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Title (descriptive title of your project)
Submitted to
(both individual and institutional) and address, such as
Arun Mehta
Electric Power Research Institute
3412 Hillview Avenue
Palo Alto, CA 94304-1395
Authors
Date
Table of Contents
Table of Contents............................................................................................................... ii
List of Figures..................................................................................................................... ii
List of Tables.....................................................................................................................iii
Abstract/Executive Summary.............................................................................................1
Introduction and Background............................................................................................1
Experimental Procedure/Methods....................................................................................2
Results and Discussion.......................................................................................................2
Conclusions........................................................................................................................8
Acknowledgements...........................................................................................................8
Literature Cited..................................................................................................................8
List of Figures
Figure 1 Temperature calibration results indicating correlation and 99% statistical calibration
curves. Residuals indicate no systematic biases. Also illustrated are the regulatory
limits for temperature control and the control points that will prevent exceeding
these limits (with 99% confidence).............................................................................4
List of Tables
Table 1 Average Ultimate Analysis Results of Many Thousand Coal and Biomass Samples.....7
(Repeat Title and Subtitle here but do not format them using Styles or they will appear again in
the Table of Contents)
Abstract/Executive Summary
Every report should begin with a brief (one page) executive summary/abstract. The summary
must include a short statement of the context (intro and background), methods, results, and
conclusions. The executive summary must be a stand-alone section, that is, someone should understand
the essence of the entire report on the basis of the executive summary. This is the only portion of the
report many or most people will read.
(First level headings should be larger font than normal text or other headings and bolded.
Normal text is generally 11-12 pts, so first-level headings should be about 14 pt Styles should be used to
format these and all other headings.)
(Normal text should be double spaced with a 11-12 pt font, justified, and 0.5” indentation. There
should be some (10 pt) extra space between paragraphs. Normal font should be so defined as a Style.)
Introduction and Background
The introduction and background start a discussion from a well-accepted or generally
understood position and logically and succinctly describe in which areas this report makes specific
contributions and how these fit into the broader picture. No original work should appear hear, but
typically the bulk of the citations appear here. You should be able to complete this prior to completing
any experimental work. The reader should understand exactly where the rest of the report contributes
to the big picture and how these contributions fit into a broader context.
Try to use bulleted/numbered lists, graphics, etc. frequently. These help to break the monotony
of many pages of text and create succinct and obvious focal points that are easy for your manager to cut
and paste if she wants to use portions of your report (easy to reuse).
Experimental Procedure/Methods
A discussion of the experimental methods used in the project should include at least these
things:
1. A succinct summary of safety issues and their mitigation.
2. The experimental design and summary of conditions.
3. All essential equipment used, with manufacturer and model number if the equipment is
more than routine instrumentation or process elements. For example, a simple pump need
not be too well documented if it fills a pedestrian purpose, but a gas chromatograph and the
column in it should be. Procedures in using this equipment should be included.
4. A schematic figure of major equipment that illustrates its function and most essential
instrumentation.
5. A list of all materials used, typically in Table format, with their relevant properties.
Results and Discussion
Some formats expect results and discussion to be clearly separated, and this should be easily
done for the simple experiments involved in the UO lab. More involved experiments, in which some
procedures depend on results from earlier procedures, cannot be effectively separated and are
discussed together. That is, the discussion of the results from one step of the process leads to the design
and execution of additional experiments. For the Unit Operations Lab, you are welcome to either divide
this into two sections, one for results and one for discussion, or include results and discussion together.
This section of the document contains detailed discussions of your work, including supporting
data, figures, tables, equations, etc. The specific structure of the discussion may vary from report to
report but in all cases should be logically organized, typically following inductive or deductive logical
steps. Normally this section will have several levels of subsections, etc. Formats for these are provided in
the styles defined in this document. This is should be the bulk of your report.
This section of the report normally contains figures, tables, equations and other graphical or
special material. Suggested formats for these materials are below.
The page should use the normal margins, that is, 1 inch top, bottom, left, and right. Page
numbers should be centered at the bottom of the page. They should start with lower-case Roman
numeral i on the title page and Arabic numeral 1 on the first page after the front matter (title page, table
of contents, list of figures, list of tables, and nomenclature). However, neither the title page nor page
number 1 should have a number on it (first numbers should be ii and 2 for the front matter and the
report, respectively).
Figures should be inserted between paragraphs, not within a paragraph or with surrounding
text, and should not appear in the text before they are cited. Preferably, they appear on the page where
they are first discussed, but often they will appear on later pages because of format limitations. All
figures should have captions, created with the Insert Caption option in MS Word™ (Reference->Insert
Caption menu). Captions should appear below the figure, indented ¼ “ from the normal margins on each
side with a hanging indent on the left of ½“ and 6pt. blank space between the caption and the figure and
between the figure and the next line of text. Page breaks should not occur in the body of text and can be
prevented by using MS Word™’s Keep Lines Together feature. Otherwise, captions should appear in the
same font, size, and style as normal text (not bolded, etc.). Captions should provide enough detail that
the figure is at least minimally understandable without reading the surrounding text. References to
figures should use the Cross Reference feature (References->Cross-reference menu). Note that only the
label and number should be inserted, not the entire caption. There is a drop-down list in the upper right
corner of the dialog box that allows this. The great advantage of using captions and cross references in
this manner is that they automatically renumber themselves and produce lists of tables, figures, etc.
40
30
20
10
Tem
pera
ure/
°C
14121086420
Signal/A
-2-1012
Res
idua
l/°C
Control Points
Regulatory Limits
Calibration Data Correlation 99% Confidence Interval Residuals
Figure 1 Temperature calibration results indicating correlation and 99% statistical
calibration curves. Residuals indicate no systematic biases. Also illustrated are the regulatory
limits for temperature control and the control points that will prevent exceeding these limits
(with 99% confidence).
When referring to a specific figure, the word figure should be capitalized, as in “That data in
Figure 1 illustrate the calibration of the temperature sensor and its set points.” When referring to a
figure generically without reference to its number, the word figure should not be capitalized, as in “The
figure illustrates the calibration of the temperature sensor and its set points.” Similar rules hold for
tables, equations, tasks, etc.
Whenever possible, figures should have mirrored axes for both the ordinate (y-axis) and the
abscissa (x-axis). Both minor and major tick marks should be included, with major tick marks longer than
minor tick marks. If possible, all tick marks should appear on the inside of the axis. Axis labels should
include dimensions placed on the same line as the label but after a slash. All text in figures should be in a
serif font (Arial is a typical example). Figures should have transparent (not white) backgrounds. Legends
should be included when possible but should not have boxes around them or be labeled with the word
Legend. While use of color is encouraged, all lines and symbols must be distinct in ways other than color
so the figure is still interpretable after black and white photocopying. Statistical analysis is strongly
encouraged and some indication of uncertainty should be included in a figure when possible. Often
some program more capable than MS Excel is needed to produce a high-quality technical figure, but in
Unit Operations Lab, Excel figures suffice. Wavemetrics markets a program called Igor Pro that you may
find useful for many data types both for analysis and for formatting. Mathsoft’s MathCad is also capable
of professional figure generation, although the default figures from MathCad are not high-quality. Figure
1 is one example of a well-formatted figure. Figures should generally be no busier (contain no more lines
and annotations) than this.
Equations should be formatted using the software built into Office 2007, the new MS Equation
system. The advantage to this is that equations can be directly cut and pasted into many mathematics
programs (Mathematica is an example) and back into Word. Insert an equation by choosing the Insert-
>Equation command on the menu bar of Word 2007. Equations should be centered on the page and
numbered sequentially in the right margin between parentheses.
The font used for variables in equations should differ from that used for normal text so that
references to variables appear clearly different from normal text in a sentence. For example, if a appears
in a sentence discussing the equation, the font and the italics help a reader understand that it refers to
the variable a, not to the word a. Specifically, use Cambria or a similar font. Scalar variables in equations
should be italicized, even if they use Greek symbols. Function names for logarithms, sine, cosine,
exponentiation, etc. should be in the same font but not italicized. Indicial notation is preferred for vector
equations. Equation (1) provides an example of equation formatting. Capitalization rule for equations
are the same as for figures. Because engineering equations often are large, use the full width of the
written page to format them (no indentation).
d mvdt
=r v=∑k=1
2
αk Akvmcexp( −E
RgT p ) (1)
For several reasons, it helps to have equations entered as the center column of a three-column,
one-row table. The cell borders of the table should be invisible and the first and third columns should be
the same size and much narrower than the center column. This allows:
a) the equation to appear centered on the page if it is centered in the column,
b) a caption to be inserted in the right column so the equation can be automatically
numbered without formatting the equation as a caption, and
c) both the caption and the equation number to have the same vertical center.
Numbering equations automatically in MS Word is not as convenient as numbering figures and
tables. To provide for automatic equation numbering, first create a new label under Insert Caption
(press the New Label button). The new label should be a single, open parenthesis, i.e., “(“. A closing
parenthesis should be added after the equation number is inserted. You can then refer to the equation
by inserting a cross reference similar to tables and figures, but by including the caption in the cross
reference rather than just the label and number, as in Equation (1). There is, in MS Word 2007, a caption
called equation, but at least I cannot get it to display on the same line as the equation as it should be
displayed. As a workaround, I have a new caption label called “(“ that works as above. It may be easiest
to cut and paste the above format to get it to work for you.
Table 1 Average Ultimate Analysis Results of Many Thousand Coal and Biomass Samples
Elem. Anthracite Bituminous Subbit. Lignite Grass Straw W. Chips Waste W.C 90.22 78.35 56.11 42.59 45.34 48.31 51.59 49.62H 2.85 5.75 6.62 7.40 5.82 5.85 6.14 6.34N 0.93 1.56 1.10 0.73 2.04 0.78 0.61 1.01O 5.03 11.89 35.31 48.02 45.95 44.18 41.57 42.89S 0.96 2.43 0.84 1.15 0.24 0.18 0.07 0.07Cl 0.03 0.08 0.01 0.01 0.62 0.70 0.02 0.06
Tables should use the same caption and cross reference tools as figures (see Table 1). Table
headings should be set apart with horizontal lines and the top and bottom of the table should have thick
horizontal lines. Otherwise, the text of the table should have the same font and style as normal text
except than rows should not have blank lines between them. This format is similar to the default Simple
1 format in MS Word. Do not use shading or other table features unless necessary as these features
commonly do not photocopy well. Page breaks should not appear within a table unless the table is
longer than one page. Error: Reference source not found illustrates a typical table format. Many of the
MS Word formatting options for tables focus on business reports and may not be too appropriate for
technical reports, which tend to be conservative.
Conclusions
The conclusions section should be a succinct statement of the contribution of the paper, ideally
framed by the Background/Introduction section. Nothing should appear in the conclusions that is not
discussed and justified in the Results/Discussion section(s). After the abstract, the conclusions section is
the second most commonly read portion of any report. It differs from the abstract in important ways,
including (a) it is not a stand-alone summary of your paper and need not mention
equipment/techniques or background, (b) it should provide detailed information about conclusions,
including statistical estimates of certainties where appropriate, and (c) it may refer to other portions of
the report if necessary.
Acknowledgements
Acknowledge anyone who has played a specific and substantial role in this work here but who
does not appear as an author. Typical examples would include other students or faculty, staff, and
funding agencies.
Literature Cited
Citations to literature should be in author, date form and bibliography listings at the end of the
report should follow the examples given below. Bibliographic entries should be arranged alphabetically
and then by date. Citations should include up to two authors names and the date of the publication,
with dates distinguished by letters if there are ambiguities. Citations should be enclosed in normal
parentheses. Bibliographic entries should be formatted with a hanging indent of ½ inch.
A computer program called EndNote, produced by ISI Research, is of great help in managing
both citations in writing and a your literature database generally. The following paragraph provides
some examples of citations.
Nitrogen release rates from coal follow systematic trends with particle burnout and with coal
rank (Baxter, Mitchell et al. 1996).
Coal utilization technologies generate a variety of environmental, economic, and resource
challenges (Smoot and Baxter 2002).
Biomass leaching and coal particle fragmentation investigations report substantial progress over
the last decade or so (Kerstein and Edwards 1987; Helble and Sarofim 1989; Baxter 1992; Jenkins, Baxter
et al. 1996; Bakker, Jenkins et al. 1997a; Bakker, Jenkins et al. 1997b; Jenkins, Bakker et al. 1997a;
Jenkins, Bakker et al. 1997b; Jenkins, Baxter et al. 1998a; Jenkins, Baxter et al. 1998b; Jensen, Sander et
al. 2001; Turn, Kinoshita et al. 2001)
Bakker, R. R., B. M. Jenkins, R. B. Williams, W. Carlson, J. Duffy, L. L. Baxter and V. Tiangco
(1997a). Boiler performance and furnace deposition during a full-scale test with leached biomass. 3rd
Biomass Conference of the Americas, Montréal, Ontario, Canada.
Bakker, R. R., B. M. Jenkins, R. B. Williams, W. Carlson, J. Duffy, L. L. Baxter and V. M. Tiangco
(1997b). Boiler performance and furnace deposition during a full scale test with leached biomass . 3rd
Biomass Conference of the Americas, Montréal, Ontario, Canada, Elsevier Science Limited.
Baxter, L. L. (1992). Char fragmentation and fly ash formation during pulverized-coal
combustion. Combustion and Flame. 90: 174-184.
Baxter, L. L., R. E. Mitchell, T. H. Fletcher and R. H. Hurt (1996). “Nitrogen release during coal
combustion.” Energy & Fuels 10(#1): 188-196.
Helble, J. J. and A. F. Sarofim (1989). “Influence of char fragmentation on ash particle size
distributions.” Combustion and Flame 76: 183-196.
Jenkins, B. M., R. R. Bakker, L. L. Baxter, J. H. Gilmer and J. B. Wei (1997a). Combustion
characteristics of leached biomass. Developments in thermochemical biomass conversion. A. V.
Bridgwater and D. G. B. Boocock. London, Blackie Academic & Professional. 2: 1316-1330.
Jenkins, B. M., R. R. Bakker, R. B. Williams, L. L. Baxter, S. Q. Turn, P. Thy, M. Sime, C. Lesher, G.
Sclippa and C. Kinoshita (1997b). Measurements of the fouling and slagging characteristics of banagrass
(pennisetum purpureum) following aqueous extraction of inorganic constituents. 3rd Biomass
Conference of the Americas, Montréal, Ontario, Canada, Elsevier Science Limited.
Jenkins, B. M., L. L. Baxter, T. R. M. Jr. and T. R. Miles (1996). Combustion properties of biomass.
Engineering Foundation Conference on Industrial and Utility Use of Biomass, Snowbird, UT.
Jenkins, B. M., L. L. Baxter and T. R. Miles (1998a). “Combustion properties of biomass.” Fuel
Processing Technology 54(#1-3): 17-46.
Jenkins, B. M., L. L. Baxter, T. R. J. Miles and T. R. Miles (1998b). Combustion properties of
biomass. Fuel Processing Technology, Elsevier Sci B.V.,Amsterdam,Netherlands. 54: 17-46.
Jensen, P. A., B. Sander and K. Dam-Johansen (2001). “Pretreatment of straw for power
production by pyrolysis and char wash.” Biomass & Bioenergy 20(6): 431-446.
Kerstein, A. R. and B. F. Edwards (1987). “Percolation model for simulation of char oxidation and
fragmentation time-histories.” Chemical Engineering Science 42(7): 1629-1634.
Smoot, L. D. and L. L. Baxter (2002). Fossil fuel power stations - coal utilization. Encyclopedia of
physical science and technology, Academic Press. 6: 121-144.
Turn, S. Q., C. M. Kinoshita, L. A. Jakeway, B. M. Jenkins, L. L. Baxter, B. C. Wu and L. G. Blevins
(2001). “Fuel characteristics of processed, high-fiber sugar cane.” Fuel Processing Technology.
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