writing scientific manuscripts in english dr. m. kevin o carroll bds, msd fellow, american academy...
Post on 23-Dec-2015
219 Views
Preview:
TRANSCRIPT
Writing Scientific Writing Scientific Manuscripts in Manuscripts in
EnglishEnglishDr. M. Kevin O CarrollDr. M. Kevin O Carroll
BDS, MSDBDS, MSDFellow, American Academy of Oral and Maxillofacial Fellow, American Academy of Oral and Maxillofacial
RadiologyRadiologyDiplomate, American Board of Oral and Maxillofacial Diplomate, American Board of Oral and Maxillofacial
RadiologyRadiologyProfessor Emeritus, University of Mississippi School of Professor Emeritus, University of Mississippi School of
DentistryDentistryInternational Consultant, Chiang Mai University Faculty of International Consultant, Chiang Mai University Faculty of
DentistryDentistry
Scientific PaperScientific Paper
Written and published report describing Written and published report describing original research resultsoriginal research results
Must be written in a certain wayMust be written in a certain way Must be published in a certain wayMust be published in a certain way
Scientific PaperScientific Paper What do we mean by “written in a certain What do we mean by “written in a certain
way?”way?” Following a certain formatFollowing a certain format IMRADIMRAD
IIntroductionntroduction MMethodsethods RResults esults aandnd DDiscussioniscussion
Scientific PaperScientific Paper
What do we mean by “published in a certain What do we mean by “published in a certain way?”way?”
““Valid” or “Primary” PublicationValid” or “Primary” Publication Difficult concept to explainDifficult concept to explain A number of testsA number of tests
Scientific PaperScientific PaperExamples of non-primary publicationsExamples of non-primary publications
AbstractsAbstracts ThesesTheses Conference ReportsConference Reports Government ReportsGovernment Reports Institutional BulletinsInstitutional Bulletins
Scientific PaperScientific PaperTests for Primary PublicationTests for Primary Publication
First disclosure containing sufficient First disclosure containing sufficient information to enable peers toinformation to enable peers to 1) assess observations1) assess observations 2) repeat experiments and2) repeat experiments and 3) evaluate intellectual processes 3) evaluate intellectual processes
Scientific PaperScientific PaperTests for Primary PublicationTests for Primary Publication
Susceptible to sensory perceptionSusceptible to sensory perception Essentially permanentEssentially permanent Available to scientific community without restrictionAvailable to scientific community without restriction Available for regular screening by secondary services Available for regular screening by secondary services
(indexing)(indexing)
Scientific PaperScientific PaperWhat Does All This Mean?What Does All This Mean?
First DisclosureFirst Disclosure Oral presentation? – NoOral presentation? – No Scientific abstract from a meeting? – NoScientific abstract from a meeting? – No
First Disclosure must be in a form that allows the First Disclosure must be in a form that allows the peers of the author, either now or later, to fully peers of the author, either now or later, to fully comprehend and use the information that is disclosedcomprehend and use the information that is disclosed
Scientific PaperScientific PaperWhat Does All This Mean?What Does All This Mean?
Peers must be able toPeers must be able to 1) assess the observations1) assess the observations
Did you do a proper literature review?Did you do a proper literature review? Did you design the experiment properly?Did you design the experiment properly?
2) repeat the experiments 2) repeat the experiments Are they described in sufficient detail that I can repeat Are they described in sufficient detail that I can repeat
them? andthem? and 3) evaluate intellectual processes3) evaluate intellectual processes
Are your conclusions justified by the results?Are your conclusions justified by the results?
Scientific PaperScientific PaperWhat Does All This Mean?What Does All This Mean?
Susceptible to sensory perceptionSusceptible to sensory perception Normally it means “published” but now includes Normally it means “published” but now includes
media such as:media such as: PrintPrint
Journals, film, microficheJournals, film, microfiche AudioAudio Electronic Electronic
Must still pass the other testsMust still pass the other tests
Scientific PaperScientific PaperWhat Does All This Mean?What Does All This Mean?
PermanentPermanent In a form that libraries will keep in their permanent In a form that libraries will keep in their permanent
collectionscollections So, not newsletters or bulletins that may be thrown So, not newsletters or bulletins that may be thrown
away after short periods such as a few months or a yearaway after short periods such as a few months or a year
Scientific PaperScientific PaperSummarySummary
Primary publication isPrimary publication is The first publication of original researchThe first publication of original research In a form whereby peers can repeat the In a form whereby peers can repeat the
experiments and test the conclusions, andexperiments and test the conclusions, and In a journal or other source document readily In a journal or other source document readily
available to the scientific communityavailable to the scientific community
Scientific PaperScientific PaperSummarySummary
Peers of the author is now generally accepted Peers of the author is now generally accepted to mean pre-publication peer-reviewto mean pre-publication peer-review
So, just any journal, even if it is in a library’s So, just any journal, even if it is in a library’s permanent collection, does not constitute permanent collection, does not constitute primary or valid publicationprimary or valid publication
It must be a peer-reviewed journalIt must be a peer-reviewed journal
Peer-reviewed JournalsPeer-reviewed Journals
EditorEditor Editorial BoardEditorial Board
Helps the editor establish editorial policyHelps the editor establish editorial policy Manuscript reviewersManuscript reviewers
Help the editor identify manuscripts for Help the editor identify manuscripts for publicationpublication
AcceptAccept RejectReject Accept after modificationsAccept after modifications
Peer-reviewed JournalsPeer-reviewed Journals
Manuscript reviewersManuscript reviewers Editor usually selects 2 or 3 reviewers Editor usually selects 2 or 3 reviewers
per manuscriptper manuscript Very specific instructionsVery specific instructions
Evaluate the experimental procedureEvaluate the experimental procedure Do the results justify the conclusions?Do the results justify the conclusions? Check one third of the references for Check one third of the references for
accuracyaccuracy
Scientific PaperScientific Paper
Understanding the concepts of valid Understanding the concepts of valid or primary publication and proper or primary publication and proper form will make the writing task form will make the writing task easier than it would otherwise be.easier than it would otherwise be.
Scientific ManuscriptScientific Manuscript
Before a scientific paper is published it is Before a scientific paper is published it is referred to as a scientific manuscriptreferred to as a scientific manuscript
After publication it may be referred to as After publication it may be referred to as a paper or an articlea paper or an article
Scientific ManuscriptsScientific Manuscripts
TitleTitle Author(s) and addressesAuthor(s) and addresses AbstractAbstract IntroductionIntroduction Materials and MethodsMaterials and Methods ResultsResults
DiscussionDiscussion AcknowledgementsAcknowledgements ReferencesReferences TablesTables IllustrationsIllustrations Other considerationsOther considerations
Scientific ManuscriptsScientific Manuscripts
TitleTitle Author(s) and addressesAuthor(s) and addresses AbstractAbstract IntroductionIntroduction Materials and MethodsMaterials and Methods ResultsResults
DiscussionDiscussion AcknowledgementsAcknowledgements ReferencesReferences TablesTables IllustrationsIllustrations Other considerationsOther considerations
TitleTitle
Title is read by thousands of peopleTitle is read by thousands of people Abstract is read perhaps by hundredsAbstract is read perhaps by hundreds Whole article may be read by only a few Whole article may be read by only a few
people people
Isn’t that a great pity, especially after Isn’t that a great pity, especially after you have spent so may hours writing the you have spent so may hours writing the manuscript?manuscript?
Sad but trueSad but true
TitleTitle
If your title does not convey the essence If your title does not convey the essence of the paper, nobody will bother to read of the paper, nobody will bother to read the paperthe paper
Every word in the title must be chosen Every word in the title must be chosen with great carewith great care
The syntax (relationship between the The syntax (relationship between the words) must be carefully managedwords) must be carefully managed
Think of the title as a label for the paper, Think of the title as a label for the paper, something that will entice the readersomething that will entice the reader
TitleTitle
The fewest possible words that The fewest possible words that adequately describe the contents of the adequately describe the contents of the paperpaper
Ideally not a sentenceIdeally not a sentence Unless you have a strong message backed up Unless you have a strong message backed up
by strong evidenceby strong evidence No waste words (A, the, an, No waste words (A, the, an,
“Observations on”)“Observations on”) Long titles are usually less meaningful Long titles are usually less meaningful
than short onesthan short ones
TitleTitle SpecificSpecific
““Actions of antibiotics on bacteria”Actions of antibiotics on bacteria”
TitleTitle SpecificSpecific
““Actions of antibiotics on bacteria”Actions of antibiotics on bacteria” Short but tells us littleShort but tells us little
TitleTitle SpecificSpecific
““Actions of antibiotics on bacteria”Actions of antibiotics on bacteria” Short but tells us littleShort but tells us little
““Preliminary observations on the effect Preliminary observations on the effect of certain antibiotics on various species of certain antibiotics on various species of bacteria”of bacteria”
TitleTitle SpecificSpecific
““Actions of antibiotics on bacteria”Actions of antibiotics on bacteria” Short but tells us littleShort but tells us little
““Preliminary observations on the effect Preliminary observations on the effect of certain antibiotics on various species of certain antibiotics on various species of bacteria”of bacteria” Longer but tells us no moreLonger but tells us no more
TitleTitle SpecificSpecific
““Actions of antibiotics on bacteria”Actions of antibiotics on bacteria” Short but tells us littleShort but tells us little
““Preliminary observations on the effect Preliminary observations on the effect of certain antibiotics on various species of certain antibiotics on various species of bacteria”of bacteria” Longer but tells us no moreLonger but tells us no more
““Action of streptomycin on Action of streptomycin on Mycobactrium tuberculosisMycobactrium tuberculosis””
TitleTitle SpecificSpecific
““Actions of antibiotics on bacteria”Actions of antibiotics on bacteria” Short but tells us littleShort but tells us little
““Preliminary observations on the effect Preliminary observations on the effect of certain antibiotics on various species of certain antibiotics on various species of bacteria”of bacteria” Longer but tells us no moreLonger but tells us no more
““Action of streptomycin on Action of streptomycin on Mycobactrium tuberculosisMycobactrium tuberculosis”” Better, but still too generalBetter, but still too general
TitleTitle SpecificSpecific
““Actions of antibiotics on bacteria”Actions of antibiotics on bacteria” Short but tells us littleShort but tells us little
““Preliminary observations on the effect of Preliminary observations on the effect of certain antibiotics on various species of certain antibiotics on various species of bacteria”bacteria”
Longer but tells us no moreLonger but tells us no more ““Action of streptomycin on Action of streptomycin on Mycobactrium Mycobactrium
tuberculosistuberculosis”” Better, but still too generalBetter, but still too general
““Inhibition of growth ofInhibition of growth of Mycobactrium Mycobactrium tuberculosis tuberculosis byby streptomycin”streptomycin”
TitleTitle Syntax very important in titlesSyntax very important in titles
““Mechanism of suppression of non-Mechanism of suppression of non-transmissible pneumonia in mice transmissible pneumonia in mice induced by Newcastle disease virus”induced by Newcastle disease virus”
TitleTitle Syntax very important in titlesSyntax very important in titles
““Mechanism of suppression of non-Mechanism of suppression of non-transmissible pneumonia in mice transmissible pneumonia in mice inducedinduced by Newcastle disease virus”by Newcastle disease virus”
Mice that were induced by . . . virus?Mice that were induced by . . . virus? Pneumonia that was inducedPneumonia that was induced So, why separate the “induced” from the So, why separate the “induced” from the
“pneumonia?”“pneumonia?”
TitleTitle
““Mechanism of suppression of non-Mechanism of suppression of non-transmissible pneumonia in mice transmissible pneumonia in mice inducedinduced by Newcastle disease virus” by Newcastle disease virus”
Revision:Revision: ““Mechanism of suppression of non-Mechanism of suppression of non-
transmissible pneumonia transmissible pneumonia inducedinduced in in mice by Newcastle disease virus”mice by Newcastle disease virus”
TitleTitle
““Multiple infections among Multiple infections among newborns newborns resulting from implantationresulting from implantation with with staphylococcus aureus”staphylococcus aureus”
Revision:Revision: ““Multiple infections Multiple infections resulting from resulting from
implantationimplantation ofof newbornsnewborns with with staphylococcus aureus”staphylococcus aureus”
TitleTitle
Be careful when you use “using”Be careful when you use “using” Most common dangling participle in Most common dangling participle in
scientific writingscientific writing
““Isolation of antigens from monkeys Isolation of antigens from monkeys using compliment fixation using compliment fixation techniques.”techniques.”
TitleTitle
““Isolation of antigens from Isolation of antigens from monkeys monkeys usingusing compliment fixation compliment fixation techniques.”techniques.”
Revision:Revision: ““Isolation of antigens from monkeys Isolation of antigens from monkeys
by means ofby means of compliment fixation compliment fixation techniques.”techniques.”
TitleTitle
Do not use abbreviationsDo not use abbreviations ““hydrochloric acid” or “HCl” in a title?hydrochloric acid” or “HCl” in a title? If you were looking for an article in an If you were looking for an article in an
index, you would look under “hy” not “hc”index, you would look under “hy” not “hc” Furthermore, if you were compiling a Furthermore, if you were compiling a
bibliography from a computer service, bibliography from a computer service, you would find only some of the literature you would find only some of the literature if some authors used (or editors if some authors used (or editors accepted) abbreviations and others did accepted) abbreviations and others did notnot
TitleTitle
Do not use jargon, proprietary Do not use jargon, proprietary names or outdated terminologynames or outdated terminology
They lead to problems with indexingThey lead to problems with indexing
TitleTitle
Do not use series titles (“ . . . Part I. . . . .” Do not use series titles (“ . . . Part I. . . . .” etc.)etc.)
The part before the Roman numeral is The part before the Roman numeral is usually so general as to be uselessusually so general as to be useless
The article can be hard to understand The article can be hard to understand unless all parts are available to the readerunless all parts are available to the reader
They cause problems for editorsThey cause problems for editors (What (What happens if Part IV is accepted but Part III happens if Part IV is accepted but Part III is rejected or delayed in review?) and is rejected or delayed in review?) and indexersindexers
TitleTitle
A hanging title is better (a colon is A hanging title is better (a colon is used instead of the Roman numeral) used instead of the Roman numeral) but still causes indexing problemsbut still causes indexing problems
Editors increasingly believe that Editors increasingly believe that each published paper should present each published paper should present the results of an independent, the results of an independent, cohesive studycohesive study
Scientific ManuscriptsScientific Manuscripts
TitleTitle Author(s) and Author(s) and
addressesaddresses AbstractAbstract IntroductionIntroduction Materials and MethodsMaterials and Methods ResultsResults
DiscussionDiscussion AcknowledgementsAcknowledgements ReferencesReferences TablesTables IllustrationsIllustrations Other considerationsOther considerations
Authors and addressesAuthors and addresses
Order of namesOrder of names No universal agreementNo universal agreement Most popular is listing in order of Most popular is listing in order of
seniority (in relation to the study)seniority (in relation to the study) First author should be the one who First author should be the one who
did most or all of the researchdid most or all of the research Subsequent authors should be in Subsequent authors should be in
order of importance to the studyorder of importance to the study
Authors and addressesAuthors and addresses
Order of namesOrder of names The tendency of laboratory directors The tendency of laboratory directors
or department chairs to have their or department chairs to have their names on all manuscripts coming out names on all manuscripts coming out of their labs or departments should be of their labs or departments should be discourageddiscouraged
Nobody in the scientific community is Nobody in the scientific community is fooledfooled
Authors and addressesAuthors and addresses
Order of namesOrder of names Some journals now require all authors to Some journals now require all authors to
sign a statement accepting intellectual sign a statement accepting intellectual responsibility for the research results responsibility for the research results being reportedbeing reported
In the US there have been cases of In the US there have been cases of institutions having to return millions of institutions having to return millions of dollars of research funding to the dollars of research funding to the government because of such fraudulent government because of such fraudulent authorshipauthorship
Authors and addressesAuthors and addresses
Proper and consistent formProper and consistent form Last name, first name, middle initial(s)Last name, first name, middle initial(s) Always use the same formAlways use the same form If you sometimes use John K. Smith If you sometimes use John K. Smith
and other times J. K. Smith, your work and other times J. K. Smith, your work will be difficult to locatewill be difficult to locate
If you change your name (e.g., upon If you change your name (e.g., upon marriage) people who do not know marriage) people who do not know you will not be able to find all your you will not be able to find all your workwork
Authors and addressesAuthors and addresses Degrees and titlesDegrees and titles This will be determined by the specific This will be determined by the specific
journaljournal There are two principal journals in my There are two principal journals in my
field and they have different philosophies field and they have different philosophies One accepts degrees but not titles (Dr., One accepts degrees but not titles (Dr., Prof., etc), the other does not.Prof., etc), the other does not.
No matter where you wish to publish, No matter where you wish to publish, read the Instructions to Authors first. read the Instructions to Authors first. They will provide the information you They will provide the information you need.need.
Authors and addressesAuthors and addresses Degrees and titlesDegrees and titles An interesting problem for indexers.An interesting problem for indexers. George Kennedy and Desmond Brown, colleagues George Kennedy and Desmond Brown, colleagues
of mine published a paper.of mine published a paper. George’s degrees and qualifications were George’s degrees and qualifications were B.D.S., B.D.S.,
D. Orth., F.D.S., R.C.S.D. Orth., F.D.S., R.C.S. and Desmond’s was and Desmond’s was B.D.S.B.D.S.
When the article appeared in the Index to Dental When the article appeared in the Index to Dental Literature, the authors were listed as:Literature, the authors were listed as:
Kennedy GKennedy G, , Orth DOrth D, , Brown DBrown D It looked as if there were three authors because It looked as if there were three authors because
the indexer misidentified George’s second degree the indexer misidentified George’s second degree as an authoras an author
Authors and addressesAuthors and addresses AddressesAddresses With one author, one address is given, With one author, one address is given,
the one where the research was donethe one where the research was done If, before publication, an author has If, before publication, an author has
moved to another address, the new moved to another address, the new address should be indicated in a address should be indicated in a “Present address” footnote“Present address” footnote
With multiple authors, each in a With multiple authors, each in a different institution, the addresses different institution, the addresses should be listed in the same order as the should be listed in the same order as the authorsauthors
Authors and addressesAuthors and addresses
AddressesAddresses With three authors in two With three authors in two
instutions, problems sometimes instutions, problems sometimes arisearise
A common solution is to place a A common solution is to place a superscript a, b, or c after their superscript a, b, or c after their names and before the addressesnames and before the addresses
Consult the Instructions for AuthorsConsult the Instructions for Authors
Scientific ManuscriptsScientific Manuscripts
TitleTitle Author(s) and addressesAuthor(s) and addresses AbstractAbstract IntroductionIntroduction Materials and MethodsMaterials and Methods ResultsResults
DiscussionDiscussion AcknowledgementsAcknowledgements ReferencesReferences TablesTables IllustrationsIllustrations Other considerationsOther considerations
AbstractAbstract Mini-version of the paperMini-version of the paper Brief summary of each section of the Brief summary of each section of the
paperpaper Written in one paragraph <250 wordsWritten in one paragraph <250 words Some journals now require a structured Some journals now require a structured
abstract consisting of a few paragraphsabstract consisting of a few paragraphs Headings matching the sections of the Headings matching the sections of the
paperpaper Although read first, it should be written Although read first, it should be written
after the manuscript is finished, when you after the manuscript is finished, when you know what to put in itknow what to put in it
AbstractAbstract
Purpose of abstractPurpose of abstract Enables reader to Enables reader to
identify the contents of the paper identify the contents of the paper quickly and accuratelyquickly and accurately
determine its relevance to their determine its relevance to their interests, andinterests, and
decide whether they need to read the decide whether they need to read the whole paperwhole paper
AbstractAbstract Structure of abstractStructure of abstract State the principal objectives and scope State the principal objectives and scope
of the investigationof the investigation Describe the methods employedDescribe the methods employed Summarize the resultsSummarize the results State the principal conclusionsState the principal conclusions Write it in the past tense because it Write it in the past tense because it
refers to work completedrefers to work completed Never place results or conclusions in the Never place results or conclusions in the
abstract that are not stated in the paperabstract that are not stated in the paper
AbstractAbstract Structure of abstractStructure of abstract Will be published by itself, so should be self-Will be published by itself, so should be self-
containedcontained Should not contain any abbreviations or Should not contain any abbreviations or
referencesreferences Language should be familiar to potential readerLanguage should be familiar to potential reader Omit all unnecessary detailsOmit all unnecessary details Remember, the first person who will read it is Remember, the first person who will read it is
the reviewerthe reviewer If the abstract is not good, the paper may be If the abstract is not good, the paper may be
rejectedrejected
Scientific ManuscriptsScientific Manuscripts
TitleTitle Author(s) and addressesAuthor(s) and addresses AbstractAbstract IntroductionIntroduction Materials and MethodsMaterials and Methods ResultsResults
DiscussionDiscussion AcknowledgementsAcknowledgements ReferencesReferences TablesTables IllustrationsIllustrations Other considerationsOther considerations
IntroductionIntroduction Purpose of IntroductionPurpose of Introduction
Awaken the reader’s interestAwaken the reader’s interest
Prepare the reader, whether or not Prepare the reader, whether or not they are specialists in your field, to they are specialists in your field, to understand the paper understand the paper
IntroductionIntroduction Suggested rulesSuggested rules
Consider the level of audience and Consider the level of audience and determine the amount of description you determine the amount of description you need to provideneed to provide
Begin writing while the work is still in Begin writing while the work is still in progressprogress Everything is fresh in your mindEverything is fresh in your mind Writing early may identify problems in Writing early may identify problems in
methodologymethodology Co-authors are still available for consultationCo-authors are still available for consultation
IntroductionIntroduction Suggested rulesSuggested rules
Provide sufficient background Provide sufficient background information to enable the reader to information to enable the reader to understand and evaluate the results understand and evaluate the results of the present study without having of the present study without having to refer to previous publicationsto refer to previous publications
Provide the rationale for the studyProvide the rationale for the study Clearly and briefly describe your Clearly and briefly describe your
purpose in writing the paperpurpose in writing the paper
IntroductionIntroduction Suggested rulesSuggested rules Write in the present tense because you Write in the present tense because you
are describing what is known and what are describing what is known and what question or problem you want to question or problem you want to investigateinvestigate
Present the nature and scope of the Present the nature and scope of the problemproblem
Review the pertinent literatureReview the pertinent literature State the method of the investigationState the method of the investigation If necessary, the reason for choosing a If necessary, the reason for choosing a
particular method should be statedparticular method should be stated
IntroductionIntroduction Suggested rulesSuggested rules Some controversy regarding what Some controversy regarding what
else should be in the Introductionelse should be in the Introduction
IntroductionIntroduction Some saySome say State the principal results of the State the principal results of the
investigationinvestigation State the principal conclusions State the principal conclusions
suggested by the resultssuggested by the results Do not keep the reader in suspense; Do not keep the reader in suspense;
this is not a detective story!this is not a detective story! If you hold back the results until later If you hold back the results until later
in the paper, the reader may lose in the paper, the reader may lose interestinterest
IntroductionIntroduction Others sayOthers say The answers to the question should The answers to the question should
not be in the Introductionnot be in the Introduction Similarly, results should not be in the Similarly, results should not be in the
Introduction, nor should implicationsIntroduction, nor should implications Purpose of Introduction is leading inPurpose of Introduction is leading in Answers and implications sound like Answers and implications sound like
the end of the abstract. They close off the end of the abstract. They close off rather than lead inrather than lead in
IntroductionIntroduction
Safest policy is to study the style of Safest policy is to study the style of the journal in which you wish to the journal in which you wish to publishpublish
IntroductionIntroduction Suggested rulesSuggested rules If you have published a preliminary note If you have published a preliminary note
or abstract on this study, you should or abstract on this study, you should mention it, with the reference, in the mention it, with the reference, in the IntroductionIntroduction
If related work is about to be published If related work is about to be published elsewhere, say so in the Introduction, elsewhere, say so in the Introduction, usually towards the endusually towards the end
Such references help to keep the Such references help to keep the literature tidy for those who have to literature tidy for those who have to search itsearch it
IntroductionIntroduction Suggested rulesSuggested rules The Introduction is the place to The Introduction is the place to
define any specialised terms or define any specialised terms or abbreviations you intend to use, abbreviations you intend to use, especially for readers who are not especially for readers who are not in your specialtyin your specialty
Use only standard abbreviations Use only standard abbreviations unless you will be using them often unless you will be using them often in the paperin the paper
Scientific ManuscriptsScientific Manuscripts
TitleTitle Author(s) and addressesAuthor(s) and addresses AbstractAbstract IntroductionIntroduction Materials and Materials and
MethodsMethods ResultsResults
DiscussionDiscussion AcknowledgementsAcknowledgements ReferencesReferences TablesTables IllustrationsIllustrations Other considerationsOther considerations
Materials and MethodsMaterials and Methods Purpose of Materials and MethodsPurpose of Materials and Methods
Describe in detail the experimental Describe in detail the experimental methodmethod
Defend, if necessary, the experimental Defend, if necessary, the experimental designdesign
Enable the reader to duplicate the studyEnable the reader to duplicate the study
Materials and MethodsMaterials and Methods Most readers will probably skip this Most readers will probably skip this
sectionsection You (should) have summarised the You (should) have summarised the
methods in the Introductionmethods in the Introduction So, why give details?So, why give details? The scientific method requires that your The scientific method requires that your
results, results, to have scientific meritto have scientific merit, must be , must be reproducible, and for the results to be reproducible, and for the results to be judged reproducible, you must provide judged reproducible, you must provide the basis for repetition of the study by the basis for repetition of the study by othersothers
Materials and MethodsMaterials and Methods The fact that the experiments are not The fact that the experiments are not
likely to be reproduced is beside the likely to be reproduced is beside the point; the potential for reproducing point; the potential for reproducing the same or similar results must the same or similar results must exist or your paper does not exist or your paper does not represent good sciencerepresent good science
When your paper is submitted for When your paper is submitted for peer review, peer review, a good reviewer will a good reviewer will read this section very carefullyread this section very carefully
Materials and MethodsMaterials and Methods
If there is serious doubt that your If there is serious doubt that your experiments could be repeated, the experiments could be repeated, the reviewer will recommend rejection reviewer will recommend rejection of your manuscript no matter how of your manuscript no matter how awe-inspiring your resultsawe-inspiring your results
Scientific ManuscriptsScientific Manuscripts
TitleTitle Author(s) and addressesAuthor(s) and addresses AbstractAbstract IntroductionIntroduction Materials and MethodsMaterials and Methods ResultsResults
DiscussionDiscussion AcknowledgementsAcknowledgements ReferencesReferences TablesTables IllustrationsIllustrations Other considerationsOther considerations
ResultsResults Do not start the Results section by Do not start the Results section by
describing methods you forgot to describing methods you forgot to include in the materials and include in the materials and methods section!methods section!
Write in the past tenseWrite in the past tense
Provide representative data, not Provide representative data, not endlessly repetitive dataendlessly repetitive data
ResultsResults If one or just a few determinations are If one or just a few determinations are
to be presented, they should be to be presented, they should be described in the textdescribed in the text
Repetitive determinations should be Repetitive determinations should be presented in tablespresented in tables
Any determinations should be Any determinations should be meaningfulmeaningful
If statistics are used to describe the If statistics are used to describe the results, they should be meaningful results, they should be meaningful statisticsstatistics
ResultsResults The results should be short, without The results should be short, without
unnecessary wordsunnecessary words This section is often the shortest, This section is often the shortest,
especially if preceded by a well-especially if preceded by a well-written Materials and methods section written Materials and methods section and followed by a well-written and followed by a well-written DiscussionDiscussion
State the results clearly and simplyState the results clearly and simply They constitute the new knowledge They constitute the new knowledge
you are contributing to the worldyou are contributing to the world
ResultsResults Do not repeat in words information Do not repeat in words information
already contained in the tablesalready contained in the tables
Do not say “It can be clearly seen in Do not say “It can be clearly seen in Table I that streptomycin inhibited . Table I that streptomycin inhibited . . .”. .”
Instead, say “Streptomycin Instead, say “Streptomycin inhibited . . . (Table I)”inhibited . . . (Table I)”
ResultsResults Do not misuse “it”Do not misuse “it”
An example:An example: The patient’s left leg became numb The patient’s left leg became numb
at times but she walked it off. . . . at times but she walked it off. . . . On her second day the knee was On her second day the knee was better, and on the third day it had better, and on the third day it had completely disappeared.”completely disappeared.”
Scientific ManuscriptsScientific Manuscripts
TitleTitle Author(s) and addressesAuthor(s) and addresses AbstractAbstract IntroductionIntroduction Materials and MethodsMaterials and Methods ResultsResults
DiscussionDiscussion AcknowledgementsAcknowledgements ReferencesReferences TablesTables IllustrationsIllustrations Other considerationsOther considerations
DiscussionDiscussion
Usually the hardest section to writeUsually the hardest section to write Many papers are rejected because of Many papers are rejected because of
faulty Discussion sections even faulty Discussion sections even though the data are valid and though the data are valid and interestinginteresting
Often too longOften too long Sometimes the true meaning of the Sometimes the true meaning of the
data is obscured by an incorrect data is obscured by an incorrect interpretation presented in the interpretation presented in the DiscussionDiscussion
DiscussionDiscussion
Components of a good DiscussionComponents of a good Discussion
Discuss (not repeat) the principles, Discuss (not repeat) the principles, relationships and generalisations relationships and generalisations shown by the resultsshown by the results
Identify any exceptions or lack of Identify any exceptions or lack of correlation and define unsettled correlation and define unsettled pointspoints
DiscussionDiscussion
Components of a good DiscussionComponents of a good Discussion
Show how your results and Show how your results and intrerpretation agree or contrast with intrerpretation agree or contrast with previously published workpreviously published work
Discuss the theoretical implications of Discuss the theoretical implications of your work as well as any practical your work as well as any practical applicationsapplications
State your conclusions clearlyState your conclusions clearly Summarise your evidence for each Summarise your evidence for each
conclusionconclusion
DiscussionDiscussion
Components of a good DiscussionComponents of a good Discussion
Finish with a short summary of the Finish with a short summary of the significance of the studysignificance of the study
Scientific ManuscriptsScientific Manuscripts TitleTitle Author(s) and addressesAuthor(s) and addresses AbstractAbstract IntroductionIntroduction Materials and MethodsMaterials and Methods ResultsResults
DiscussionDiscussion AcknowledgementsAcknowledgements ReferencesReferences TablesTables IllustrationsIllustrations Other considerationsOther considerations
AcknowledgementsAcknowledgements
Acknowledge any significant technical Acknowledge any significant technical help you received from any individualhelp you received from any individual
Acknowledge the source of any special Acknowledge the source of any special equipment, cultures or materials equipment, cultures or materials
Acknowledge any sources of financial Acknowledge any sources of financial assistanceassistance
Show the wording of the Show the wording of the acknowledgement to whomever you acknowledgement to whomever you are thanking, so that they are not are thanking, so that they are not embarrassed in case you said too much embarrassed in case you said too much or not enoughor not enough
AcknowledgementsAcknowledgements
There is no need to write an essay There is no need to write an essay describing how grateful you aredescribing how grateful you are
““I thank John Smith for . . .”I thank John Smith for . . .” However, if acknowledging an idea, However, if acknowledging an idea,
suggestion or interpretation, be suggestion or interpretation, be specific about it.specific about it.
““I thank John Smith for his I thank John Smith for his assistance” is not enoughassistance” is not enough
Scientific ManuscriptsScientific Manuscripts
TitleTitle Author(s) and addressesAuthor(s) and addresses AbstractAbstract IntroductionIntroduction Materials and MethodsMaterials and Methods ResultsResults
DiscussionDiscussion AcknowledgementsAcknowledgements ReferencesReferences TablesTables IllustrationsIllustrations Other considerationsOther considerations
ReferencesReferences List only significant published referencesList only significant published references
If reference to unpublished data, theses, If reference to unpublished data, theses, abstracts, etc., is essential, you can add it as a abstracts, etc., is essential, you can add it as a footnotefootnote
If a reference is to a paper that has been If a reference is to a paper that has been accepted for publication (not just submitted), list accepted for publication (not just submitted), list it as “In Press”)it as “In Press”)
Check Check all partsall parts of of every referenceevery reference against against the original publication, both before the the original publication, both before the manuscript is submitted and again at the manuscript is submitted and again at the galley proof stagegalley proof stage Both indexers and typesetters can make mistakesBoth indexers and typesetters can make mistakes
ReferencesReferences
There are far more mistakes made in There are far more mistakes made in the References section than in any the References section than in any other section of scientific manuscriptsother section of scientific manuscripts
The References section can be tedious The References section can be tedious and you may not want to spend the and you may not want to spend the time getting it righttime getting it right
But if you do not cite the references But if you do not cite the references correctly, the reader will not be able correctly, the reader will not be able to find the referenceto find the reference
ReferencesReferences
Reviewers are asked to check references Reviewers are asked to check references and if they see a lot of errors they may and if they see a lot of errors they may recommend rejection of the paper, just recommend rejection of the paper, just because they are annoyedbecause they are annoyed
Remember, reviewers are not paid for Remember, reviewers are not paid for what they dowhat they do
You are relying on them to give you You are relying on them to give you suggestions for improving your suggestions for improving your manuscriptmanuscript
ReferencesReferences
Reference stylesReference styles
Thirty three different stylesThirty three different styles Three most commonly usedThree most commonly used
Name and Year systemName and Year system Alphabet-number systemAlphabet-number system Citation order systemCitation order system
ReferencesReferences
Check with the journals in which you Check with the journals in which you wish to publishwish to publish
Use the system they use!Use the system they use!
““Uniform Requirements for Uniform Requirements for Manuscripts Submitted to Biomedical Manuscripts Submitted to Biomedical Journals” (The Vancouver System) Journals” (The Vancouver System) favours the Citation order systemfavours the Citation order system
ReferencesReferences
Name and year systemName and year system Very convenient for authorsVery convenient for authors In the text write “Smith and Jones In the text write “Smith and Jones
(2004)”(2004)” Even after adding many references Even after adding many references
during production of the paper, this one during production of the paper, this one will always stay the samewill always stay the same
If another reference to a different part If another reference to a different part of the same paper is made it can be of the same paper is made it can be identified as “Smith and Jones (2004a)identified as “Smith and Jones (2004a)
ReferencesReferences
Name and year systemName and year system Inconvenient for readers and Inconvenient for readers and
publishers if there are many publishers if there are many referencesreferences
Increases cost to publishers because Increases cost to publishers because of extra ink and spaceof extra ink and space
Readers have to read over many Readers have to read over many parenthetical references to continue parenthetical references to continue reading the textreading the text
ReferencesReferences
Name and year systemName and year system
In the text the reference is written In the text the reference is written “Smith and Jones (2004)”“Smith and Jones (2004)”
In the References section the papers In the References section the papers are listed alphabetically by first are listed alphabetically by first authors’ last names and then by date authors’ last names and then by date
ReferencesReferences
Alphabet-number systemAlphabet-number system Modification of name and year systemModification of name and year system
In the text write “(2)” at the end of In the text write “(2)” at the end of the sentencethe sentence
In the References section, the papers In the References section, the papers are listed in numerical orderare listed in numerical order
ReferencesReferences
Citation order systemCitation order system
Much better for readers than the Much better for readers than the other systemsother systems
Most difficult for authorsMost difficult for authors Saves costs for publishersSaves costs for publishers System recommended by Vancouver System recommended by Vancouver
SystemSystem
ReferencesReferences
Citation order systemCitation order system
In the text the reference is written In the text the reference is written as a superscript numeral, with 1 as a superscript numeral, with 1 being the first reference cited, 2 the being the first reference cited, 2 the second, etcsecond, etc
In the References section the papers In the References section the papers are listed in numerical orderare listed in numerical order
ReferencesReferences
Journal abbreviationsJournal abbreviations
Standard abbreviations should be Standard abbreviations should be usedused
These can be found in the relevant These can be found in the relevant Indexes to the literatureIndexes to the literature
ReferencesReferences
Citation in the textCitation in the text
Do not routinely place the reference Do not routinely place the reference at the end of the sentenceat the end of the sentence
Place it at the point in the sentence Place it at the point in the sentence where it applieswhere it applies
Sometimes this will be at the end, Sometimes this will be at the end, but not alwaysbut not always
ReferencesReferences
Citation in the textCitation in the text
““JohnsonJohnson11 reported that . . .” reported that . . .”
““The decrease in cardiac output The decrease in cardiac output reported by Johnson (1998) cannot reported by Johnson (1998) cannot be explained by . . .”be explained by . . .”
ReferencesReferences
The various systems vary in how the The various systems vary in how the citations are written in the citations are written in the References sectionReferences section
Check with “your” journal about Check with “your” journal about which system to usewhich system to use
Examples of one reference in each of Examples of one reference in each of the three systemsthe three systems
ReferencesReferences Name and Year systemName and Year system
Sproul, J., H. Klaaren, and F. Mannarino. 1993. Sproul, J., H. Klaaren, and F. Mannarino. 1993. Surgical treatment of Freiberg’s infraction in Surgical treatment of Freiberg’s infraction in athletes. Am. J. Sports Med. athletes. Am. J. Sports Med. 2121:381-384.:381-384.
Alphabet-number systemAlphabet-number system 1. Sproul, J., H. Klaaren, and F. Mannarino. 1993. 1. Sproul, J., H. Klaaren, and F. Mannarino. 1993.
Surgical Surgical treatment of Freiberg’s infraction treatment of Freiberg’s infraction in in athletes. Am. J. Sports athletes. Am. J. Sports Med. Med. 2121:381-:381-384.384.
Citation order systemCitation order system 1. Sproul J, Klaaren H, Mannarino F. Surgical 1. Sproul J, Klaaren H, Mannarino F. Surgical
treatment of treatment of Freiberg’s infraction in Freiberg’s infraction in athletes. Am J Sports Med 1993; athletes. Am J Sports Med 1993; 2121:381-:381- 4. 4.
ReferencesReferences
Name and Year systemName and Year system Day, R.A. 1994. How to write and publish a Day, R.A. 1994. How to write and publish a
scientific paper. 4scientific paper. 4thth ed. Phoenix: Oryx Press. ed. Phoenix: Oryx Press. Huth, E.J. 1986. Guideline on authorship of Huth, E.J. 1986. Guideline on authorship of
medical papers. Ann. Intern. Med. medical papers. Ann. Intern. Med. 104104:269-:269-274.274.
Sproul, J., H. Klaaren, and F. Mannarino. Sproul, J., H. Klaaren, and F. Mannarino. 1993. Surgical treatment of Freiberg’s 1993. Surgical treatment of Freiberg’s infraction in athletes. Am. J. Sports Med. infraction in athletes. Am. J. Sports Med. 2121:381-384.:381-384.
ReferencesReferences
Alphabet-number systemAlphabet-number system 1. Day, R.A. 1994. How to write and publish 1. Day, R.A. 1994. How to write and publish
a a scientific paper. 4 scientific paper. 4thth ed. Phoenix: Oryx ed. Phoenix: Oryx Press.Press.
2. Huth, E.J. 1986. Guideline on authorship 2. Huth, E.J. 1986. Guideline on authorship of of medical papers. Ann. Intern. Med. medical papers. Ann. Intern. Med. 104104:269-274.:269-274.
3. Sproul, J., H. Klaaren, and F. Mannarino. 3. Sproul, J., H. Klaaren, and F. Mannarino. 1993. 1993. Surgical treatment of Freiberg’s Surgical treatment of Freiberg’s infraction in infraction in athletes. Am. J. Sports Med. athletes. Am. J. Sports Med. 2121:381-384.:381-384.
ReferencesReferences
Citation order systemCitation order system 1. Huth EJ. Guidelines on authorship of 1. Huth EJ. Guidelines on authorship of
medical medical papers. Ann Intern Med 1986; papers. Ann Intern Med 1986; 104104:269-274.:269-274.
2. Sproul J, Klaaren H, Mannarino F. 2. Sproul J, Klaaren H, Mannarino F. Surgical Surgical treatment of Freiberg’s treatment of Freiberg’s infraction in athletes. Am infraction in athletes. Am J Sports J Sports Med. 1993; Med. 1993; 2121:381-384.:381-384.
3. Day, R.A. How to write and publish a 3. Day, R.A. How to write and publish a scientific scientific paper. 4 paper. 4thth ed. Phoenix: Oryx ed. Phoenix: Oryx Press, 1994. Press, 1994.
Scientific ManuscriptsScientific Manuscripts
TitleTitle Author(s) and addressesAuthor(s) and addresses AbstractAbstract IntroductionIntroduction Materials and MethodsMaterials and Methods ResultsResults
DiscussionDiscussion AcknowledgementsAcknowledgements ReferencesReferences TablesTables IllustrationsIllustrations Other considerationsOther considerations
BooksBooks Academic Writing for Graduate StudentsAcademic Writing for Graduate Students
Swales JM, Feak CBSwales JM, Feak CB University of Michigan Press 1994University of Michigan Press 1994
Essentials of Writing Biomedical Research Essentials of Writing Biomedical Research PapersPapers Zeiger MZeiger M McGraw-Hill 2000McGraw-Hill 2000
How To Write and publish a Scientific Paper. How To Write and publish a Scientific Paper. 44thth ed ed Day RADay RA The Oryx Press 1994The Oryx Press 1994
Web SitesWeb Sites
www.lib.umich.edu/taubman/www.lib.umich.edu/taubman/pubguide.htmlpubguide.html
www.psywww.com/resource/www.psywww.com/resource/apacrib.htmapacrib.htm
www.icmje.org/#userswww.icmje.org/#users
THANK YOU FOR YOUR THANK YOU FOR YOUR ATTENTIONATTENTION
top related