia, the Northern Territory and The Gulf of

Carpentaria that had been earlier charted by Willem Janszoon. Abel Tasman had called this new land

that the Dutch had mapped, New Holland and it was appearing on maps in the mid 1600’s. Even if

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parts of Australia had been mapped by even earlier explorers the Dutch had left plaques noting their

discoveries.

Here there were many Dutch mariners who each contributed to the charting and exploration of

Australian waters. This book is doing a disservice only mentioning the better known explorers.

However, let it be known that the Dutch VOC explorer’s contributed knowledge about the Australian

coastline and its environment that would not necessarily have been known otherwise. They were

extremely skilled navigators, explorers and were willing to chart their course into the unknown for the

company VOC. A map of their discoveries of New Holland is included (see 3.A).

Image 3.A Map of New Holland – Dutch Discoveries Map created in 1744 for VOC by Emanuel Bowen, curtesy of the National Library

http://nla.gov.au/nla.obj-163902730/view

With the west coast of Australia mapped, the British were aware of a large land mass to the south.

The Dutch had provided them with details about the West and northern coast of Australia, and the

Spanish about the Torres Strait. Next it was William Dampier a British mariner who went on to explore

the oceans around Australia.

William Dampier was born in 1651 in East Coker, Somerset. His main achievements were that he

circumnavigated around the world three times and learned about the currents and wind patterns as

well as describing the plants and animals he passed. He was a buccaneer and was rather harsh on his

crew. Dampier had reached Australia in 1688 as a buccaneer on the Cygnet. In relation to his

exploration of New Holland, in 1699 he was put in charge of a ship the Roebuck to explore New Holland

where he reached Shark’s Bay and described it as:

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“The land everywhere appeared pretty low, flat and even: but with steep cliffs to the sea; and when

we came near it there were no trees, shrubs or grass to be seen.” William Dampier – Voyage of New

Holland (Australia).

Then further in his book indicating:

“When I saw there was no harbour here, nor good anchoring, I stood off to sea again, in the evening

of the second of August fearing a stop on a lee shore, in a place where there was no shelter, and

desiring at least to have sea-room: for the clouds began to grow thick in the western board, and

the wind was already there, and began to blow fresh almost upon the shore; which at this places

lies north-north-west and south-south-east”. William Dampier – Voyage of New Holland

During William Dampier’s time at Shark Bay and exploring the coast of New Holland, he noted that it

was rather flat and sandy. Also, he took note and wrote about the animals and plant life that existed

in the area. Seeing birds and animals you have never seen before must have been an interesting event

for mariners where they described them in relation to animals and plants they were familiar with and

had seen at home or along their oceanic voyages.

In addition to William Dampier’s observations about the animal and plant life, he also came into

contact with the Indigenous Australians on his 1688 voyage and on his 1699 voyage. On the 30th of

August 1699, Dampier and his crew could see smoke upon the shore indicating people were there

camping. So when Dampier and crew went to the shore on the 31st of August to look for water they

took their cutlasses and muskets with them and there was some fighting. One of Dampier’s

descriptions of the first people is:

“Among the New Hollanders whom we were thus engaged with, there was one who by his

appearance and carriage, as well in the morning as this afternoon, seemed to be the chief of

them, and a kind of prince or captain among them. He was a young brisk man, not very tall, nor

so personable as some of the rest, though more active and courageous: he was painted (which

not of the rest were at all) with a circle of white paste or pigment about his eyes, and a white

streak down his nose from his forehead to the tip of it. And his breast and some part of his arms

were also made white with same paint; not for beauty or ornament, one would think, but as

some wild Indian warriors are said to do, he seemed thereby to design the looking more terrible;

this his painting adding very much to his natural deformity; for they all had the most unpleasant

looks and the worst features of any people that ever I saw, thought I have seen great variety of

savages”. William Dampier – Voyage of New Holland.

This description of the first people was not of very nice character and could have impacted on the

European’s and British impressions of the people and what they imagined. Dampier was making

judgements on the people based on his own world view and what he had seen and experienced in his

travels. To him, he was used to the European way of life and meeting people’s living differently was

something out of his understanding. He was making judgements about a culture he did not know or

understand.

14

The information provided by Dampier about the winds, New Holland, the birds, and fish gave

information to the British for their further explorations leading to the eventual settlement of a penal

colony in New South Wales in 1788.

Captain James Cook was an English explorer and talented navigator born in Yorkshire in I728. He

started his career as a sea cadet in Whitby. But it was later on in his career that he was commissioned

by the royal British navy to find the unknown southern continent and as a result of trying to find this

continent, he travelled to the pacific and found and then charted the East coast of Australia. On the

south side of the continent, there were earlier maps called the Dieppe Maps, that showed a land mass

called Jave La Grande. This landmass on the maps supported the claim for earlier discoveries of

Australia. In addition, the Dutch had mapped the west coast of Australia and southern Tasmania. The

British knew there was land to the south and were interested in exploring this area further and to lay

claim to the land.

In 1770, Captain Cook on board the Endeavour, discovered the southern end of the east coast of

Australia. He was joined by the botanist Joseph Banks who had paid 10,000 pounds to be on the

journey. Captain Cook, sailed the Endeavour north along the east coast, mapping it, until he reached

a place to anchor. This place to anchor was in a harbour and was named Botany Bay. The crew on

board the Endeavour disembarked at Botany Bay for eight days, where Banks and the crew discovered

over 130 new species of plants. Captain Cook, had mapped a coast line that was believed to not have

been mapped previously. It helped complete the map the Dutch had created. Cook claimed land for

the British.

Image 3.B Map Showing the East Coast A 1818 map showing New Holland with the East Coast of Australia, http://nla.gov.au/nla.obj-

232568848/view

15

In addition to mapping the east coast, Cook and Banks were able to return to England and report their

many findings. These findings informed the English of a land to the south that many years later they

were to colonise with convicts. The British were overcrowded and had resulted to housing their

convicts on prison hulks and were looking for new lands to expand and send their convicts. These

Prison Hulks were old ships no longer fit for purpose to provide transportation and gun power at war,

so they were repurposed to house the over and abundance of convicts. These hulks were not nice

places to be housed. They would have been crowed, cold and a place full of disease. The convicts in

these hulks were to be transported, some for 7 years and others for life. Therefore, the British needed

somewhere to send these convicts. Why did they choose the land discovered to the south?

The British were considering were to send their abundance of convicts and Banks recommended,

Botany Bay. Convicts were being sent to the America’s but after the United States’ independence the

British had to find an alternative location to send them. The British did not rule America anymore. Sir

Joseph Banks had spent time exploring the land around Botany Bay, taking note of the plant life, the

inhabitants and state of the land and had presented a case to the British government. Therefore, the

British having explored other options for settlement decided on sending their convicts to Australia,

Botany Bay. The prime minister, William Pitt agreed and they selected Captain Arthur Philip to lead

the voyage. Could the reason for the decision to move their convicts to Botany Bay also be because of

Trade and economics? Having a colony closer to other trading countries, such as China, would, given

the chance, increase economic prosperity.

On the 13 May 1787 the first fleet, led by Captain Arthur Philip, set sail from Portsmouth with a fleet

of 11 ships bound for Botany Bay. Of the 11 ships, 6 were to transport the convicts, 3 for supplies, and

2 navy ships. The 6 convict ships were called, Alexander, Friendship, Charlotte, Lady Penhryn, Prince

of Wales and Scarborough. The number on board all ships in total was around 1,485 with babies born

on the voyage. This number consisted of naval officers, wives, officials, passengers, convicts and

children born. It was a big feat as they had limited knowledge of what lay ahead of them when they

arrived in Botany Bay. The ships were cramped, the convicts stowed in cells beneath with the rotting

smells wafting around the ships and they were susceptible to disease. The convicts were allowed walks

on deck for fresh air. Setting up a penal settlement was an experiment and colonisation of great

proportions. Imagine sending over a thousand people cramped in ships to the unknown. During the

long voyage, the fleet stopped off at Rio de Janeiro and Cape Town. The fleet arrived at Botany Bay in

January 1788, but found it not suited for purpose and set anchor at Sydney Cove, Port Jackson instead.

They had enough supplies for 2 years.

If we take a look at one of the 11 ships, Charlotte, a convict transport ship, it was 335 Tons, 105ft feet

long and 28 ft. wide and housed 84 male convicts and 24 female convicts as well as the crew. The ship

had 2 decks and 3 masts and was led by Captain Thomas Gilbert. It was a long journey, with the ship

travelling over 20,000 kilometres.

16

For the convicts on board the vessels it would have been a relatively uncomfortable voyage. They were

cramped, being sent miles from their homeland, they had to be tough as nails to survive. The women

especially would have had it tough, with debauchery, and living in such harsh conditions, firstly on

board the ship and then when they arrived in the new colony. A new life for them, but was it better

or worse than back in their homeland? The conditions in England were miserable but to them being

sent to the other side of the world was not a good choice either.

The arrival of the first fleet was the beginnings of the British colony in Australia. They had a harbour,

supplies, and convicts. They had to make the most of their new settlement. What would have

happened if the first fleet never arrived in Australia? We will never know, but the rich and dynamic

maritime culture that developed will now be explored.

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CHAPTER 4: AUSTRALIA’S MARITIME WORLD FROM

1788

“Life is about courage and going into the Unknown” The secret life of Walter Mitty

The English first fleet after a long voyage had arrived in Port Jackson. Port Jackson is a harbour just

north of Botany Bay, the original site proposed by Sir Joseph Banks. Within, the harbour of Port

Jackson lies Sydney Cove where Captain Arthur Phillip walked ashore and planted the flag for England

on the 26th January 1788. Sydney Cove is named after the British Politician and Viscount Sydney,

Thomas Townshend, and is the present day site of Circular Quay and on its left is the city of the Rocks

that contains some of Sydney’s oldest European history, such as Cadman’s cottage. Port Jackson was

chosen for the founding settlement as it provided a sheltered cove for ships and it provided a fresh

water stream, Tank Stream that today flows under Sydney.

In 1788 when Captain Arthur Philip arrived, the cove was home to the first Australians. The tribes of

Eora people had clans that each lived and owned a unique area of the harbour and tributaries, with

land and water boundaries. These clans used the harbour to fish and trade with their neighbours and

relied on it for sustenance. The harbour provided the Indigenous people with a supply of different

species of fish, including snapper and Brim, and shellfish.

These Indigenous people were impacted deeply by the arrival of the first fleet. They had people arrive

who they did not know and they contracted diseases that they held no immunity. It must have been

terrifying for the First Australians to lose their land, get sick and meet a people from a distant shore

who they, at first, could not communicate with.

When the British arrived they set up their new town in Sydney Cove and they were completely

unfamiliar with their new surroundings. The newcomers had to rely on trade coming by ship from

distant shores to provide a lot of their supplies. Trade and shipping were extremely vital for their

survival. Sydney cove was a prominent feature of this trading, allowing for the safe harbour for ships

importing foods, and later on exporting local products including wool. Below is a painting of the arrival

of Captain Arthur Philip.

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Image 4. A Arrival of the First Fleet Algernon Talmadge 1937 Oil Sketch Copy curtesy of State Library of New South Wales

http://www2.sl.nsw.gov.au/archive/discover_collections/history_nation/terra_australis/firstfleet.ht

ml

The convicts were set to work when they arrived in Sydney Cove putting up tents for their new town

and exploring their new surroundings. The rocks, a place for the convicts to live in the first instance,

was built on the western side of Sydney Cove. Having the shore provided a natural barrier for any

convicts who wanted to escape.

The fleet after two years of trying to make the colony work, were deemed a success and joined by the

second fleet that consisted of both convicts and free settlers who went on to farm the surrounding

lands that provided food for the colony and also opportunities to trade those goods. The expansion

continued until cities were formed in other parts of Australia, Hobart being the next city after Sydney.

The British did not want other countries to claim their newly declared territory.

It has to be remembered that shipping was the main form of transportation for the colonies. There

were no trains, buses or other means of transport. Australia is such a vast country that traversing

across its centre takes courage and as the colonies expanded explorers started doing just that,

traversing across the middle of the land. But shipping was still a mainstay for Australia and its trade

with the world just as today.

Even in Port Jackson, known today as Sydney Harbour, ferries and water transport was the quickest

and sometimes the only way to get around. As the colony expanded they used boats to settle other

areas of Sydney harbour and travel up the Parramatta River and Hawksbury River.

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If we look at Cadman’s cottage in Sydney Harbour, which used to be on the shoreline, we get a glimpse

at the importance of the maritime culture for Sydney. The cottage was built in 1816 and is the oldest

building remaining in Sydney. Its purpose was to house the superintendent for Government Boats.

This honour was held by a pardoned convict, John Cadman. After his death the building was used by

the Sydney water police and later on for visiting mariners.

Fort Denison, previously called pinchgut island, was another maritime installation. It was used as an

even further means of isolation for misbehaving convicts who were sent to the island and had nothing

but surrounding harbour. Then later on a military installation was constructed on the island for

defences of the harbour in war.

The colony expanded beyond Sydney cove to Darling Harbour, then called Cockle bay due to the large

quantity of cockles in the area. Johnson and Parris in ‘a History of Darling Harbour’, mention that

shipbuilding was a major industry around the area. Of interest is a female convict named Ann Mash,

who was the local ferry operator and many of her family also went into maritime pursuits, including

shipbuilding. In the 1870’s shipping and trade had moved from Sydney cove to Darling Harbour. Even

prior to this, the area’s surrounding Darling Harbour, Ultimo for example, had become centres of the

industrial power and were expanding.

Over a short period of time, the city of Sydney had changed from a small convict settlement to a

thriving metropolis continuously expanding. Looking at Sydney today, it is impossible to see the very

first settlement that the first fleet would have experienced, but we get glimpses at their past through

buildings, places, stories, written records, artefacts and art.

The city of Sydney was expanding and the British were continuing to send their convicts to provide

additional labour to the expanding colony. The British had started expanding the newly claimed colony

and sent sea transport to explore other coastal areas for settlement.

In 1803, the British fearing the French would lay claim to their newly acquired New South Wales, set

up a penal settlement along the Derwent River on an island south of the Australian mainland . The

town is named Hobart after Lord Hobart, a politician and secretary of state for the colonies. The town

of Hobart was founded on the Derwent River, a deep water river that allowed for easy anchorage of

ships. John Bach in his book titled ‘A Maritime History of Australia’ states:

“Hobart at the mouth of the Derwent River, was founded when David Collins transferred his

charges from the uncompromising site at the entrance of Port Philip to Sullivan’s Cove, which

seemed to him in 1804 to be destined to become a general rendezvous for all shipping in the

adjacent seas” (p. 39)

The city had a prime location for traders and for those exploring the great south land. Hobart’s port

was successful and preferred by seafarers. Both the establishment of Hobart and Launceston was seen

as a prime advantage for trade for the country because if goods were being traded anywhere

eastwards they could save time disembarking and sharing their commodities at either location, or cut

through the Bass Strait and save themselves sailing time. Goods were varied and the port was also a

centre for Whaling and Sealing.

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However, Hobart and the Island of Tasmania, then called Van Diemen’s Land, was still the drop off

point for many British convicts. And from 1812 convicts were transported directly to Tasmania where

they were identified, and put to work either for individuals or the government. In total there were

around 76,000 convicts shipped to Tasmania to help create the cities and towns that exist today.

While Tasmania was growing with convict labour and expanding their maritime activities , the next

major capital city to be established was Brisbane in 1824. Brisbane was established along the Brisbane

River. A year earlier John Oxley had mapped the Brisbane River and a party of early settlers settled in

the Redcliffe area near the river mouth, then moved up the Brisbane River to the current site of

Brisbane to found their new penal settlement. Here the Brisbane River became the new colonies major

centre for transportation between towns, cities and other countries and for a long time the port was

established on the river.

Brisbane, like Hobart, was designed as a convict settlement at first. Convicts were put to work

constructing the city. Examples of the convict construction in Brisbane are the commissariat store on

the north side of the river and the old windmill. By 1842 free settlers were moving to the city. At this

point in time Brisbane was still part of New South Wales only to become a separate state in the 1850s.

As the colony expanded and free settlers set up farms, ports were established for the export of the

goods they produced. Along with the establishment of farms and regional cities came the decision of

what city to choose as the new capital. The two contenders were Cleveland Point and Brisbane, the

later won out.

In other parts of Australia other cities were also being established. On the other side of the Australian

continent, Perth was established only 4 years later in 1829. The colony was established beside the

swan river by the captain John Stirling and was named Perth after the place of the same name in

Scotland. However, the area of Perth had first been cited in the 17th century by the Dutch.

Not wanting the French to make a claim to the land, British free settlers set up a colony along the swan

river. A penal colony outpost had already been established at Albany. But for all intents and purposes

the colony of Perth was very far away indeed. Miles from existing settlements in the new colony and

in an unfamiliar place. The new settlers must have had a sense of adventure about them wishing to

travel thousands of kilometres to start a new life in a distant shore. Or they knew of the richness the

land and pastoralism had to offer.

Like with other cities Perth relied heavily on sea transport. The early settlement relied heavily on the

transport of goods through trade via the sea. It wasn’t until later that a port was built at the nearby

town of Freemantle. The problem with sea trade and transport in Perth and surrounds was that it was

not an ideal environment for shipping. There were sand bars, reefs, and areas not easy to berth bigger

ships. So the early colony struggled.

However, as time progressed the situation improved for the early settlers of Perth. In the 1850s

convicts were sent there to aid the settlement and construct buildings. The city was officially

recognised in 1856 and the whole Western Australian region was making excellent progress with their

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pastoralism, meat and wool exports. It was later in the 19th century that gold was discovered and later

on in the piece Iron Ore that really set the Perth and Western Australian region in forward motion.

Meanwhile, back over on the southern east side of Australia, Melbourne was founded. In 1835, free

settlers from the colonies on Tasmania had moved to the Melbourne region and had set up camp on

the banks of the Yarra River that feeds into Philip Bay. This area was later to be named Melbourne

after the British Prime minister, the Viscount of Melbourne, William Lamb. However, it wasn’t until

the early 1850s that the new colony really took its shape with the discovery of gold. At this time the

city expanded greatly and was the centre for all the gold that was being sold and exported.

Shipping and sea transportation was very important and the southern coastal region saw its fair share

of maritime disasters. It was in 1838, that a port was established at port Philip bay for the trading of

goods. When the gold rush was on there was a great demand for shipping. Trade across the coasts of

Victoria were also important to the new colony of Melbourne with new town settlements along the

great ocean road. However, traveling across the Bass Strait was a challenge in itself, leading to the

construction of many lighthouses. John Bach in his book ‘A Maritime History of Australia’ indicates:

“One of the more important of the runs was that to the ports around the corner from Wilson’s

Promontory often a perilous affair with the fierce westerlies of Bass Strait hampering ships on

the stretch between the promontory and Melbourne, which claimed tens of victims over the

years.” (pp. 125).

With settlers coming and going across the Bass Strait, it was a treacherous and dangerous stretch of

water indeed. And as a result of the bad sailing conditions many ships and their passengers and crew

have been sucked down into the deep, leaving hundreds of ship wrecks in the seas wake. One famous

sea disaster in the Bass Strait, being that of the Lock Ard. The Lock Ard was a ship carrying passengers

and cargo from England, attempting to reach Melbourne in 1878. Here we should never forget that

until fairly recently all immigration to Australia occurred by Sea. The ship ran aground on some rocks,

and all perished but two luck survivors, Tom Peace and Eva Carmichael, who managed to swim to

shore. This site they swam to, to be rescued, is the loch Ard Gorge and it is not an easy place to swim

ashore, with a beach and then with big cliff faces that would have been extremely difficult to climb.

The shipwreck itself is located off mutton Bird Island. It is not hard to see the perilous waves, and

conditions that early mariners were faced with as they attempted to cross the Bass Strait. This prime

example, highlights the realities that mariners faced and their sheer bravery and knowledge of the

sea.

Moving further along the Bass coast we come to the city of Adelaide located on the southern shore of

Australia. Adelaide was founded in 1836 by Colonel William Light. The city was founded next to the

river Torrens that flows into the Gulf of St Vincent. The city was established as a free settlement, with

many Germans eventually moving to the area.

The free settlers had purchased and established land for themselves and it was in the 1950’s that the

growing of wheat was providing growth for the region. Seaborne trade was established. Going over

land was a difficult and long journey and at the start of the new free settlement of Adelaide the inland

22

had not been thoroughly explored as yet. Therefore, sea trade was once again the lifeblood of this

new colony, for transporting people to other cities, and trading and importing their commodities that

included their pastoral pursuits and resources directly from the land, such as copper.

While Adelaide was slowly being populated with European free settlers and the surrounding lands

being explored, the North of Australia was taking shape too. Each of these cities were gradually

becoming their own independent states and territories that changed as the country of Australia began

grow and develop.

Darwin to the north was established in 1869 when it was a part of the state of South Australia. The

early settlement was formed by the Surveyor-General of South Australia, George Goyder as a small

settlement and was to become a centre for trade, with the port established. In the early settlement

the sea and shipping provided the transport between the new Settlement, Darwin and Adelaide. In

addition, the maritime fishing opportunities that had brought the Macassan traders, had encouraged

many peoples from regions afar to settle in Darwin for pearl fishing.

Therefore, the town of Darwin was very much dependant on the sea, to receive goods that enabled

the town to be established and take its shape and become the town it is today as a main centre for

trade. Darwin was closer to many Asian countries in the pacific than many of its southern counterparts

and that, it was thought, would make Darwin a strategically located Port. Up until the war the port

was used for transportation and the shipping of goods, including natural resources, around the

Australian coast and beyond.

We have seen an overview of the formation of Australia’s coastal capital cities and the impact the sea

and shipping has had on the decisions to establish them where they are and their further

development. Firstly, with the city of Sydney in 1788 by Captain Arthur Philips, right through the

settlement of the other capital cities across the length and breadth of the Australian coast. In the next

chapter we will explore Ports.

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CHAPTER 5: PORTS

“A ship in the Harbour is Safe, but that is not what ships are built for” John A. Shedd

Australia being an island nation relies heavily on ports for a safe place for ships to weigh anchor, and

load and unload their commodities for their voyage ahead. Ports are established for many reasons. In

the past, they were established for a few differing reasons. Firstly, when the colony of Australia was

first forming Ports were developed for ships to anchor and transfer convicts and settlers to shore.

Secondly, ports grow around these cities where they developed to provide trading opportunities for

the colonies. And thirdly, Ports develop specifically for the export and / or import of a commodity. As

an example, once the wool and cattle farms had developed, the Australian’s needed somewhere along

the coast as close as possible to these farms to export their products. Ports and sometimes regional

towns developed to meet these trade and resourcing needs.

Captains and Mariners, for the coastal towns, were often the founders of the towns and cities, of

which many are named after them. We can seduce that without mariners Australia would not be the

same formation as it is today. Without people taking to the sea Australia would not have been

populated at all. Both the sea and the land work hand in hand with one another and need to be cared

for well into the future.

Ports is a big area to cover, with Australia’s ports located strategically and broadly over a coastline

bigger than Europe. That is why this chapter will be divided up with a description of ports by their

states. If we look at New South Wales on its own, the history is immense with entire books written

about its vast past. The same is said for all the other states where they have that same richness. To

start this journey lets us look at the ports of New South Wales.

New South Wales

The first wharfs and docking points in New South Wales were located in Sydney Cove. Quite ironically

the current port, port Botany is located in the same bay that was first proposed by Sir Joseph Banks

as a the harbour for the first fleet to land. From the time of first settlement the harbour was a pivotal

place to all people who lived in its vicinity. As time progressed the shipping industry started to take

shape. Ian Hoskin’s in his book Sydney Harbour points out just how valued the harbour was in the

1800s as an example, stating:

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“The harbour was a remarkable active place in 1836. There were now nearly twenty thousand

people in Sydney. Relatively few lived on the foreshores but most depended in some way upon

the port” (p. 84)

The peoples who lived upon its shores were very enterprising. They started boat building, using the

land, animals and the sea to turn the small Sydney community into a trading hub, trading with the

pacific, Asia and beyond. However, this was not the case in the beginning of the settlement because

remembering it was a penal colony and the aim was to keep the prisoners from escaping and keep

them working for the colony. Also, the East India Company had monopoly over all trade routes, which

halted enterprising business minded settlers. However, as time progressed, convicts were pardoned,

free settlers started arriving, pastoralism took shape, and maritime pursuits were conducted by this

very enterprising bunch of people.

In the 1800s the whaling and sealing industries were in full swing and a special port set up in the

harbour. The sale of oil was one of the most lucrative business opportunities for the settlers, along

with wool and meat. All these commodities had to be processed somewhere, and the Sydney

foreshore was the best place for such an endeavour, where wharfs, and processing centres were set

up.

As Sydney cove had developed the expansion moved to Darling harbour. Darling Harbour was the

preferred site for the trading of goods with wharfs and centres established. Then came the industrial

power with steam boats. Darling harbour was central to the industrial change of Sydney with a big

power station constructed as well as coal terminals. One the following page is a glimpse of what

Darling Harbour and Sydney looked like in the 1800s.

All shipping was done in Sydney harbour until a port was established at port Botany in 1979. Darling

Harbour, where a large percentage of the international and bulk shipping was conducted, was going

through a redevelopment and forward planning indicated it would not cope with shipping volumes

expected. Therefore, by the 1960s a proposal was put forward to the government for a new terminal

to be built at Botany Bay. This new terminal was to handle bulk liquids and containers.

Meanwhile back in the Sydney Harbour, Sydney Cove had earlier in the 1800s been turned into circular

Quay and became a maritime transportation hub and transit centre for large ocean going vessels and

for people commuting via ferry. And Darling Harbour was shaped into a modern tourist centre as

opposed to a commercial hub for industry and shipping. The city of Sydney was reshaping their

landscape to cater for future growth.

In 1979, a bulk liquids birth was opened Port Botany. The Port has continued to expand to become the

port it is today. We have seen a change from shipping in Sydney cove to a move to a bigger and modern

facility to cater for 21st century trade. The current port of Botany is continuously expanding and is now

run on a 99 year lease.

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Image 5.A the Gas Works and Industry at Darling Harbour Image curtesy of State Library of New South Wales http://archival-

classic.sl.nsw.gov.au/item/itemDetailPaged.aspx?itemID=413012#

Image 5.B Sydney in 1888 showing darling harbour Image curtesy of City of Sydney

http://www.photosau.com.au/cos/scripts/ExtSearch.asp?SearchTerm=055713

26

Other ports have also been established along the New South Wales coastline. These ports include

Newcastle, Port Kembla, Eden and Yamba. Smaller ports of historical significance also include the

harbours and towns covering the length and breadth of the New South Wales coastline, including

Wollongong, which today is home to a historic lighthouse, Gerringong, and Port Stephens. Earlier

European Settlers, made use of natural harbours that provided their ships with shelter from the coast

and that too is often where our towns and cities were established.

The first town of Newcastle was discovered in 1797 by Lieutenant John Shortland who found the

harbours rich and abundant supply of coal. This abundance of coal soon encouraged a settlement to

form in the region. Newcastle was in fact one of Australia’s earliest cities to be founded. Newcastle

was officially founded in 1804 and named after the town of the same name in England. However, all

was not grand and fun in Newcastle, convicts were sent there for crimes they had committed to help

dig out the coal. In the early 1800s the town consisted of convicts who were mining the coal for it to

be shipped to Sydney. But, the region soon developed and mines established around the surrounding

towns. Also, villages were built to house all the incoming miners, including Cardiff, Morpeth, and

Wallsend. These new formed suburbs were named after suburbs in the United Kingdom.

With the port at Newcastle, Nobby’s head, the cliff at the entrance to the harbour was cut away by

convicts and the rocks used to create a breakwater to provide some safety to ships coming to the

shore. On top of Nobby’s head was constructed a light house and homes for the lighthouse keeper.

The Newcastle harbour as we know it today has two breakwaters, a southern Breakwater and a

Northern Breakwater. These two breakwaters maintain protection to the harbour and provide the

ships with a safe docking location. Both the breakwaters were constructed over many years in the

1800s.

The original harbour was shallow and resulted in constant dredging works, land reclamation works

and as a result of the works became one of the top performing ports for coal exports in the 20th and

21st Centuries. The port today handles more than just coal. It handles dry bulk, bulk liquids, break bulk,

containers and transportation services.

Yamba port is somewhat smaller than Newcastle. Yamba is a town on the northern New South Wales

coast on the Clarence River and the town and port was constructed in the 1860s. Yamba has strong

ties to the sea. Their revenue comes from the port and trading goods, but also tourism from the

beautiful beaches that it surrounds.

Looking at the Yamba Port, it is currently overseen by the New South Wales ports and has a range of

imports and exports, including Timber. The townships surrounding the port, produce multi

commodities that are exported to islands and internationally.

Going back to bigger bulk commodities, let’s look at another New South Wales Port, Port Kembla . Port

Kembla is situated south of Sydney on the coast at the mouth of red point, south of Wollongong. Like

Newcastle, it was developed for the export of Coal in the 1890s. Coal was discovered in the region and

was exported soon after. The mount Kembla Coal and Oil Co was established for the mining of coal at

Mt Kembla, a location after which the port is named. The company built a railway from Mt Kembla to

27

the port so they could export their coal. The port only started out as a small wharf but over the years

expanded greatly to become the major industrial port it is today. The mine at Mt Kembla closed in the

1960s but the port continues to export coal from other mine sites, as well as steel and other

commodities. The picture below shows the port and its industries in the distance looking from North

Wollongong.

Image 5.C Photo of port Kembla from Afar

Moving even further south we have port of Eden. Eden is a port town situated in Twofold Bay, a deep

water bay towards the bottom of the New South Wales South Coast. When the town of Sydney was

first settled by Europeans, Whalers would come south to Eden and trap the whales in the bay. In

addition, farms in land near Eden were being established and they needed a way to transport their

cattle and goods via the sea and therefore, the port and a town were developed there in the 1840s.

The port continued to grow until the 1890s when cattle trade ceased through the port, and this was

followed by the ceasing of Whaling in the early 20th century. However, the town and its port have

other commercial activities and goods for trade, including Woodchips. The port today still plays a vital

role in international trade.

New South Wales was the first English colony in Australia and was the start of the European journey

and the development of large scale ports. This brief overview of the ports and their history give us a

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glimpse into the past and most importantly how and why they developed. Next we will look at

Tasmania and ports in that state.

Tasmania

As we have seen the town of Hobart was first established in 1804. The location was selected because

the Derwent River was deep water and great for shipping. In the early days of the settlement of

Hobart, the port became preferred over Sydney for the trading of goods for its prime location and

deep water. However its port was only at the beginning stages of its growth with John Bach in his

book a maritime history of Australia stating:

“For its first two decades the port possessed only primitive facilities. A visitor, recalling some

years later the conditions of 1820, said that although Hobart had at that time one of the safest

and most capacious harbours in the world, it was not known for its wharves or landing places.

A small rock, called Hunter’s Island, separated from the shore by shallow water and soft mud,

and upon which a store had been built, served as a landing place, passengers being carried

across the narrow channel to the town by sailors.” (pp. 39).

Over time, the port, wharfs and jetties at Hobart were developed and have been come the world

renowned facilities that are present today. Below is an image of this early years of Hobart.

Image 5.D Photograph of a painting of Hobart town in 1829 Curtesy of the National Library of Australia http://nla.gov.au/nla.obj-161476602

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In the past the Hobart harbour was used for the export of a variety of goods. One of the biggest early

exports was Whale Oil. Due to the prime location of Hobart to Antarctica, the whales were in relatively

close proximity when they were migrating north. The capturing of Whales that were in close proximity

meant that whalers could see them from the shore, not go very far to catch them, and they were

available in the Derwent River so mariners didn’t have to traverse through vast oceans. Whaling

provided a good supply of capital during the early stages of the colony of Hobart as well as providing

capital for other coastal towns in the southern reaches of Australia.

The whale industry finished up in the late 1800s and the people of Hobart had other trade initiatives

to focus on. Industrialisation was taking hold after an economic backward turn. So, in the early 1900s

the economy was living off industry, fishing, chocolate, paper, farming, and similar. The port was a

mainstay during the 1900s of the Hobart town.

Meanwhile other ports were also providing for the community. With the opening of the Bass Strait,

the British felt fearful of the French taking up land on the north of Tasmania and set up an early colony

on the Tamar River. This first settlement was at the mouth of the Tamar River but as it was not

considered ideal it was moved to the present day site of Launceston.

In John Bach’s work he indicates that by the mid 1900’s there were indeed nine Tasmanian ports that

were involved in interstate trade, indicating:

“…Hobart had 46 per cent of the total sea trade, Launceston 19 per cent, Burnie 14 per cent and

Devonport 16 per cent; the last three, all northern ports, therefore accounted for 49 per cent in

total.” (pp. 281)

While Launceston was growing along the Tamar River, Devonport was established at the mouth of the

Mersey River. At first the river was avoided for settlement because of its big sandbar that prevented

larger ships from entering the river. However, early settlement prevailed despite the Sandbar. In the

early 1850s coal was discovered increasing the settlement of the area. And the area was also rich with

timber and that too encouraged people to settle in Devonport.

Shipping was the way to transport anything in the early 1800’s and the town was in the prime location

to transport goods and people back to the mainland. However, the town was not called Devonport at

first, each side of the river was a different town, one called Torquay and the other Formby. This

changed in 1891 when Devonport acquired its name.

The port of Devonport therefore, had commodities to export and people to transport. And in the

1950s and 1960s the town of Devonport started to really expand and make itself known as a port. And

during this time the ferry service with the mainland was expanded and the ship called princess of

Tasmania came into operation. With this way of transport, tourists and locals alike could take their car

with them from the mainland to Tasmania. However, at this time Air travel was also expanding and

offering the locals alternative transportation.

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Moving back to Launceston, it was a shipping highway trading goods with other ports in Tasmania and

Sydney. As time progressed this trade expanded to include other cities and towns, trading farmed

goods such as cereal. The centre of Tasmania was a major area for farming and more recently wineries.

One of the key farming industries was the production of wool.

Another town port town is Burnie. The town was established in 1827, by a company called the Van

Diemen’s Land Company that formed in England. The port was a place for the farms and mines to

export their goods and remained a relatively small town until the mid-1900s when it expanded with

the introduction of the paper mills. In addition, the farming and trade of potatoes was also an

important commodity for the Burnie people, where it was traded to Sydney. Moving further along in

its history, in the 1960s the port itself was expanded to meet further trade and shipping needs, with

a breakwater constructed and land reclaimed. In the late 1900s the port expanded even more and

now exports a range of goods including wood products, fuel, and containers.

Therefore, we have seen a glimpse at the history of some of Tasmania’s ports. There are also ports on

the islands north of the Tasmanian mainland. All these ports are vital for the towns they service.

Without these ports, the towns would not be able to trade the supplies they need. Just like Tasmania

Queensland was also heavily reliant on their ports and now we will explore their history.

Queensland .

The town of Brisbane was first established in 1825 and its maritime history centred on the Brisbane

River, its full reaches, where south bank housed its wharfs and dry dock for ship repairs. In addition,

other sections of the river were very important for maritime activities, the naval stores at the site of

the kangaroo point cliffs as an example.

The town was extremely reliant on water transport just like the rest of the early colonies. In Brisbane

and towns of Queensland, traveling via inland routes was problematic. There were no roads and trying

to transport large quantities of goods was very challenging. And during the very early years of the

settlement, the coast routes were quicker and the safest choice for settlers and convicts.

The Brisbane River and Moreton Bay therefore, became the mantel piece of the early Brisbane colony.

The river itself was used for transport to other early settlement sites including Ipswich where coal had

been discovered and was being quarried. In addition, the river was used to transport limestone and

supplies to construct the buildings and houses that were needed by the early settlers in the Brisbane

township. However, the river was difficult to navigate and get to due to the outer islands and sandbars

at the mouth of the river in Moreton Bay. But when it was discovered that there was a safe navigation

passage north of Moreton Island the settlers transport into the river became easier.

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Image 5.E Image of the Brisbane River in 1880 Curtesy of State Library of Queensland http://hdl.handle.net/10462/deriv/122552

The town and river continued to expand and the south Bank area became a centre for maritime

commercial activities. In 1881 the newly built Dry Dock was complete to service the ships navigating

Brisbane’s waters. There was a lot of contention about the location of the dock and its suitability for

repairing and maintaining vessels. However, the dry dock was built and serviced the vessels and was

also a place where ships were built and saw many great changes in the maritime landscape during its

time in service.

But it was not only south bank that was a part of the port for Brisbane. The whole river was a part of

the vast network of shipping and commercial trade wharfs and jetties. Along the river were

established wharfs, factories, processing plants and more dry docks were constructed to service the

maritime industry for Brisbane.

However, as the town expanded it was determined that a bigger port, built for the future, was needed

to cater for the needs of the town. In 1976 the new port was tabled in parliament and a manmade

island constructed at the mouth of the Brisbane River, called Fisherman’s island. Although the

Cairncross Dockyard and some port facilities were still located on the Brisbane River, the new facilities

and loading and unloading activities was conducted at the new site on fisherman’s Island. South Bank

that had once been the major centre for the port changed in the 1970s. And in 1988 South Bank hosted

the world exhibition, expo 88. So, after this expedition South Bank continued to be a place for the

people, with museums, libraries, restaurants, parks and a beach. Today, the port of Brisbane is multi

commodity, with containerisation, wood chips, coal and a range of exports.

But Brisbane was not the only town growing and changing, other early cities were also being

established in Queensland. Maryborough had become a bustling centre for immigration from its port

in the mid-1800s. Where many settlers coming from Europe to Queensland would arrive in

Maryborough as their first port of call. In addition, it provided a port for the surrounding towns

including Gympie, giving them a place to import and export goods, including commodities from the

local farms. In the early stages the port was used to ship coal that was being mined in the area.

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Bundaberg was also being developed at this time and it was founded along the banks of the Burnett

River in 1847. It too was developed as a port town, where its first primary industry was the supply of

timber. And although timber was a main supply to the area, farming became the second mainstay with

the growing of sugar cane and processing of sugar for export. But it wasn’t until the 1950s the current

port facilities were built at the mouth of the river to cater for the large amount of sugar being

produced. Prior to the construction of this port all shipping was conducted from wharves near the city.

Further north, Rockhampton and Gladstone were developing. Gladstone had a harbour, but little else

going for it when it was first established. Its first export was wool and then secondly it commenced

trading in cattle as the surrounding land was rocky and had little going for other grazing and the trading

of cattle. Therefore in the mid-1800s many settlers arrived to start their cattle farms. There was a brief

glimpse of a gold rush in the town of Canoona but little was actually found. Meat and cattle exports

was a mainstay for the region and still is today. However the cattle are not exported via the local ports

rather sent north to be exported. As time progressed the trading of goods increased and the region

diversified. Port Curtis in Gladstone exports include, Alumina, Bauxite, Cement, Liquefied Natural Gas,

Coal, Containers of multi goods, Grain and Woodchip. While the exports going through the port of

Alma at Rockhampton are Ammonium nitrate, tallow, general cargo and explosives.

Further north just south of Townsville we have the port of Abbot Point. The Port of Abbot Point is

situated approximately 25 kilometres north of Bowen and 194 kilometres south of Townsville. It is

owned by North Queensland Bulk Ports Corporation (NQBP), a government owned corporation. And

in June 2011, terminal 1 was leased to Mundra Port Pty Ltd, a subsidiary of the Adani Group, on a 99-

year lease. This lease helped boost the Australian economy and in particular the state of Queensland.

It is the most northerly port for the export of coal in Australia and is remote but beautiful with its

environmental wetlands and its strong ties to protect and conserve the environment and be fully

sustainable.

The history of Abbot Point port is very young as it only starts in 1981 when the Queensland

government decided to open an export facility for the export of 6.5 million tonnes of coking coal from

mines in the Bowen basin, the coal deposits of Collinsville and Newlands. Sir Joh Bjelke-Petersen then

officially opened the port of Abbot Point on the 25 February 1984. Therefore, the port itself is just

over 30 years old, and in terms of world ports very young in the grand scheme of history as we know

it today. It also was built to take over the export of coal from the Bowen Port, which did not keep up

with the demand.

However, despite its young age it has seen many milestone achievements over those 30 years. Over

those 30 years it has provided employment opportunities for locals, through the port itself and the

wider logistic and supply chain network, and added revenue to the Queensland economy through

export. It has seen many expansion projects.

Abbot Point was constructed as single user terminal and was originally operated by the Mount Isa

Mines (MIM) Pty limited Company who was, in the 1980s, expanding their mining operations at

Collinsvale and Newlands. MIM Pty Ltd had constructed the onshore works and facilities for the port,

and the Harbours Corporation of Queensland funded the maritime facilities. The Harbours

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Corporation of Queensland was a department within the Harbours and Marine department (now

transport and main roads), and then the operations and overseeing of ports was corporatized, where

government owned businesses were established to manage ports and the surrounding land, but they

were not port operators. The Abbot Point Bulk Coal Pty Ltd a subsidiary of MIM Pty Ltd were the

terminal operators of the port.

In 2000, the port of Abbot Point went through some changes, with the writing of an agreement

allowing for the multi user port access and the export of coal from other mines, including the Sonoma

mine. This lead to the expansion of the terminal, called the x21 project, to meet the increase mining

and coal outputs from 15mtpa to 21mtpa. The x21 project was officially completed in 2007. In

addition, in 2003 there was a change of ownership, where Xstrata purchased MIM holdings Pty Ltd.

In 2008, the port was further expanded, in stages, with the ports corporation committing and investing

in expanding the capacity of the port from the 21mpta to 50mpta. Eventually the x50 expansion

occurred, with the construction of an additional berth, shiploader and area for stockpiling the coal. It

was completed in 2011, ready for the 99-year lease to Mundra Pty Ltd. As part of the x50 project.

Finally, in 2012 there was another change, with Xstrata merging with Glencore, who assumed

responsibility for port operations at Abbot Point, absorbing Abbot Point Bulk Coal.

Image 5.F Abbot Point

One of the coalmines that export to Abbot Point is Collinsville. The Collinsville coal mine is located

approximately 87 kilometres south of Bowen in the Bowen Basin and has been in operation since the

early 1900s. Coal in the region was discovered in 1866 and the mine opened in 1912 to export coking

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and steaming coal that are transported to Abbot Point by an extensive rail network. Prior to the

construction of Abbot Point the coal was exported through to Bowen. The mine over the years until

recently has provided jobs for the town, with a decrease in mining over the last year.

In 1954 the coal mine was the scene of a mining accident taking the lives of 7 people, resulting in a

mining heritage museum and memorial being set up in the town to remember those who died as well

as much stricter health and safety controls. The accident occurred on 13 October 1954 where an

outburst of odourless carbon dioxide filled the number 1 tunnel, suffocating the 7 miners. This mining

accident devastated the town and impacted the wider community and many lessons have been

learned from this incident. Ownership of the Collinsville mine has seen many ongoing changes

throughout its history. Originally being owned by MIM Pty, then Xstrata and finally Glencore.

Close to Abbot Point, is the town of Bowen. Captain Henry Daniel Sinclair discovered the town of

Bowen in 16th of October 1859. Sinclair left the colony of New South Wales in 1858 searching for a

harbour further north of Port Curtis, where he discovered Port Denison, a natural inner harbour,

within Edgecombe Bay, where Bowen is today. He was sent to find a suitable location north of

Rockhampton to set up port. The town of Bowen itself was formed on the shores of port Denison in

1861 and was open for settlement in 1st of January 1861, with settlers arriving not long after that, by

ship. Port Denison was also claimed a port of entry at this time to allow for the settlement. Sinclair

was appointed the Harbour Master, Pilot and Chief Constable of this new settlement but was later

dismissed in 1862. After which time, a number of harbour masters filled the role, including Richard E

Pym, and Frederick Kilner.

The Bowen jetty was built in 1865. It was 2,000 feet long and 24 feet wide. From this time forward the

jetty was extended and the first dredging took place in 1886. In 1905 stockyards were erected for

cattle export.

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Image 5.G Early Photo of the Bowen Wharfs Curtesy of John Oxley Library

The jetty and port were managed by the Harbours and Rivers Department, a precursor to the Harbours

and Marine Department up until 1915 when the Bowen Harbour Board was formed and took

ownership. The port was doing well financially and able to fully support itself without the need of

support or ownership from the harbours and marine department. In the past, all ports that could be

self-sustaining were able to become harbour boards and self-managing, whilst those still small and

not generating enough income to survive as an independent government owned business were

managed by the harbours and marine department. So, when the port of Bowen expanded they

became a board.

The main role of the port was the export of sugar, cattle, meat and coal. The first meeting of the new

harbour board took place on the 22nd of March 1915. The port generated £2904-13-3 in the first year

of the Harbour board establishment and was doing very well economically. From this time the port

continuously expanded and exports continued to improve, until the 1960s when all sugar was then

exported through the Mackay port. Having lost out on one of their top commodities for export, this

affected the port substantially. But there was a small resurgence of good fortune for the port with the

exports of coal and meats. With a new coal loading facility built in 1971, when the Bowen harbour

board entered into an agreement with Dacon Collieries Pty Ltd for the construction of a new coal

loader that did not export its full capacity of coal. However, it did improve the prospects for the Bowen

port and made a difference, allowing the port to hold out longer than was to be expected.

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It was the construction of Abbot Point that put a stop to Bowen’s coal export trade and as a result, led

to the demise of the port. They had anticipated and hoped that through the export of coal that they

could remain independent and be a high quality player in the port export market, but unfortunately

that was not to be. In 1985, the port was not able to pay for itself and was handed over to the harbours

Corporation of Queensland who became the custodians of the Bowen wharf. The Harbours

Corporation of Queensland, were a department within the Harbours and Marine Department.

After 1985 the jetty was maintained and managed by Harbours Corporation of Queensland (HCQ) and

subsequently, North Queensland Bulk Ports Corporation (NQBP). The Jetty is managed and maintained

for the public. In 2007, the jetty was used as a location for the film Australia staring Nicole Kidman and

Hugh Jackman, putting the town of Bowen in the spotlight. Today, the jetty is accessible for the public

and shipping and maritime activities are extremely important for the town.

Relatedly, the town of Mackay was also formed around its port. Prior to the discovery of the Mackay

area firstly by Captain Cook in 1770 and secondly, by the founder of the Mackay district, Captain John

Mackay, the area was inhabited by Aboriginal Australians. There was a strong Indigenous culture in

the Mackay district, and Indigenous people had lived in that area for long time. The Indigenous cultural

tribes living in the wider Mackay district were the Barad, Juipera, Barna, Wiri, Jangga and Biria. They

had their own unique culture and by the time the Europeans settled in Australia there population was

approximately 500.

Then in 1770 Captain Cook discovered the coast in what is now Mackay when sailing north. But Mackay

itself was not founded until 1860 by Captain John Mackay. Captain John Mackay was a Scotsman who

was from inverness and had travelled all the way to Mackay with his 1200 cattle in 1862. The Mackay

town was then formed and they made use of the pioneer river for trade and transportation, which

was also their first port. They had set up barges and a wharf to export sugar, their main commodity.

But the pioneer river could not be used as a deep water port, creating restrictions in the quantity of

commodities that could be shipped. So the current port was established in 1939.

Going south we have Hay Point. The port of Hay Point is located approximately 40 Kilometres south

of Mackay and 930 Kilometres North of Brisbane. It is a purpose built port, with two terminals for the

bulk export of coal. One of the Terminals is Dalrymple Bay Coal Terminal (DBCT) and the other the Hay

Point Coal Terminal (HPCT). The port was established in 1971 to meet the increasing demand for coal

in central Queensland servicing the town of Mackay and has continued over the years to become one

to the major coal export ports. In 2001, the two coal terminals were leased to private enterprise from

the state government (then controlled by Ports Corporation of Queensland) for 99 years. DBCT is

owned by Prime Infrastructure Holdings managed by DBCT Management Pty Limited and HPCT is

owned by BHP Billiton Mitsubishi Alliance with operations performed by Hay Point Services. Today,

the port authority North Queensland Bulk Ports (NQBP) still has oversite as landlord, and protects the

environment and provides pilotage services at the port of Hay Point.

Both terminals are part of an extensive supply chain network linking the coal mines to the port. The

port coal throughput for 2014-2015 for DBCT was 71,551,704 and for HPCT 43,424,800. DBCT has

name plate capacity for 85 Mtpa and covers a space of 67 hectares with a capacity of 2.28 million

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tonnes of thermal and metallurgical coal. The role of DBCT is to manage the coal when it arrives by

rail and stockpile it and then manage the ship loading processes. Therefore, the main infrastructure,

is the terminal, rail network, shiploader, stacker reclaimer, and stockpile yards, inloader, equipment

and technology for loading the coal to the ships for export. The port is one node in the wider coal

supply chain network.

On the gulf coast of the state is one of our biggest bauxite export facilities at the port of Weipa.

Indigenous Australians lived in the wider region of what is now Weipa, they were the Alngith people,

whose language is now extinct. Their ancestors and kin still live in this area today. They have and

continue to have a very deep and rich cultural history that spans a vast length of time.

In terms of European discovery, Duyfken point, just north of present day Weipa, was discovered by

Willem Janszoon in 1606 on his ship the Duyfken. Other explorers were to follow, such as Flinders,

Cook and Tasman.

In 1955 the area in and around Weipa were found to contain large quantities of Bauxite. Harry Evans

a Geologist discovered this Bauxite and it was in 1956 that the Commonwealth Aluminium Corporation

was established for the mining of this precious resource.

The original port at Evan’s landing for the export of Bauxite was established by Colmalco and in June

1965 placed under the control of the Treasury, with a Harbour Master. The first Harbour Master was

Captain A Caradine. The port, through the Treasury, was then managed by the Harbours Corporation

of Queensland (HCQ) a department within the Harbours and Marine Department. HCQ then became

the Ports Corporation of Queensland (PCQ) and now North Queensland Bulk Ports Corporation. Rio

Tinto Alcan lease this port to use for their exports.

There were a number of upgrades and maintenance works at Evan’s landing and the Weipa foreshore.

In the 1990s new mooring dolphins were built by HCQ. Interestingly, in 1967 a Harbour Master’s home

was built for the master in residence.

Over the years the people who have worked at the port have shaped it and made it what it is today.

They have been instrumental in working on projects, upgrades, building new dolphin moorings, boat

ramps, beacons, cottages and pilot boats.

If we now look at Townsville, the town was established as a frontier town in 1865. South of Townsville

pastoralists plied their trade and they needed a port for the transport and trade of their goods. It was

in 1864 that 2 men were sent in search for a suitable port site under the direction of John Melton

Black. Black was in partnership with a man named Robert Towns who was the financier owner of the

expedition and this newly discovered town. They found a suitable town and port site and WA Ross led

a party to settle this newly discovered area at Cleveland Bay.

The town continued to expand and more settlers came to the region for pastoralist pursuits. The port

continued to expand to meet additional needs of the town and in 1896 a harbour board was

established. The port was a mainstay for the town providing transport and trade opportunities. The

trade opportunities, involved gold, sugar and cattle exports. Today the port is one of Queensland’s

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biggest multi commodity ports with 8 operational berths. The port trades Bulk cargo, liquid cargo,

general cargo, cattle exports, and has a cruise terminal catering for the needs of all.

Further north along the Queensland Coast, the town of Cairns was also forming. Cairns was settled in

1876, with a port at Trinity Bay. It was one of the most northern Australian Settlements and is in a

strategic location for providing a cruise terminal and a place for the export and import of commodities.

The port was pivotal to the town’s development. Today the port is still an important part of the

community exporting and importing Petroleum, Sugar, Molasses, Fertilizer, Liquid Petroleum Gas and

is a Cruise Terminal for tourists.

Other ports are dotted along the Queensland Coastline and the Torres Strait. These ports include

Lucinda, Cooktown, Thursday Island, Quintell Beach, Cape Flattery, Karumba, and Burketown. Each

port was established for differing reasons. As an example, Cape Flattery was developed specifically for

the export of Silica Sand, while Lucinda was set up for the export of Sugar from the surrounding

townships.

This only gives you a very brief look into the history of ports in Queensland. It is highly recommended

that you explore the further readings section to get more insights about specific ports and their

history. What we have glimpsed at here, is that Queensland has a rich port and maritime history, just

like Western Australia.

Western Australia

Out of all the states, Western Australia has one of the richest maritime histories. Of course the western

coastline was spotted and charted first by the Dutch mariners. And it being a sandy windswept vast

coastline only adds to its interesting past and beauty.

In the south of Western Australia are the larger ports of Albany, Bunbury, Freemantle and Esperance.

While in the north are Ashburton, Cape Preston East, Dampier, Anketell, Port Hedland, Broome,

Wyndham and Derby. These ports provide services to the state and add significantly to the Australian

economy. Although this chapter does not have the room to explore each and every port in detail, it

does provide a glimpse into the ports varied and exciting past and their pivotal role in first colonisation

of the towns and state, and second their role in providing transport including passenger and leisure,

and international trade.

Beginning in the south of the State, the port of Freemantle has an early history starting in the 1830s

when the early settlements in Perth began. The port is situated at the mouth of the Swan River and in

its early days was known for its reef stricken channels, sandbar blocking the entrance and poor

berthing opportunities. These negatives prevented large vessels from entering the river. The port was

to service this new Swan river settlement, current day Perth, and the ships were the main

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transportation option for the early settlers, for traveling to other cities and for the trading of goods

and receiving supplies.

It was not until the late 1890s that the sandbar blocking the entrance was cleared, to allow ships to

enter the harbour. This gave ships a safe harbour to berth and was great progress for the port and

gave larger ships the option to use Freemantle port. During this time Gold was discovered in the north

of the state, which increased the prosperity for Perth and enabled the town to grow and expand.

Where the port of Fremantle harbour opened in 1897, after the removal of the sandbar.

Prior to the completion of Freemantle port, many of the larger vessels berthed at Albany Port. Albany,

therefore, was the first point of entry to Western Australia for many early settlers during the 1800s

and early 1900s and a major trading port for overseas shipping.

Image 5. H Early photos of Freemantle harbour Curtesy of the State Records office of Western Australia http://www.sro.wa.gov.au/archive-

collection/collection/harbour-and-shipping-records

The port of Albany and area of Albany in the southern coast is the oldest port in Western Australia,

being founded in 1826. However, the King George Sound, where Albany is located had been cited and

visited by early explorers including Nicolas Baudin in 1803. The Princess Royal Harbour and King

George Sound provided a good and safe anchorage for the settlement and it was established as a

military outpost. Originally, it was set up as a military outpost because the British where concerned

that the French would lay claim to the area if they didn’t get their first. In addition, Albany was also

used as a place for convict labour to build the outpost and town. However, as time progressed the

town of Albany expanded to become the port it is today specialising in woodchips and grain for export.

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Bunbury, another southern port and town was also established in 1830 and the port developed around

the small town to service the community. The main commodity for the early settlement of Bunbury

was timber. The surrounding areas were rich in timber that was needed by the colonies and

internationally. And in 1909 a harbour board was established to manage the port for the town. Today

the port exports timber as well as additional resources including Alumina, Silica Sand, Silicon Dross,

Aluminium Hydroxide, Spodumene and Mineral Sands. These natural resources provide income for

the economy.

When Australia was first discovered by the Europeans, the Western Australian coastline was seen as

a sandy land inhabited by primitive people. This deception was made on bias European view

assumptions and coastal observations. And when the colonies arrived they realised that the land had

natural resources that could be traded. It took a little longer to gauge the depth of Indigenous culture

and just how complex their great estate really was. The early pastoralists that communicated with and

worked with the Indigenous people were far better off than those who didn’t.

The pastoralists were needing land and were moving beyond the newly established colonies to explore

further inland and other coastal towns. Esperance was one example, being settled by a pastoral family,

the Dempster’s, which had a jetty for transport. Esperance is now a major port that exports a range

of natural and farmed resources, specifically Iron Ore and Grain.

While the pastoralists were exploring and settling new towns, Perth was expanding and the port of

Freemantle was a part of the cities story. As time progressed the port expanded to meet the needs of

the expanding township and surrounding communities. Where the port today exports manufacturing

goods and food products and it imports vehicles and consumer goods. The port also has a cruise ship

passenger terminal opening up the city to tourists.

As part of the exploration and expansion in the north of the state, the township of Port Hedland was

first sighted by Captain Peter Hedland in 1863 and the town was named after him. A port was

established to meet the needs of the early pastoralists nearby. And in the early times of the

settlement, the port was used for the pastoralists to export livestock, wool as well as pearl shell and

tin and copper. With the discovery of Iron Ore in the region in the 1960s the port began to export that

resource and today it is its main export.

To give some background, in the north of the state the iron ore boom was taking shape in the 1950s.

This Iron Ore boom reshaped the maritime and trade industry for the state. Lang Hancock had noticed

the iron ore over the Hamersley ranges and the rest is history. It opened up an export industry and

ports were needed to be able to export the iron ore. In this situation, ports were being established to

ship Iron Ore, and townships developed after the fact to service the port and mining boom.

The port of Dampier, as an example, was established specifically for the export of Iron Ore in 1963 for

Hamersley Iron. However, it soon started handling other products including salt and liquefied natural

gas (LNG). The name Dampier comes from the explorer William Dampier, who explored the coastal

region many years prior in 1688. This massive discovery of Iron Ore and LNG have led to the

establishment of northern ports to meet the needs of the economic mining boom that hit Australia.

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In addition to the land based resources, the sea also provides for the townships along the coast.

Broome is one such example. It was in the late 1800s that a pearling industry was established in the

region and a port was established to cater for this pearling industry. Pearling, Fishing and Tourism still

play a strong focus in the town today. But in the mid 1900’s the township started to expand and grow

and the role of the port and products being traded grew along with the township. Other exports for

the port now include livestock, container goods, and the port facilitates cruise ships to cater for the

tourism. The people of Broome have a strong, strong focus on the sea and fishing and because they

are in the far north of the state, they rely heavily on their port for imports and exports on goods.

This section has given an overview of the ports in place across the State of Western Australia. Outlining

the history of the more prominent ports and what commodities they import and export today.

Although this does not touch on all the ports, it gives a fantastic starting point at the diverse

commodities the state trades. Next we will explore the state of Victoria.

Victoria

With the discovery and opening of the Bass Strait, the Victorian coastline became a strategic place for

the early days of the colonies. When early settlers came from Europe they would often come through

the Bass Strait to cut the sailing time and many of them disembarked in Melbourne.

The state has a number of strategically located ports including, Portland, Geelong, Melbourne and

Port of Hastings. In addition, there are a number of small Jetties and Wharfs that service the coastal

towns and rivers along the breadth and length of the State’s coastline.

The township of Melbourne has a very interesting past, with the earliest convict settlement in 1804

being abandoned for the more favourable area of Hobart. Only for the area to be reinhabited in 1835

by pardoned convicts from Tasmania, therefore coming full circle. The pardoned convicts came in a

ship called the Enterprise and entered the Yarra River where they set up their first township. The port

facilities were also set up at the town of Williamstown on the north side of the Yarra River at the

entrance. These first facilities were a jetty in 1839. In the 1850s there was a massive Victorian gold

rush resulting in the immigration of many people to chase after the fortune and this put pressure on

the underdeveloped port facilities on the banks and entrance to the Yarra River. The port expanded

to cope with this demand and in the late 1800s the Melbourne dock opened for shipping. It is

important to remember that the Yarra River and the bay were the life blood for the new town with

new immigrants arriving at the Station Pier.

During the 1900s the port expanded greatly. A dock was built for early containerisation shipping. This

early dock was called Swanston Dock and was open in 1969. This was a major advancement for the

town of Melbourne and enabled them to become leaders of containerisation. And the Webb Dock was

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constructed for the shipping of cars. This shows just how progressive the port was during the mid-

1900s and how much foresight the decision makers had when constructing these facilities.

Image 5.I Early shipping at Port of Melbourne Curtesy of National Library of Australia http://trove.nla.gov.au/version/182649864

Today, the port of Melbourne is the largest container port in Australia and is multi commodity. The

port trades in containers, cars, and a range of dry bulk, liquid Bulk and breakbulk. The port plays a

pivotal role in the supply chain network and is a transportation hub for Melbourne, where ships load

and unload their commodities.

Geelong, to the West of Melbourne in the Corio Bay, is another port city in Victoria that was

established in 1838. Corio Bay extends from Port Philip Bay and was an alternative port to Melbourne

for Mariners. However, during the 1850s it was communicated that Geelong was not the port to weigh

anchor, so many of the immigrants arrived through Melbourne when Geelong was closer to the gold

fields. The area the town of Geelong sits had been explored by Europeans prior to 1838. Within

Geelong’s history a port was established to service the town in 1853.

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The main industry for Geelong was wool. The city was a heavy manufacturer of wool, with a wool mill

opening in 1868 in the town. Wool was a major export opportunity for the port to trade with England.

England needed wool and Geelong had the land and environment suitable for farms, facilities and sea

trading. As a result, the port town became the wool capital of Australia.

The port continued to expand to reach its current point with major exports of both dry and liquid

commodities including grain, petroleum and Woodchips. Today, the port imports, crude oil, and

fertiliser.

To the east of Melbourne, lies an enclosed bay called Western Port. This bay contains the French Island

and Philip Island. Within this bay lies the port of Hastings. Western Port has a history of shipping. All

areas of the harbour were services by ships along the coast line. Western Port even had a ferry service

that plied its transportation trade for the harbour. However, the current site of port of Hastings

commenced in the 1970s. The port was set up for the shipping of oil and gas. Today it trades in the

commodities of oil, liquid petroleum gas and petrol.

Moving west along the coast of Victoria is Portland. It is located around 360 kilometres west of

Melbourne and was the first town to be discovered in the state. The town was named after the Duke

of Portland and became a town in 1834. The town has a strong maritime past, with fishing being its

mainstay.

Image 5.J Portland Harbour in the 1900s Curtesy of the State Library of Victoria http://trove.nla.gov.au/version/182764419

As time progressed the port facilities were maintained, improved and modified. In 1960 the modern

port facilities were opened. The harbour still has a strong fishing industry. However, the modern port

has many more commodities that it handles that bring income and growth to the township. These

commodities are livestock, grain, fertilisers, and wood. They also host cruise ships entering the deep

water harbour.

This brief exploration of the history of the four major ports in Victoria shows the vast history o f the

state and what commodities the early towns relied on for their prosperity and growth. There are many

smaller ports, and leisure industries in the state that have not been explored here. One example, is

the Murray River in the north of the state. The river provides a natural border between Victoria and

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New South Wales. Today, the river has a strong cruise boat industry. In the past, the river was the life

blood of the surrounding towns. The importance of shipping can never be underestimated.

South Australia

Today the Flinders port authority are responsible for the major ports in South Australia. These ports

include Thevenard, Port Lincoln, Port Pirie, Wallaroo, Port Giles, Klein Port and Adelaide. These ports

enable trade in the state and are important assets to the state.

Adelaide was established 1836 and the suburb of Adelaide, port Adelaide its maritime beginnings. Port

Adelaide was nothing like we see today, it was tidal mud and swap. The port was seen as a miserable

place to be in the times of early settlement, swampy, full of mosquitoes, and a challenging landing

place for ships. The port did however, despite its miserable conditions play a strong role in the early

shipping for the town of Adelaide. Early settlers disembarked from the ships here.

Image 5.K Historical Port Adelaide Curtesy of State Library of South Australia http://collections.slsa.sa.gov.au/resource/B+11095

However, the port facilities and location improved and the port was moved down stream. This allowed

the catalyst for the current port and its facilities. The port lies on a river, Port River that starts from

the gulf of Saint Vincent. As the town of Adelaide expanded so did the port. The small river was

dredged, a bridge constructed and the port expanded. Throughout the ports vast history it has seen

many industries established. At the port containerisation also changed the way goods were

transported by sea. In the 1960s the port was designed to cater for this containerisation innovation.

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Today, the port services the surrounding towns and commodities traded include grain, limestone,

vehicles, metals, Fertilisers, Iron Ore, Steel, Iron, Break-bulk, Containers, Minerals, and Mineral Sands.

The port is managed by Flinders Port.

On the western side of the Gulf of Saint Vincent lies two smaller ports Klein Port and Port Giles. Klein

port is a small port used for the shipping of limestone. It was established specifically for trading the

highly prized commodity. While, Port Giles transports Grain and Seed from the surrounding farms

within the Yorke Peninsula.

The Yorke Peninsula, along with its pastoralism, has a strong maritime culture of fishing. Townships

and small ports are dotted along the Yorke coastline from the Gulf of St Vincent, across the

Investigator Strait and into the Spencer Gulf.

On the Spencer Gulf side of the peninsula is the township and port of Wallaroo. The township was

settled in 1851 for sheep grazing and farming. However, in the late 1850’s copper was discovered in

the area and this was mined for export. The port of Wallaroo was developed for servicing the Yorke

Peninsula and all the farming of grain, so the commodities handled are mostly grain and seeds and

some fertilisers.

Further north is Port Pirie. The town was established in 1845 and was named after a ship called the

John Pirie. Natural resources including Lead were discovered and in the late 1800s a lead smelter was

constructed for the town. Today, this smelter is operated by Nyrstar. The port itself was constructed

to service the town and today its commodities are coal, Mineral by-products, general cargo and

mineral concentrates.

On the west side of the Spencer Gulf, on the Eyre Peninsula, in Boston Bay lies the town of Port Lincoln.

This town was established in 1839. The Eyre Peninsula was home to early farming. In the early days of

discovery prior to the official settlement of the town, the coastal area was explored by Whalers.

Whaling was one of the earliest industries in this area but it ceased by the mid-1800s. The town was

dependent of farming, including wool and grain, and fishing due to its coastal location. Port Lincoln is

known as the seafood capital and the community to this day rely on the fishing industry having a large

fleet of fishing vessels and being reliant on aquaculture.

The port of Lincoln today handles these commodities. With the main commodities being delivered

from the farming communities in the Eyre Peninsula. Therefore, these commodities include Grain,

seeds and fertilisers. However, they also trade in Petroleum based products.

On the continuous westward exploration of South Australian Ports, the port and town of Thevenard

is reached. Thevenard is a coast town that began its life as a farm and used as an area for grazing. As

a town it was not established until the early 1920s. The port was developed with great foresight and

planning, as it was envisaged that the port would be an important hub for international trade.

Thevenard and surrounding towns were reliant on farming and the sea for their resources. And in the

1960s businesses constructed silos for the storage of grain, wheat, oats and barley. These products

46

are one of the biggest exports from the port. Other commodities that are traded through the port

include salt and Gypsum. The port is an integral part of the coastal township.

South Australian ports and coastal townships, like the rest of Australia, have a rich and interesting

maritime history. The state is heavily reliant on fishing, as well as their land resources, in particular

farming, for wool, grain and seeds. These commodities not only help their local communities, but they

also help the wider Australian economy. And the state has such rich farming lands that allow for the

international export of these products.

Northern Territory

The Northern coast of Australia has a long indigenous past. The first documented maritime trade was

with the Macassan traders who were exploring the area in search of sea cumber and pearl. The

Indigenous people learned about the outrigger canoe from this early trade as the Indigenous

population had a strong relationship with the sea.

In the early European settlement, the town of Darwin was part of South Australia and was set up as a

township in 1869. The settlement was well situated for maritime trade with neighbouring countries

as it was closer to Asia than other Australian towns. Also, it was a great location for pearl fisherman,

which encouraged international migration to the area. However, the area was prone to natural

cyclones, causing destruction, devastation and for the town to be rebuilt.

The port was established as soon as the town was founded to import goods for the local community.

The port was at first just a jetty for ships to anchor and transfer goods. This soon was expanded and

in the 1880s a railway Jetty was built enabling commodities to be loaded onto the ships. An image of

this jetty is included below.

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Image 5.L Early Darwin Jetty around 1900 Curtesy of National Library of Australia http://nla.gov.au/nla.obj-150847142

Being in the north of Australia, the northern territory relies on both the sea and land. Outside of the

township of Darwin, pastoralism was an important industry, cattle was one of the main trades through

the port and this continues to this day. But it was the mineral deposits that allowed the port to

maintain a challenging existence until World War II when it suffered major damage from the

bombings, both the loss of life and the destruction of port infrastructure.

In the mid 1950’s a valid effort was taken to improve the port after its damage during the war. A wharf

at stokes hill was constructed. The ports were increased to form the modern port facilities. The port

today handles a myriad of commodities, including cattle export, but also petroleum, dry bulk,

containers and is a cruise terminal for tourism. Many international and local tourists enjoy visiting the

town, to explore the sea and land.

The coast of Darwin also contains some other minor ports including Gove, Milner Bay and Bing Bong.

Heavy industry via oil and gas and mining of land resources have aided the economy for the Northern

Territory and this is shown with the existence of ports for bulk exports. The port of Gove contains an

Alcan refinery, run by Rio Tinto and exports bauxite. While, Milner Bay is located on the island Groot

Eylandt and is run by the Groote Eylandt Mining Co for exporting. Finally, the port of Bing Bong is a

48

facility for shipping bulk concentrate. The bulk concentrate is transported on to a barge via the port

and transferred to the larger bulk carriers offshore.

An examination of Australian ports has shown how reliant Australia is on them for the transport of

resources around the world. Now, ports are hubs in the wider supply chain offering not only places to

load and unload cargo but as cruise ship terminals as well. Although, planes, trains and other forms of

transport provide viable options, Australia being an island, relies on the sea for the transport of large

bulk commodities. Ports will always play an important role in the maritime (and land too) transport

and trade.

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CHAPTER 6: THE FUTURE AND CONCLUSIONS

“The best way to predict your future is to create it” Abraham Lincoln

We have seen a brief glimpse at the maritime past of Australia. The rich vivid and exciting past about

how Australia was first populated, by Indigenous Australian’s and much later by the Europeans.

However, this is only but a glimpse. It is amazing at how quickly the European colonists expanded to

cover the continental coastlines, with cities, towns and important local and international commerce.

Not only the increase in sea trade, but something that has not been explored here, just how quickly

maritime innovation occurred – from sailing (including windjammers), steam ships, to bulk carriers

and everything in between. Without this innovation and foresight by designers, mariners, architects,

engineers and even port decision makers our current standing may have been different. It is

impossible to predict the future or to change the past. However, exploring the past gives information

and ideas about what to do and not do in the future. Without our past we would not be here, whether

the past is good or bad.

It is amazing to think what the world was like to people in the world in history. Their understanding of

the world and lands was very different that it is today. Imagine setting sail ready to explore the oceans

to discover a relatively unknown land. Today the world is mapped and charted, in history there were

many unknowns. An unknown land to the south. This is something it is difficult to understand what it

was like to live in a time when there were many unknowns about the world.

Just looking at Australian coastal exploration, the amount of natural resources discovered in the early

days of the colonies was in itself fascinating. Coming from a cold land, densely populated, to an island

with plenty of land for pastoralism, for mining, and with a great sea for fishing.

Therefore, when towns were established ports were often the first infrastructure to be constructed.

They were needed for trade and to transport people. As the towns expanded, the need for ports was

even more important as more migrants arrived the towns needed the infrastructure to process the

arrivals and receive and trade for supplies. In areas where pastoralism was the lifeblood of the inland

communities, railways, roads and ports were also extremely important. In many cases they

constructed ports along the coast as close to the farms, mine sites and so forth as they possibly could.

Ports were economical.

50

Now the future lies ahead waiting to be created for the maritime sector. The maritime sector has

always been deeply rooted in the past, after all the sector shaped the economic growth and the social

and political environment in the world. Empires were forged through ocean discovery and exploration,

and countries were colonised and populated. However, that being said, the maritime sector is moving

forward and innovating faster and faster to create new shipping technologies, just take a look at the

companies developing automated ships, and the industry working to become as environmentally

sustainable as possible. Although some of these technologies are not going to be operating right this

minute, they open up world of endless possibilities. The challenge, the technology industry is

innovating faster than people can keep up with some of the time.

What will the future of the maritime sector look like? Trains, planes and driverless trucks provide

alternative transport options for trade and they are faster. Artificial intelligence (AI) is moving forward

in leaps and bounds and automation of shipping is being trialled. In addition, cruises and leisure

activities are a popular maritime industry. Therefore, it is safe to say that maritime is loved by people

and needed. The focus for innovating and developing sustainable ships for the future will remain.

A glimpse into the past of Australian maritime discovery and ports has shown what history has

delivered. It has shown us the people, explorers, places and the watercraft that made it all possible.

This EBook provides an overview into an exciting and interest past, ready for more exploration.

51

REFERENCES AND FURTHER READINGS

Books and Articles

Bach, John 1976, A Maritime History of Australia, Nelson, Melbourne.

Dampier, William 1699, A Voyage to New Holland, third edition. Project Gutenberg.

Department of Harbours and Marine 1986, Harbours and Marine: Port Development in Queensland

from 1824 to 1985, Department of Harbours and Marine: James Ferguson Pty Ltd.

Flood, Josephine 2004, Archaeology of the Dreamtime: The prehistoric Australia and its people, JB

Publishing.

Jefferies, Greg 2007, The Stradbroke Island Galleon, JAG Publications, Cleveland.

Johnson, Wayne & Parris, Rodger 2008, A History of Sydney’s Darling Harbour, Sydney Harbour

Foreshore Authority.

Hill, David 2008, 1788 The Brutal Truth of the First Fleet: the biggest single overseas migration the

world has ever seen, William Heinemann, Australia.

Hill, David 2014, The Making of Australia: from a tiny struggling convict settlement to the remarkable

nation it is today, Penguin Random House Press.

Hinkson, Melinda and Harris, Alana 2010, Aboriginal Sydney: a guide to important places of the past

and present, Aboriginal Studies Press, Sydney.

Hoskins, Ian 2009, Sydney Harbour: A history, University of New South Wales Press, Sydney.

Hoskins, Ian 2013, Coast: a history of the New South Wales Edge, NewSouth Publishing, Sydney.

Lewis, Glen 1973, A History of the Ports of Queensland: A study in economic nationalism, The

University of Queensland Press, Brisbane.

Ludlow, Peter 2013, The port of Brisbane, its people and its personalities, Port of Brisbane.

McGrail, Sean 2015, Early Ships and seafaring: water transport beyond Europe. Pen and Sword Books

Pty, London.

Menzies, Gavin 2002, 1421, the year the Chinese discovered the world, Bantam Press, London.

52

Moore, C 2001, The South Sea Islanders of Mackay, Queensland, Australia,

http://www.multiculturalaustralia.edu.au/doc/mmaq01_moore_mackay.pdf

Moore, HA 1978, The Mackay Harbour Story, Mackay Harbour Board.

Mundle, Rob 2015, Great South Land, Harper Collins Publisher, Sydney.

Norris, Gerald 2005, The Buccaneer Explorer: William Dampier’s Voyages, Boydell Press,

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Pemberton, Barry 1979, Australian Coastal Shipping, Melbourne University Press.

Seal, Graham 2015, The Savage Shore: extraordinary stories of survival and tragedy from the early

voyages of discovery to Australia, Allen & Unwin Sydney.

Steen, RM a 1972, History of the Port of Bowen, Bowen Historical Society: Bowen Independent.

Steen, RM b 1972, Bowen’s Maritime History, Bowen Historical Society: Bowen Independent.

Tasker, John 2012, Sixteenth Century Portuguese down under, volumes 1 and 2, Lulu enterprises,

Kanuka Press.

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53

Kimberley Ports Authority 2016, About Kimberley Ports Authority,

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