week 5 instructor: liu hongyong
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English LexicologyMorphological Processes (I): Derivation and Conversion
Week 5
Instructor: Liu Hongyong
Review: Classification of Morphemes
A morpheme is the most elemental unit of a form-meaning pair. Derivational morphemes are used to create new lexical items
(lexemes). Inflectional morphemes only contribute to the inflectional paradigm
of the lexemes, which lists all the word-forms of the lexeme.
morpheme
Free
(自由 )
free root (自由词根 )
Bound
(粘着 )
bound root (粘着词根 ) (-ceive, -mit, -fer)
inflectional affixes (语法性后缀 )
derivational affixes (词汇性后缀 )
affixes (-ing, -er, -s, -est, -er, -’s, -ed)
(pre-, un-, re-, -ly, -ist, -ment)
Morphology (形态学 )
Morphology is the study of the internal structure of words
(morphological structure of words)
& processes of word formation
(morphological processes of word-formation)
Morphological Structure of words: Root, stem & affix
naturenatural naturalist
naturalistic
naturalism
unnatural
Stem: a root plus affixes
Affixes: bound morphemes which attach to roots or stems.
Root: the basic morpheme which provides the central meaning in a word
simple word
Complex Word
nature + al = natural
un + nature + al = unnatural
Base
Linguists sometimes use the word “Base” to mean any root or stem to which an affix is attached. In this example, nature, natural, and unnatural would all be considered bases.
nature + al = natural
un + nature + al = unnatural
un + nature + al + ly = unnaturally
Root/base affix
Stem/base
complex word
Stem/base
affix
..
..
..
..
nature -al -ist
affix
Morphological Structure: Root & Stem
When a root morpheme is combined with an affix, it forms a stem, which may or may not be a word (painter is both a word and a stem).
painter+s=painters (painter is a stem)
Base?
paint & painter
Internal structure of a word
The internal structure of a word is hierarchical rather than flat.
unbelievable un+believe+able
*[[un+believe] +able]
[un + [believe +able]]
Morphological Complexity
regionalize: region+al+ize
[[[region] al] ize]
regionalizeV
regionalA izeV
regionN alA
This tree shows the internal morphological structure of the word
Morphological Complexity
reunification
reunificationN
reunifyV ationN
re unifyV
This tree represents the application of two morphological rules:
1. re+VV2. V+ationN
Word structure: which is correct?
Prefix un- can mean ‘to do the reverse of’ and combine with a verb to form a new verb.
unloadableA
unloadV ableA
un loadV
unloadableA
un loadableA
loadV ableA
1. un+VV
2. V+ableA
1. V+ableA
2. un+AA
Morphological Analysis
Look at the following data from Paku, which was invented by a linguist for an old 1970s TV series called Land of the Lost. This was the language used by the monkey people called Pakuni. Suppose you found yourself in this strange land and attempted to find out what the morphemes of Paku were.
Paku Data Analysis
me “I” meni “we”
ye “you (singular)”
yeni “you (plural)”
we “he” weni “they (masculine)”
wa “she” wani “they (feminine)”
abuma “girl abumani “girls”
adusa “boy” adusani “boys”
abu “child” abuni “children”
Paku “one Paku” Pakuni “more than one Paku
Answer
By examining these words you find that the plural forms end in –in, and the singular forms do not. You therefore conclude that –ni is a separate morpheme meaning “plural” that is attached as a suffix to a noun.
Plural morpheme: -ni
Major word-formation processes
Affixation (Derivation) Conversion Compounding
Endocentric compounds Exocentric compounds
Derivational affixes can create new words (lexemes), but inflectional affixes can only produce different word forms of the same lexeme. Therefore, inflection is not a word-formation process.
Affixation
Affixation involves adding affixes to a root morpheme (or a stem) to- derive a new word
(derivation: teach-er)- to realize certain grammatical function
(inflection: boy-s)
An affix is a bound morpheme. There are four types of affixes: prefix, suffix, infix, and circumfix.
Prefix
Language Prefix
Mandarin 老友 , 老師 , 老兄可怕 , 可喜,可愛
Cantonese 阿嫲,阿 Dean, 阿 Sir
細佬,細妹鬼婆,鬼佬
English re-name, in-correct
un-tidy, co-author
Suffix Language Suffix
Mandarin 桌子石頭花兒
Cantonese 我哋碗仔香港仔
English kindly
test-ed
Jingpo ( 景颇语 ) ning31-shi31 “small knife”
knife-suffix
Nuosu Yi ( 诺苏彝语 )
si21-du33: knowledge
mu33-du33: task
Infix
Language Infix
Mandarin 吃得飽吃不完
Cantonese 邊鬼度擔咩心好咩鬼鷄
English im-frigging-possible
Jingpo mu33-mi33-mu33 “all the delicious food”
Nuosu Yi no21-a21-bo21 “not working”
Circumfix
In some cases, a prefix and a suffix act together to surround a base. The two realize a single morpheme, and they are classed together as a circumfix.
Data from German
film.en ‘to film’ ge.film.t ‘filmed’frag.en ‘to ask’ ge.frag.t ‘asked’ The circumfix ge…t is taken to be a single affix, and it is a d
iscontinuous morph.
Sum up: Inflection & Derivation
Inflection is a process which combines words and affixes (always suffixes in English) to produce different word forms of the same lexeme.
e.g. talk-talked, cat-cats
Derivation is a lexical process which actually forms a new word out of an existing one by the addition of a derivational affix.
e.g. kind-kindly, kind-kindness
The Lexicon: An analogy
rootroot derivational affixderivational affix idiomidiom functional affixfunctional affix
Inflection and Derivation
Inflection DerivationCompounding
Inflection and Derivation
Sum up, inflection is a process which produces different word forms of the same lexeme; whereas derivation creates new words (lexemes). Therefore, inflection is not a word-formation process.
Both inflection and derivation occur in the lexicon. Therefore, both of them are morphological processes.
Inflection and Derivation
If derivation and inflection co-occurs, derivations are inner, closer to the stem, and inflections are outer, furthest from the stem.
Example Base +Derivation +Inflection
frightened fright -en -ed
activating act -ate -ing
payments pay -ment -s
resignations resign -ation -s
pays-mentpayment-s
Types of derivational affixes
Derivational affixes are of two kinds: word-class changing and word-class maintaining. Nominalizers are used to from nouns Verbalizers are used to form verbs Adjectivizers are used to form adjectives Adverbializers are used to form adverbs
Nominalizer
VerbVerb AffixAffix NounNoun Adj.Adj. AffixAffix NounNoun
leak -age leakage accurate -y accuracy
govern -ment government social -ist socialist
Betray -al betrayal pure -ity purity
resign -ation Resignation free -dom freedom
defend -ce defence good -ness goodness
Attend -ance attendance true -th truth
attend -ant attendant
Refer -ee Referee
Depart -ure departure
farm -er Farmer
inquire -y inquiry
Morphological Rule:
V+ageN
A+yN
Verbalizer
NounNoun AffixAffix VerbVerb Adj.Adj. AffixAffix VerbVerb
fright -en frighten soft -en soften
computer -ize computerize able en- enable
friend be- befriend pure -ify purify
glory -fy glorify legal -ize legalize
earth un- unearth
danger en- endanger
Morphological Rule:
N+enV
A+enV
Adjectivizer
NounNoun AffixAffix AdjectiveAdjective VerbVerb AffixAffix AdjectiveAdjective
season -al seasonal negotiate -able negotiable
rag -ed ragged create -ive creative
care -less careless depend -ent dependent
suburb -an suburban tire -some tiresome
gold -en golden sense -ory sensory
clock -like clocklike
hope -ful Hopeful
friend -ly friendly
fame -ous famous
child -ish childish
Morphological Rule:
N+alA
V+ableA
Adverbializer
AdjectiveAdjective AffixAffix AdverbAdverb NounNoun AffixAffix AdverbAdverb
quick -ly quickly home -ward homeward
lone a- alone clock -wise clockwise
sky -wards skywards
shore a- ashore
Morphological Rule:
A+lyAdv
N+wardAdv
Word-class maintaining derivational affixes
N Affix N V Affix V
scholar -ship scholarship
join ad- adjoin
child -hood childhood agree dis- disagree
king -dom kingdom open re- reopen
wife ex- ex-wife judge pre- prejudge
worker co- co-worker tie un- unite
A Affix A
possible im- impossible
green -ish greenish
Conversion
Conversion is also referred to as Zero Derivation. It is a process that can transfer a word belonging to
one word class to another word class without any change of form, either in pronunciation or spelling.
The head of the village has arrived.
She headed that school.
Conversion
It can be assumed that zero morphs are used as affixes in derivational morphology as well. For instance, the verb ‘head’ may be said to have derived by suffixing a zero morph to the noun ‘head’. This is done by analogy to the derivation of a verb like ‘victim-ise’.
V V
N V N V
victim -ise head Ø
Conversion
The head of the village has arrived. She headed that school.
Head: – n. Occurred around 1150; developed from Old English, e.g. ‘heafod top of the body’ (about 725). –v. Appeared around 1230; from the noun.
(Adopted from The Barnhart Concise Dictionary of Etymology)
Conversion
Major kinds of conversion NounVerb VerbNoun AdjectiveNoun AdjectiveVerb
NounVerb
to bottle one’s emotion to book a ticket to xerox a book to finger the soft silk to mother the orphan to cash a cheque to tailor one’s remarks
VerbNoun
doubt; need; surprise; desire; guess; answer to give a call/a hug/a smile/a cry; to have a swim/a look/a try/a drink;
AdjectiveVerb
to better the situation to dirty one’s reputation to dry the clothes to clean the table to empty the room to wrong somebody
AdjectiveNoun
Partial conversionthe poor; the wounded; the old; the young; the rich
Complete conversionnative: a native; two natives; the native’s languageHe is a progressive. Tom is one of our regulars (regular customers).
These converted nouns do not take plural and genitive inflections, nor can they be preceded by determiners like a, this, my, etc.
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