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Memory
Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2006
What is Memory?
• The ability to recall past events, images, ideas, or previously learned information or skills
• The storage system that allows a person to retain and retrieve previously learned information
Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2006
How Does the Memory Process Begin?
The brain as Information Processor
Long-Term
Memory
Three Processes
Short-Term
Memory
2. Storage 3. Retrieval1. Encoding
Information
Sensory Memory
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Encoding
• Organizing sensory information so it can be processed by the nervous system• Visual• Auditory• Olfactory
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Encoding
1. Attention is important
– Divided attention interferes with encoding
2. Levels of Processing
– Brain encodes information in different ways or on different levels
– Deeper processing leads to deeper memory
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Levels of Processing
• All approaches emphasize:
– Importance of encoding
– How information is encoded
– That encoding is flexible
– Effects of cues
– Effects of preconceived biases
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Neuroscience and Encoding• PET and MRI used to study neurobiological bases
of memory
• Two important areas:
a. Prefrontal cortex
• Left: Encoding new memories
• Right: Retrieving old memories
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Neuroscience and Encoding
Two important areas:a. Prefrontal cortex
b. Temporal Lobes
• temporal lobes active during encoding of associations
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Storage is:– The process of maintaining or keeping
information readily available– The locations where information is held
• Memory stores
Types of Memory Storage
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A. Sensory Memory
Types of Memory Storage
– Performs initial encoding– Provides brief storage– Two types
– Iconic Memory– Echoic Memory
– Information must be transferred to short-term storage or it will be forgotten
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Types of Memory Storage
B. Short-Term Storage– Holds information for processing
– Fragile
– Other terms:• Short term Memory (emphasizes
duration)
• Working Memory (emphasizes active nature)
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Short-Term Storage
1. Early Research on Short-Term Memorya. Duration
Information in short-term memory is available for 20–30 seconds at most.
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Early Research on Short-Term Memory
b. Quantity of information stored• Memory Span
• 5–7 items (George Miller, 1956)• But what is an item?
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What is an item?
1 4 9 1 6 2 5 3 6 4 9 6 4 8 1 1 0 0
1 4 9 16 25 36 49 64 81 100
Cat orange escalator watch bench
The orange cat sat on the bench watching the escalator.
• Such groupings are called chunks
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Early Research on Short-Term Memory
c. Rehearsal• Process of repeatedly verbalizing or
thinking about information to keep it active in memory
• Two types:
• Maintenance rehearsal
• Elaborative rehearsal
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Short-Term Storage
2. The Emergence of Working Memory– Temporarily holds current or recent
information for immediate or short-term use
– Does not simply store information
– Information is maintained for 20–30 seconds while active processing (e.g., rehearsal) takes place
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C. Long-Term Memory
Types of Memory Storage
– Relatively permanent record of memory
– Stored indefinitely
– Capacity seems unlimited
– Several different types
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Long Term Memory
1. Types:
a. Types based on contenti. Procedural memory
ii. Declarative memory
a) Episodic memory
b) Semantic memory
b. Types based on awarenessi. Explicit memory
ii. Implicit memory
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Long Term Memory
2. Practice and Storage• Two types:
• Massed practice
• Distributed practice
• Found distributed practice best
• Especially for perceptual-motor skills
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Neuroscience and Storage• Consolidation
• Process of changing a temporary memory to a permanent memory
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• The process by which stored information is recovered from memory– Depends on
• How retention is measured
• How information is encoded and stored
Retrieval
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Retention: Measures of Retrieval
Two types of retrieval task:1. Recall
• Free recall• Serial recall• Paired associate
2. Recognition
3. Relearning
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RetrievalRetrieval Success and Failure:
• Sometimes information is in memory, but is inaccessible
• Why?• One reason: poor retrieval cues
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What Facilitates Retrieval?
Retrieval
1. Primacy and Recency Effects
a. Primacy Effect• Better memory for items at the
beginning of a list• Better attention• More time for rehearsal
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b. Recency Effect
Primacy and Recency Effects
– Better memory for items at the end of a list– Items still in short-term storage
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• Exception:
Primacy and Recency Effects
• Restorff effect• Occurs when recall is better for a
distinctive item, even if it occurs in the middle of a list
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2. Imagery
What Facilitates Retrieval
• The creation of a mental picture of a sensory or perceptual experience
• Important memory aid• Preserves perceptual information that might
otherwise decay
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Flashbulb Memories
Retrieval
• Vivid
• Remembered with confidence
• Detailed memory for events surrounding a dramatic event
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– One theory says this is a special type of memory for events that are highly emotional• Makes them especially accurate
• Other psychologists disagree– Not a special mechanism– The emotional component makes these
memories• More distinctive (affecting encoding)
• More often rehearsed (enhancing retrieval)
Flashbulb Memories
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• Research shows that flashbulb memories
– Are vivid
– Are far from accurate
– Can change over time
Flashbulb Memories
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Early Studies
– Found that college students made changes in stories when recalling them• Leveling• Sharpening• Assimilation
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Early Studies• Contemporary explanations center on the
reconstructive nature of memory– Memory formation often relies on a
schema– We can not remember all the details of
an event• Schemas help fill in the missing details
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ForgettingKey Causes of Forgetting
1. Decay of Information• The loss of information from memory
due to disuse and the passage of time
• Disintegration of a physiological memory trace
2. Interference in Memory• The suppression of one bit of
information by another
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Interference in Memory
• Two types of interferencea. Proactive interference
• Previously learned information interferes with the ability to learn new information
b. Retroactive interference• Newly learned information interferes with
the ability to recall previously learned information
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Key Causes of Forgetting
3. Interference with Attention– Likely causes of absentmindedness
• Encoding failure
– Divided attention• Problem for both encoding and
retrieval• More of a problem during encoding
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Interference with Attention• Stroop Effect
YELLOWREDBLUEBLACKGREENREDBLUE
YELLOWREDBLUEBLACKGREENREDBLUE
– Read the INK COLOR of the words below as quickly as you can
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ForgettingSpecial Types of Forgetting
1. Eyewitness Testimony• Both jurors and judges place high
confidence in eyewitnesses– However, research shows
eyewitnesses are often inaccurate– Loftus’ (1975, 1979) research
» Demonstrated memory distortion may be caused by the wording of a question
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Eyewitness Testimony• Demonstrates the misinformation effect• High motivation to remember an event can
actually distort it
• Accuracy and confidence are uncorrelated
– Speed of identification is a better indicator of accuracy than confidence
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Special Types of Forgetting
2. Motivated Forgetting– Occurs when frightening, traumatic events
are forgotten because people want to forget them
– First suggested by Freud (1933) • Believed such memory loss occurred
through repression– Underlies the debate on recovered
memory
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