2015

Priscilla Zenn

Allen Park High School

AMSCO Unit 2 Notes

Key Concept 2.2 – Keep in Mind! Early states and empires grew in number and size Competed for resources/came into conflict with each

other

Quest for land, wealth, security

Built powerful military machines and administrative institutions New groups of military and political elite Needed to develop policies and procedures to govern

diverse populations

Expansion created political, cultural, and administrative difficulties

Also, they experienced environment, social and economic problems when overexploitations occurred (of lands and people)

Overview

Rise of Rome, Byzantine, Persian, Maurya, Gupta, Qin,

Han, Maya, Moche

*Imperial societies relied on a range of method to

maintain the production of food and provide rewards for

the loyalty of the elites!

**New technologies were developed for farming:

The qanat system, water wheels (noria, sakia)

and improved wheels and pumps (shaduf)

Overview Built roads – trade flourished,

linked people and ideas Silk Road, Trans-Saharan,

Mediterranean, Indian Ocean

Trade fostered growth of great cities

Governing distant lands difficult

Wealth gap

Belief systems developed and spread Judaism, Christianity, Hinduism,

Buddhism, Confucianism, Daoism, Greek philosophy

Codifications Developed a bond among people

and an ethical code to live by

Classical Greece

Early Mediterranean Civilizations -

Crete

Minoans

Crete

Many harbors, little

fertile soil: trade

Knossos

Maze

Wealthy: King Minos

Paintings

No writing deciphered

Mycenae Mainland Greece;

influenced by Minoans

Trade: evidence is amber from the north and ivory from Syria

Decline – dark age 1100 BCE

Frescoes, statuettes, jewelry, indoor plumbing – culture spread

**Ongoing example of continuity

Decline: Dorians from the North People of the Seas

Rise of Greek City State Geography made trade and

seafaring important Grain, timber, gold, ideas

(Phoenicians)

Geography shaped politics – how? City states would be allies or

enemies

Competition with other empires - Persian Wars (Herodotus)

Social and Political Systems Male suffrage Patriarchal

Slaves and foreigners not citizens

Governments varied; monarchy, aristocracy, oligarchy, democracy, etc.

Sparta Military Society

Focus for boys – train to be soldiers Harsh life, physical abuse, served

in military (or reserves) until age 60

Women ran households, greater freedoms Prizes for fitness, glory for sons in

army, etc

Helots did agricultural work - trick was keeping them under control

Outside ideas considered destabilizing; social life tightly controlled for stable and prosperous society

Athenian Democracy Monarchies, followed by aristocracies

Solon – wise ruler

Prosperous merchant class resented monopoly on political power wanted voice – tyrants were popular because they lowered taxes, eventually overthrown (abuse of power)

Athens - direct democracy

Pericles – Golden Age

Parthenon

Govt reforms (Council of 500)

Women excluded, life difficult – limited rights

Women, slaves, and foreigners could not be citizens of city-states

Athenian Philosophy

Formed basis of academic disciplines worldwide Iliad and Odyssey

Socrates; Socratic Method

Plato; school – the Academy, the Republic, philosopher kings

Aristotle; avoid extremes, Golden Mean, empiricism

Ideas provided foundation for European thought and marked the start of a new way of thinking about ideas

Athens continued

Athenian Religion Architecture, Art, and

Olympic Games Myths expressed ideas

about right and wrong; became more syncretic with increased contact

Religion and literature connected

Comedies – Aristophanes

Tragedies – Aeschylus, Euripides

Parthenon

Games emphasized rituals, offerings for gods

Wars between city-states suspended for competition

Created a common Greekness

Greek Colonies Population Outstripped food supply Colonies mostly

autonomous

Temperate climate allowed for outdoor education and theatres

Access to sea encouraged colonization and trade; exposure to new ideas brought changes while maintaining Pan-Hellenic continuity

Persian Empire

Classical Persia; Achaemenid empire of Cyrus the

Great expanded borders

Darius

Divine Right; must be able to build and hold an empire

Transportation and communication slow – created issues

Darius satraps - rulers of provinces; eyes and

ears of king

Tax payments

Persepolis – celebrated city w/palace

Royal Road encouraged trade

Caravanserai – inns and markets for travelers

Common currency

Religious toleration

Xerxes (successor) built Gate of all Nations

Religious Beliefs and Society

Religious Beliefs Society

Zoroastrianism

Monotheism

Prophet

Zarathustra

God – Ahura

Mazda

Concept of

heaven and

hell

Avestas

Social stratification Large number of educated bureaucrats

to run empire

Slaves (higher than other societies)

Patriarchal but women could own and manage property Aristocratic women veiled (advertised

social status)

Qanats – underground irrigation

Trade – by land and sea. Ivory and gold from Turkey

Cedar and wool from Phoenicia Wine and oil from Greece Grain, textiles, papyrus from Egypt

Persia vs. Greece Clashes over territory

Persian Wars (conflicts with Greek colonies in Asia Minor)

Battle of Marathon on Greek mainland (Darius forced to withdraw)

Xerxes defeated Sparta at Battle of Thermopylae; burned Athens

Greeks formed Delian League

Battle of Salamis – Athens defeated Persians at sea

Persia began decline and brought in a new era of fortune for Greece

Athens – Sparta Rivalry

Sparta began Peloponnesian League and became dominant

Rise of Macedonia Philip II set out to conquer; assassinated and

succeeded by Alexander who expanded the empire Native people to rule

Married local women (as did generals) Founded Alexandria in Egypt

Hellenistic Period – blending of cultures – Ptolemy dynasty built large library in

Alexandria

Greek language, architecture, mythology, philosophy become widespread

Small colonies established – as Greek unity declined the culture endured

Upon Alexander’s death, time of chaos

Lands divided

Romans also adopted Greek culture (Greek teachers and doctors prized as Roman slaves)

Other Empires in Persia Seleucids

Parthians

Encouraged Greeks and Macedonians to settle in Persia

Satraps revolted

Lost eastern lands to Partians, then Romans

Nomadic ppl from

Central Asia

Satrap system

Held off Roman army

Defeated by

Sassanids

Sassanids

•Promoted Zoroastrianism and

persecuted Christians

Persian and Greek Cultures

Comparison Contrasts

Large territories

Wide cultural

influence

Most women had few

rights

Both demonstrate

power of syncretism

i.e. Alex adopted

postal system, coins

Darius: Monotheism – Zoroastrianism

Greeks – polytheistic

Persians – toleration for diverse cultures

Greeks more culturally unified through religion, language, traditions (games) but not politically

The Roman World

Virgil’s Aenied

You, Roman, remember to rule the people with power

(these will be your arts!) to graft custom onto peace, to spare the conquered

and to subdue the proud

*portrays cultural, political, and military legacies of the Roman Empire

Geography united Roman Civilization

Rome as a Monarchy

Etruscans Early peoples settled,

mixed with Latins

Mined

Built roads and temples

Rome – village on 7 hills became ROME

Romulus and Remus

Tiber River/Thrrhenian Sea (trade)

Rome: From Monarchy to Republic

*Government evolved in response to improvements and domestic pressure for protection

Overthrew tyrant king and created a republic

Representative govt, wealthy were represented

Plebeians called for reforms Assembly of Tribes

Assembly of Centuries

Passed laws and selected magistrates

Tribunes were added to represent the plebeians Could veto, senators curried their favor

Consuls Two; elected to preside over govt; veto power (example of checks and balances)

Rule of Law Publically displayed Laws of the Twelve Tables (check on judiciary system)

Created career options for lawyers (legal cases) Cicero famous orator.

**Existence of courts, legal proceedings, evidence of the significance of the rule of law in Roman society

Roman Expansion As Rome expanded

Citizenship granted for supplying troops

Conflicts with Greece over control of colonies, Romans took control after defeating Greeks

Conflicts with Carthage Punic Wars

Carthaginian Peace

Eventually nomadic peoples moved in and conquered Rome

Soldiers Ages 17 – 46 had to serve; poor

farmers sold small farms to wealthy who created huge estates latifundia.

After service, many returned to Rome and the population swelled.

Roman Society Patricians and Plebeians were most influential

Slaves POW

Latifundia required large numbers Many educated Roman children (especially

Greeks) As numbers grew, conditions harsher

Spartacus Rebellion

**Slaves were so numerous that it slowed down growth and innovation – little incentive to develop technology with cheap labor available

Small Land-holders Couldn’t compete with latifundia, numbers down

Women No citizenship status, married women had some

rights (property, some money)

Civil Wars

Leaders raised own armies, loyal to the leader, not Rome Gaius Marius, Lucius Pompey Magnus, Julius

Caesar, Marc Antony, Octavian (Augustus Caesar)

Created conflicts for power

Julius Caesar Popularis, not aristocrat

Support from common people

Vanquished major foe, Pompey, became sole consul and dictator for life, end of the Republic

Revised calendar, extended citizen ship, land to veterans

Ides of March

Competition between remaining generals, Octavian and Marc Antony, led to establishment of the Empire Battle of Actium

Octavian defeated Anthony, proclaimed sole ruler of Rome

The Roman Empire

27 BCE – 476 CE Augustus Caesar extended the empire

Pax Romana

Roads – for defense and trade. Fortresses and walls to protect

Social Classes – equestrian class offered some social mobility Senatorial class was instrument of Augustus;

his will was complete. Encouraged aristocrats to have more children

Lower classes given free grain and games to pacify them

Slavery continued (Greek slaves in demand). Sometimes buy freedom

Women’s rights expanded; could divorce, more property rights. Seen in art and literature of the period. Roman women had more influence than their

counterparts

The Roman Empire

27 BCE – 476 CE continued Law Spread to all parts of the empire;

apostle Paul could insist on being taken to Rome for trial (led to est. of Christian Church)

Literature and Philosophy Augustus saw himself as a patron of

literature. Virgil, Horace, Ovid Historians Livy and Tacitus Philosopher Seneca Writers influenced by Greek traditions Epicureanism (promoted simple

living) and Stoicism (learn to accept the will of the gods)

*Romans attempted to find answers to questions about all aspects of life

Roman Religion Syncretism (Latin and Greek gods)

Altar in home for local divinities; temples for state celebrations

Chief priest – pontifex maximus

Everyone must follow state religions but unlike Persians, tolerated others also Polytheistic; Jupiter, Minerva, Vesta

Priestesses of Vesta grew wealthy – guarded sacred flame of Rome

Later added worship of the empire (after death of Augustus)

Personal religions – gods Lares and Penates protect the home

Some joined mystery cults Eleusinian and cult of Isis

Secret rituals and promise of afterlife

Jews Under Roman Rule Jews had codified Hebrew

scriptures

Rome captured Jerusalem 37 BCE

Romans would have added Jewish god to their pantheon, but the Jews were not willing to follow Roman practices

Three rebellions, people fled (continued earlier diaspora)

**Educated Jews treated with more deference than other ‘barbarians’

Positioned Jews to become the scapegoats and objects of prejudice in the years to come

Christianity Jesus regarded as a

trouble maker by Roman officials By 100 CE, belief system

emerged as distinct from Judaism

Popular among urban poor, slaves, women

Peter and Paul Important in spreading

ideas of Jesus and shaping the religion

Paul; a Jew, sudden conversion and inspired others

Features of Emergent Christianity 1. Simple life isolated

Monasteries to devote life to religion

2. Martyrdom Faith grew, Edict of Milan (Constantine

converted) Seat of govt moved to Constantinople. Eventually became official religion

3. Written accounts

Gospels by Matthew, Mark, Luke, and John and letters written by Paul

Core of the New Testament

St. Augustine - St. Augustine of Hippo

Monk in North Africa

Wrote City of God

Points out existence of duality – a city of God on earth (Rome) and a city of God in heaven

Tensions that will culminate in the separation of church and state present in this work

Transregional Trade Networks

Christianity spread along trade networks also Overland – Silk Road

Transregional Different routes depending upon

weather, bandits

Paid tribute for safe passage

Sea Routes

Indian Ocean to Red Sea to Rome

Pirates

Mediterranean easily navigated

Small islands for stopping

Lacked sophisticated navigational equipment

New Technology and new goods Stirrup - stability and control

Silks and spices and gold prized by upper class

China grew wealthy from trade, along with Silk Road cities

Samarkand – new fruits and vegetables rice and citrus products form SW Asia to Europe

East Africa also grew wealthy

Decline of the Empire Slow uneven decline

1. Population Decline Trade brought wealth and disease

Smallpox, measles

Led to decline in trade and economic activity

Heavy use of lead in building and dishes?

Money slowed, roads and aqueducts not kept up

Army not getting paid; mutinies – less safe to trade

2. Environmental problems Population growth led to deforestation, demand for

food to overgrazing and soil erosion

3. Division of the Empire

4. Challenges from non-Romans Huns forced Vandals, Visigoths, Ostrogoths,

Franks into the empire

Too much turmoil and widespread movement for Roman soldiers to handle

Visigoths sacked in 410, German ruler Odovacer replaced Roman emperor in 476

Eastern Empire still vibrant (Diocletian)

Legacies of the Romans Law and Government

Representative govt, checks and balances, rule of law

Architecture Dome, paved roads, columns,

temples, amphitheatres, aqueducts, large urban sewers, under floor heating

Military Military tactics, legionnaires

disciplines, catapults, siege devices

Literature Epic of Virgil, comedies of Plautus,

historical works of Seneca

Language Latin provided basis of Romance

languages

**Han and Gupta also left powerful legacies

Classical Civilizations in India

and China

India: Maurya and Gupta: Most

important continuity - spiritual and social

organization (not political unification)

•Bhagavad Gita** part

of the Mahabharata

(one of the most

important writings) • Carry out duty from birth

and separate from any

‘attachments’

•Important to Hinduism

and Buddhism

Social Organization: The Caste System

Aryan settlers social hierarchy

Varna – means color

Between darker Dravidians and Aryan wheat colored complexions

Four castes

Brahmins

Kshatriyas

Vaishyas

Shudras

Dalits – untouchables

Caste system evolved as new occupations, groups were added.

Jatis

Outlawed today but last names can reveal ancestry

Rural villages – practices continue in some cases

New Religions Emerge in India Jainism/Buddhism

Focus on reflection and meditation

Jainism

Mahavir Jain Ideas from Upanishads

All living things are part of larger soul: Brahma

Do no harm

Vegetarian

Masks

Few followers but doctrine of ahimsa influenced later generations (Gandhi – nonviolence)

Buddhism Siddhartha – warrior class

(Kshatriya) Ascetic lifestyle

Enlightenment (Buddha, the enlightened one)

Four Noble Truths 1. Life involves great suffering

2. Suffering from desires

3. Suffering can end when eliminate desires

4. Follow 8-fold path

Meditate, reflect, refrain from pleasures

Goal – to detach oneself to reach enlightenment leading to nirvana (ends cycle of rebirth)

Comparing Indian Spiritual Traditions

Buddhism Jainism Hinduism

Reincarnation Yes Yes Yes (karma/caste)

Caste System No No Yes

Spread Rapid through India

and SE and E Asia;

lower castes

attracted (reaching

Nirvana and

teachings not in

Sanskrit)

Spread but not

many followers,

lifestyle demanding

Spread throughout

India

Tenets Four Noble Truths,

Eight Fold Path

Do no harm, etc. Rig Veda,

Upanishads,

Mahabharata,

Ramayana

Gender roles Inferior Inferior Women to be

unselfish and

devote lives to

husband

Mauryan Empire Chandragupta Maurya

Height – 3rd C BCE

Centralized govt most of subcontinent (see map)

Govt – provinces with capital city and prince, council of ministers.

Provinces into districts

Army kept peace, large spy system

Heavy taxes on landowners and value of crops

Ashoka Kalinga

Conversion, monasteries, missionaries, stupas; Buddhism surged

Achievements

Efficient tax system

Capital Pataliputra near Ganges river

Roads connected commercial centers and encouraged trace/travel, Ashoka traveled constantly to govern

Ended slavery

Rock and Pillar Edicts

Promoted peace through diplomacy

Foreign trade increased, bringing in more $$

Decline of the Mauryan Dynasty Subsequent leaders not effective Power vacuum – invaders from

Bactria and Kushan empire

Trade in Goods and Ideas Crossroads for Silk Road Gems and spices form SE Asia, Silk

from China, Indian textiles traded with Rome and across Mediterranean

Ships carried goods across Indian Ocean, Red Sea, Persian Gulf connection East Africa, Indonesia, and Rome

New cultures and ideas art influenced by Greek and Roman art Gandhara Buddhas

Gupta Dynasty Golden Age of India under Gupta

Trade increased with foreign merchants

Governing the Empire Divided into provinces, kings or princes

Capital Pataliputra (intellectual and cultural center)

Scientific and Mathematics achievements Free health care (broken bones, skin grafts, inoculations)

Number 0 – 9 (Arabic numerals)

Religion

Dominant, upper-class studied Vedas, etc

Universities subjects govt, astronomy, math , art, painting, and architecture Nalanda one of most ancient universities NE India

Both empires allowed religions freedom

Buddhism spread Silk Road trade

Chinese interested

Chinese missionaries visited Buddhist sites early

More followers in East Asia and SE Asia

Nalanda

Decline of the Gupta Dynasty Continuity – regionalism

Subcontinent Ethnic diversity

## of languages Difficult to unify

While the dynasty had vibrant economy, difficult to organize a highly centralized bureaucracy Unlike Ashoka, rulers took hands

off policy, led to growing disunity

Invasions form NW – White Huns By 500, Huns took over W. India,

destroying the empires’ trade with Rome leading to final collapse

Three Great Philosophical Traditions Period of instability in China as Zhou dynasty declined

Animism, Shamanism – three schools of thought

emerged

Confucianism, Daoism, Legalism

Confucianism K’ung Fu-tzu (Confucius)

Poor, traveled and gained followers

Disciples compiled teachings after death:

Analects Respect social hierarchies Focus on behavior Importance of family, respect for elders, reverence for ancestors Following proper rituals leads to social harmony

Golden Rule!

Humility

As a result, family became most important unit in Chinese society

Filial piety

Women subservient

Laozi, Old Master Disciples collected teachings, Dao De Jing

(The Classic Way and the Virtue)

Seek happiness and wisdom following the path, the dao

Renounce worldy ambitions and seek harmony with nature Will indirectly alter political system

Two sides in harmony Yin – submissive and feminine side

Yan, aggressive, masculine side

Keep in balance

Appealed to peasants; connected to natural forces

Doctors focus on restoring natural balance

Poets wrote about nature, etc.

Architects tried to create structure that integrated into natural surroundings

Daoism/Taoism

Legalism Contrast to Confucianism

and Daoism Less concerned with meaning

of life and more with behavior Strict laws and punishments

to control people Be a farmer or soldier

No teachers, merchants or artists

Collective responsibility – turn in family or neighbors if lawbreakers

Han Fei Zu and Li Si Violent Qin Dynasty – once

stable Legalism faded unlike long-term impact of Confucianism and Daoism

China: Qin and Han

Qin Dynasty Qin Shihuangdi defeated Zhou and nearby

regional authorities Qin dynasty brief but cruel

First emperor

Centralized state

Abolished law codes

Books burned

Scholars buried alive

People sent to construct northern walls or other infrastructure projects

Achievements: Expanded size of empire

Peasants could own land

Standardized script – communication easier

Standardized coinage; improved commerce

Canals, roads; improved trade

Tomb – terracotta warriors

Four years after death, rebels killed his son, the emperor and family

Han Dynasty – 400 years Han Wudi

Vast expansion of the empire

Invaded Korea, N. Vietnam, forces into central Asia to Bactria to defeat Xiongnu

Moved landless Chinese farmers to settle in new lands

Central Government

Efficient centralized govt

Civil service exam**

National universities to prepare officials

PAX SINICA Country enjoyed peace, economy

grew, population increased, as did rich who created thriving market for luxury goods.

Han Dynasty continued Silk Road Trade

Contact with Roman Empire

Buddhism into China from Central Asia

Silk production increased under Wudi, sold from Rome to Mesopotamia to Persia to India

Science and technology prospered Paper, calendar, improvements to iron

plow and yoke – agriculture up

Spread of disease along Silk Road

Economic problems arose; small farmers give up lands to large owners to satisfy debts Wang Mang (non-Han) tried to

redistribute but not well received

Yellow Turban Rebellion peasant uprising (yellow scarves) one of bloodiest before 1900.

220 emperor overthrown and China divided into three

India and China Trade Himalayas separated but

South China Sea connected

Vast trading network linking Afro-Eurasia Sailors made technological

advances to improve trade Astrolabe

Improvements to the compass Sternpost rudder Understanding monsoon

patterns

Helped the spread of religion, technology, and goods to shape next period

Early American Civilizations

The Andes Mountains: Chavin and Moche

Mesoamerica: Olmec, Maya, Aztec

The Moche – Andes Region Northern Peru today

Expanded through population increase and conquest

Monumental structures

Temple of the Sun and Temple of the Moon

Extensive irrigation networks – water from rivers to fields

Crops – corn and beans

Llamas to transport, fibers for textiles, dun to fertilize

Job specialization

Ceramic water jars (painted and decorated)

Jewelry

Trade local

Alyllus

Small communities with communal work

All with same mythical ancestor

Women would join husbands, but also maintain membership in her own alyllus

Veneration of ancestors

Ceremonial centers included some human sacrifice

Polytheistic – gods has emotions and passions (Greek comparison)

Civilization vanished; heavy rainfall (30 years) then drought (30 years)

Probably ended in violence and war

Mesoamerica Teotihuacan

Strong legacy from Olmecs

Near Mexico City ‘birthplace of the gods’

Grew to be one of the largest cities in the world at the time (founded 150 BCE) Grid pattern, apartment buildings

Ceremonial portion of city Pyramid of Sun

Pyramid of the Moon

Temple of Quetzalcoatl

Most were farmers

Exported obsidian Artisan workshops – leather,

pottery, obsidian tools', weapons

Decline in question, fire?

The Mayans Civilization at height 250 – 900 CE

(Classical period) Mexico, Belize, Honduras,

Guatemala

Number of cities

Slash and burn agriculture to feed Terraced farming Irrigation systems Raised deer

Corn, beans, squash= three sisters

Stone tools to cut limestone blocks for religious centers Temples, palaces, plazas

Most important: temples on top of pyramids to be closer to heavens and also as observatories

Mayan Government City-states

King No male heir – women ruled

Wars between city-states common Fought for tribute

POW for sacrifices

Kings claimed descent from gods; after death become one with ancestor god Hereditary

Taxes paid in crops and labor

No standing army; citizens provided service

No central government, but strongest city-state would dominate neighbors

Mayan Religion, Science, and

Culture Polytheistic: sun, rain, corn

Priest had great power Offerings included human sacrifice

Ball game – losers may have been sacrificed

Cultural achievements: Greeks of the New World

Priest studied heaven and calendars to make predictions Observatory: Caracol in Chichen Itza

Predicted eclipses and calculated phases

More accurate calendar than Europe

Concept of zero

Advanced writing system: pictures and symbols like hieroglyphics Paper made from tree bark bound into books

Decorated buildings, pots, monuments

Carved wood and jade No metal tools; carved using flint

Vivid paintings on walls and pottery

Decline of Mayans Cities Population growth:

cities crowded

Destruction of forests: environmental damage

Stresses due to wars

Urban population declined and people left cities to resume rural way of life

Today’s descendents combine Mayan beliefs and Roman Catholicism

Discussion Questions and Topics 1. Create a chart comparing women in Greece, Egypt,

and China

2. Analyze continuities and change in Greece between 800 BCE and 300 BCE in all of the following aspects:

State-building, expansion, conflict, and culture

3. Analyze similarities and differences in the fall of the empire of Alexander the Great, The Achaemenid Empire, the Minoan Kingdom

4. Analyze changes and continuities between Greece and Rome between 500 BCE – 500 CE in religion, gender roles, and military conquest

Discussion Questions and Topics 5. Analyze continuities and changes in government

structures in the Mediterranean world between the rise of city-states in ancient Mesopotamia and in the later city-states of Greece.

6. Analyze similarities and differences in the role of women in the Roman Republic and in Han China and Mauryan/Gupta India

7. Analyze similarities and differences between slavery in Rome and slavery in Egypt and Greece (in the age of Pericles)

8. Why did both early Roman and Greek civilizations develop on peninsulas?

9. Why are paved roads considered a great achievement by the Romans?

Discussion Questions and Topics 10. Analyze the changes and continuities that

occurred in political structures in India during the Classical period.

11. Analyze the similarities and differences in the decline of the Roman, Han, and Maurya/Gupta empires.

12. Analyze similarities and differences in Confucianism and Greek philosophy (Socrates to Aristotle), Greek and Roman religion pre-Christianity, and Christianity.

13. Analyze the changes and continuities of the Chinese interaction with other cultures beginning with the Zhou era and ending with the Han era.

14. Why did so many belief systems develop in one period?

Discussion Questions and Topics

15. Analyze continuties and changes in the

societies and cultures of Mesoamerica from the

Olmec through the Mayans.

16. Analyze continuties and changes in the

influence of geography on the Chavin and the

Moche in the centuries prior to 700 CE.

17. Compare how people interacted with the

environment in the early civilizations of the

Americas and among the Austronesian peoples of

the Pacific Islands.

Discussion Questions and Topics 18. Compare how geographic factors affected

unification in Greece and in Rome.

19. How did religion influence other aspects of culture in Greece, the Gupta Empire in India, and the Mayan civilization?

20. Compare the ways that Alexander the Great, Augustus Caesar, and Ashoka Maurya administered their empires.

21. Explain how the Silk Roads were connected to sea-based trade routes in the Indian Ocean and Mediterranean Sea.