ungs2040 notes

ISLAM: KNOWLEDGE AND CIVILIZATION

(UNGS 2040)

STANDARD CONTENTS

The Three Theories of Knowledge

• There are three theories of knowledge. First; the Idealistic notion.

• Second; the Materialistic notion. • Third; the Islamic notion. • The Idealists like Plato believe that the material world does

not exist at all. Only the world of Ideas, Forms or consciousness exists.

• Plato believed that knowledge was a function of the recollection of previous information. He based his theory on his specific philosophy of the archetypes. He believed that the soul has a prior existence. He said all ideas and things are shadows and reflections of those archetypes and realities that are ever lasting in the world in which the soul had lived. It is also known as Plato’s Theory of Ideas.

• According to the Materialists, the spiritual or immaterial world does not exist. The Materialists are also known as the realists, the empiricists or the Marxists. These empiricists believe in five senses. They consider sense perception as the source or means of knowledge. They have no faith in mind conceptions without sense perceptions.

• These empiricists believe in five senses. They consider sense perception as the source or means of knowledge. They have no faith in mind conceptions without sense perceptions. John Stuart Mill, David Hume and Berkeley were the exponents and proponents of the doctrine of sense perception.

• Knowledge is through experience and teaching. David Hume says that when a babe is born his/her mind is like a clean slate. With the passage of time it receives impressions and pictures. As we teach a small kid and show him different pictures, he starts learning from outside impressions. When we show the picture of a horse to a baby he/she starts recognizing horse.

• The empiricists do not believe in the existence of soul and innate knowledge.

• Islam rejects the notions of both, the idealists and the empiricists. Islam believes in the existence of matter as well as of soul.

Definition of Knowledge

Al-‘ilm (العلم) /Knowledge

Al-‘ilm (العلم)• The arrival (Husulحصول:) in the soul of the

meaning of a thing or an object of knowledge and the arrival (wusul: (وصول of the soul at the meaning of a thing or object of knowledge

حصول معنى أو صورة الشيء في النفس ووصول ” •“النفس إلى معنى الشيء

• (al-Jurjani:160-161)

….cont.,• Realization of the meanings of things (Al-Ghazzali)

• Realization of something in its true nature through different levels of understanding and in agreement with the facts or true to nature. (textbook, 4)

……cont.,• To know, to understand, to perceive, to be familiar and acquainted with things.

• A firm belief that accords with the reality of things ( (فاعلم أنه ال إله إال الله) 47 :19 (.

-Theology (عقيدة), Principles of Jurisprudence( صول الفقهأ ) etc.

Opposite of العلملظنا : Conjecture

•Uncertainty•Not supported with decisive proofs•It might accord with the reality and it might not

doubt : الشك•• لجهلا : ignorance foolishness : السفة•misguidance :الضالل•

….cont.,

Degrees of Certainty knowledge: العلم•Certainty, conviction (القين/القطع)•Accords with the reality•Certainty by observation اليقين عين•certainty through knowledge اليقن علم•Certainty through experience اليقين حق

Importance of Knowledge• 1. Knowledge is a requirement for the fulfillment of man’s

obligations as a khalifah on earth. Allah says:

• GلIعKجI Iت أ Gوا قIال QةIيفT ل Iخ TضKرI Kاأل فTي جIاعTل] [ي Tن إ TةI Tك ئ IالIمK Tل ل Iكe ب Iر IالIق KذT وIإ

Gد[سIقG وIن IكTدKمIحT ب Gح] ب IسG ن GنKحI وIن IاءIالد[م GكTف KسI وIي فTيهIا Gد TسKفG ي KنIم فTيهIا) IونGمI IعKل ت Iال مIا GمI IعKل أ [ي Tن إ IالIق IكI Gمw) 30ل ث wهIا Gل ك IاءIم KسI Kاأل IمIدI آ Iمw وIعIل

KمG Kت Gن ك KنT إ Tء IالGؤIه TاءIم KسI Tأ ب Tي Gون Tئ Kب ن

I أ IالIقIف TةI Tك ئ IالIمK ال عIلIى KمGهIض IرIع) IينTقTادI31ص (GيمT KعIل ال IتK Iن أ Iكw Tن إ Iا Iن wمKت عIل مIا wالT إ Iا Iن ل IمK ل Tع Iال IكI KحIان ب Gس Gوا قIال) GيمTكIحK TهTمK) 32ال مIائ Kس

I Tأ ب KمGهI Iأ Kب Iن أ Iمwا فIل KمTهT مIائ KسI Tأ ب KمGهK Tئ Kب ن

I أ GمIدI آ Iا ي IالIقمIا GمI IعKل وIأ TضKر

I KاألIو TاتIاوIم wالس IبK غIي GمI IعKل أ [ي Tن إ KمG Iك ل KلGقI أ KمI Iل أ IالIق) IونGمG Kت Iك ت KمG Kت Gن ك وIمIا IونGدK Gب )33ت

2. The first revelation to the Messenger of Allah is about seeking knowledge and revealing scientific knowledge:

[كI ”أقرأ باسم ب Iالذىخلق *خلق االنسان من علق *اقرا وربك راالكرم *الذى علم بالقلم *علم االنسان ما لم يعلم“

)5-1(العلق:

……Cont.,Read! In the name of the Lord and Cherisher, who created- created man, out of a mere clot of congealed blood. Proclaim! And your Lord is most Bountiful- He who taught the use of the pen, taught man that which he knew not” (96:1-5)

[“read, teach , pen”] 18

……cont.,3. Islam is a religion based upon knowledge. 4. The text of the Quran is full of verses

inviting man to use his intellect, to ponder, to think and to learn.

5.The total number of verses in which ‘ilm or its derivatives and associated words are used is 704.

6. The main miracle and sign of authenticity of

prophethood of Mohammed ( صلى الله عليه was a book of knowledge; The (وسلمQur’an.

……cont.,

7.The Prophet (صلى الله عليه وسلم) made seeking knowledge obligatory on Muslims (men and women):

”طلب العلم فريضة على كل مسلم“

“Seeking knowledge is obligatory on every Muslim”.

……cont.,8. Knowledge is the way through which

people can recognize Allah, fear him, and discover the truth.

IونG GؤKمTن GونI ي KمGؤKمTن KهGمK وIال T مTن Kم KعTل اسTخGونI فTي ال wالر TنTكI ”ل“ (النساء: IكTلK KزTلI مTنK قIب ن

G KكI وIمIا أ Iي Tل KزTلI إ نG TمIا أ )162ب

“But those among them who are well-grounded in knowledge, and the believers, believe in what has been revealed to you and what was revealed before you…” 22

” IوGه Iك] ب Iر KنTم IكK Iي Tل KزTلI إ نG wذTي أ KمI ال KعTل Gوا ال Gوت wذTينI أ ى ال IرI وIي

KحIمTيدT“ (سبأ KعIزTيزT ال اطT ال IرTى صIلT IهKدTي إ KحIقw وIي (6 :ال

“And those who are knowledgeable see that the revelation sent down to you from the Lord is the Truth, and that it guides to the Path of Allah who is Exalted and Worthy of all praise.”

……cont.,

9. Knowledge elevates the status and position of its bearer and makes difference between him and ignorant.

“ ªاتIج IرIد IمK KعTل Gوا ال Gوت wذTينI أ GمK وIال Kك Gوا مTن wذTينI ءIامIن wهG ال فIعT الل KرI ”ي)11(المجادلة:

“Allah will raise up, to high ranks those of you who believe and who have been granted Knowledge…” 24

……cont.,

Iا Iن wذTي فIضwل wهT ال Tل KحIمKدG ل KمQا وIقIاال ال ل Tع IانIمK Iي ل GسIو IدGاوIا دI Kن Iي IقIدK ءIات ”وIل:) “ IينT KمGؤKمTن IادTهT ال ب Tع KنTم ªيرT Iث النمل)15عIلIى ك

We gave knowledge to David and Solomon: and they both said: "Praise be to Allah, Who has favoured us above many of His subjects who believe!"

……cont.,

” GهI wا ل Iن لI KرI وIأ Tي مIعIهG وIالطwي و[ب

I IالG أ ب TاجI wا فIضKالQ ي Iا دIاوGدI مTن Kن Iي IقIدK ءIات وIل)IيدTدIحK Gوا 10ال دT وIاعKمIل Kر wي السTف Kد[رIقIو ªاتIغT اب Iس KلIمKاع Tن

I ) أ) IصTير] GونI ب IعKمIل TمIا ت [ي ب Tن TحQا إ )“ (سبأء)11صIال

“We bestowed grace on David … and We made the iron soft for him. Make coats of mail, balance well the rings of chain armour, and work righteousness; for be sure I see all that you do."

……cont.,

”قل هل يستوي الذين يعلمون والذين ال يعلمون“ )9(الزمر:

“ Say: “are those equal, those who know and those who do not know?”

……cont.,

Purpose of knowledge

Divinely Worldly

To recognize God To benefit man

Pleasure of God

Week TwoClassification of Knowledge

Limitations• (a) Absolute (perfect) knowledge: • this is the knowledge of God who

knows the reality, essence and details of all things.

• (b) Limited knowledge: • The knowledge given to His creations;

•angels, •prophets, •human beings, •jinn, •and animals.

……cont.,

…..cont.,

•Limited knowledge:

• (i) Gifted knowledge: a. Instinctive knowledge (natural): it is imparted in the very nature of the creation.

b. Revealed/Sacred knowledge: the knowledge that

Almighty God reveals to human beings.

(ii) Acquired Knowledge• Gained through effort by way of reflection,

senses and experience.• (a) Recommended (praiseworthy)

i- Fard ‘ayn ii. Fard kifayah • (b) Prohibited (blameworthy)

-Magic (kindly refer to slides 46-48)

General Classification of Knowledge in Islam

General classification of Knowledge in Islam

Limited Knowledge

Acquired KnowledgeGifted Knowledge

Absolute Knowledge

Jibillat (instinct)Ilham (Inspiration)Wijdan (Intuition)

Sacred Praiseworthy Blame worthy

By external influence By itself

Fard ‘AinFard Kifayah

Classification of KnowledgeAccording to al-Ghazali

Theoretical Practical

Intellectual

Fard kifayah

AttainedPresential

Religious

Fard ‘ayn

Al-Ghazzali’s Criteria for Classification of

sciences 1. Theoretical and practical (philosophers)

Theoretical: to know the states of beings as they are( to realize/ comprehend the reality of

beings; celestial & terrestrial)

Practical: deals with man’s actionsTo find out what is useful to

mankind in this life as well as in the Hereafter

Presential and Attained• Also referred to as ‘sacred and ‘profane’ or ‘revealed’ and

‘non-revealed’ knowledge. • The first category covers ‘that which came from the prophets’.

The second category includes ‘all knowledge obtained through the use of the intellect, experimentation or hearing’.

• A full understanding of these two categories can only be understood by examining the relationship of the temporal world and the everlasting Hereafter. The two are intrinsically connected. Knowledge of the Hereafter is gained by examining the temporal world. The temporal world gives us signs and proofs of the existence of a Greater Existence and leads us to worship Him.

• Knowledge of the Hereafter teaches us how to live our temporal lives. All knowledge belongs to God. The two categories differ only in their means of acquisition.

….Cont.,

2. Presential & acquired (tasawwuf) (the mode of knowing)

Presential : intuitive, contemplative spiritual experience - revelation

Acquired : empirical, rational, logical

….Cont.,

Which one is better?Al-Ghazzali: • the presential is superior to the acquired, It is

free from errors & doubt, certainty on spiritual truths

• This is true with the revelation and intuition received by the prophets

•The intuitive knowledge claimed by people other than prophets may not be taken for granted unless it is judged in light of the established principles of Islam

….Cont.,

3. Religious and intellectual (the source)Religious (transmitted sciences):Acquired from revelation/ prophets

1. Roots (Qur’an, sunnah, consensus)

2. Branches (law and ethics) 3. Ancillary sciences (grammar and lexicography) 4. Complementary sciences

(Qira’at, commentary, history)Intellectual: attained by human intellect

alone44

….Cont.,

4. Fard ‘Ayn and Fard kifayah (the need for learning)Fard ‘ayn:

• What should be learned by each and every Muslim.• Individual responsibilities • Things which can’t be done on behalf of others 45

• Beliefs, worship, halal and haram, core moral values, how to discharge one’s responsibilities towards others (man’s obligations to family and society), necessary skills for daily life. 46

….Cont.,

Fard kifayah : - the community’s needs that can be

performed by a sufficient group on behalf of others.

- collective responsibilities• Religious sciences: knowledge that

is not needed for daily practice of Islam.

• Intellectual knowledge: all types of knowledge needed for the welfare of the society in this life 47

….Cont

Praiseworthy sciences:• Enhances human well being and the environment within the boundaries outlined by shari’ah

• All sciences which are useful, beneficial and satisfy the requirements of science.

Blameworthy sciences: • A science which does not meet the requirement of science, or it is purely or usually harmful.

• Blameworthy by its nature by an external factor

….Cont…

Ilm al-Sihr (Magic: It is defined as “seeking the help of demons to

perform something harmful against somebody” or “showing something to an audience, which is contrary to reality.

• Reasons why magic is prohibited in Islam: • 1) It is an act of blasphemy (kufr). Allah says

in the Holy Qur’an:

• “And when there came to them a Messenger from Allah confirming what was with them, a party of those who were given the scripture threw away the book of Allah behind their backs as if they did not know. And they followed what the devils gave out falsely of magic of the reign of Solomon; for Solomon did not disbelieve but the devils disbelieved, teaching men magic and such things that came down at Babylon to the two angels Harut and Marut, but neither of these two (angles) taught anyone (such

things) until they had said: we are only for trial, so don't disbelieve. And from them (magicians) people learn that through which they would cause separation between a person and his spouse, but they could not thus harm anyone except by Allah's leave; and they learn that which harms them rather than profits them. And indeed they knew that its practitioner would have no share in the Hereafter. And how bad indeed was that for which they sold their own selves if they but knew.” (2:101-102).

• 2) According to the following authentic hadith, magic is a deadly act:

• The Prophet (s.a.w) said: “Avoid the seven deadly acts which are: ascribing partners to God, magic, killing the human self which Allah prohibited except with right, eating usury (riba), devouring the orphan’s wealth, defecting from the battle-field (without a justified reason) and slandering chaste, unwary believing women.”

• Magic being harmful and evil act, Allah has told us to seek His protection against it:

• “Say I seek refuge in the in the Lord of daybreak From the evil of that which he created; From the evil of the darkness when it is intense, and from the evil of malignant witchcraft, And from the evil of the envious when he envies.” (Surah al-Falaq)

Differences between magic and miracles (mu‘jizat)• Magic is from devils (see the above Qur’anic

verse: 2:101-102)while miracles are from Allah. • On the other hand, miracles are real while magic

is deceptive; it is covering the truth with falsehood).

• Because miracles are from Allah, they could only be performed by Prophets while magic, which is from devils, can be performed by anyone who associates himself with the devil.

• Horoscope• Not only magic is prohibited in Islam but also

horoscope or reading one’s palm to foretell the future.

• The Holy Qur’an affirms that no one knows the future or the unseen except Allah: “He knoweth the Unseen as well as that which is Open.” (6:73) “With Him are the keys of the Unseen, the treasures that none knoweth but He...” (6:59)

• The Holy Qur’an also asserts that not even Muhammad knows the unseen:

• “If I had the knowledge of the unseen, I should have secured abundance for myself, and no evil would have touched me.” (7:188).

• The Prophet (s.a.w) said: “Whoever goes to a fortune teller (a soothe sayer) or a diviner and believes him, has, in fact, disbelieved in what has been revealed to Muhammad.”

…Cont.,

Astrology:• It is the study of the positions and aspects of

celestial bodies.• Muslims scholars agree that astrology is a

prohibited field to deal with. For example, Imam Ibn Taymiyah said: “Astrology that is concerned with studying the positions and aspects of celestial bodies in the belief that they have an influence on the course of natural earthly occurrences and human affairs is prohibited by Almighty Allah’s Book, the Sunnah, and the unanimous agreement of the Muslim scholars. 59

• Ibn `Uthaymeen, said: “Astrology is a kind of sorcery and fortune-telling. It is forbidden because it is based on illusions, not on concrete facts. There is no relation between the movements of celestial bodies and what takes place on the Earth.”

• During the Prophet’s lifetime, it happened that the sun eclipsed on the same day when the Prophet’s son Ibrahim died. The people then thought that it had eclipsed because of the Prophet’s son’s death. On knowing this, the Prophet (peace and blessings be upon him) led them in the Eclipse Prayer and then delivered them a speech saying: “The sun and moon are but signs of Allah; they do not eclipse because so-and-so died or was born.”

• The above hadith indicates that the Prophet (s.a.w) denied all relation between the movements of the heavenly bodies and events on the Earth.

• Ibn ‘Abbas (may Allah be pleased with him and his father) reported that Allah’s Messenger (s.a.w) said: “He who has acquired some knowledge of astrology has acquired some knowledge of sorcery; the more he acquires of the former the more he acquires of the latter.” (Reported by Ahmad, Abu Dawud, and Ibn Majah)

• Commenting on the above hadith, al-Shawkani said that the Prophet (s.a.w) compared between astrology and sorcery because sorcery was known to be forbidden; and so, he who would get some knowledge of astrology would do something forbidden and would be sinful.

• To sum up, astrology is based on lies and deceit; it has no scientific basis. The astrologists’ usage of computers to convince people that what they do is technological and scientific is nothing but deceit. There is no scientific proof that there is a relationship between the appearance of a star in a specific time and the character and behavior of someone born at that time.

Conclusion• Sciences are inter-related, and none of

them can exclude the others. • Humanities, natural sciences, and the

religious sciences unite to produce true understanding of this world and the causes behind its existence.

• Religious scholars are in need of philosophical and natural sciences as much as scientists are in need of the religious sciences.

• Natural and philosophical sciences are to enable the Muslim to explore, exploit and get a better insight into what Allah has created in this universe.

• Religious sciences are to guide people to understand the reality of this life, their origins and their mission.

• And to set the moral and legal guidelines that should be observed by human beings for a meaningful and better life.

No Boundary for Knowledge:

• Providing the Importance of Knowledge with four noble Hadiths:

• 1. “ Striving for knowledge is compulsory for each & every Muslim.” (no gender limit)

• 2. “ Strive for knowledge from cradle to the grave .”(no time limit)

• 3. “Strive for knowledge even in China .” (no space limit)• 4. “ Wisdom is the lost property of a Muslim, hence collect it

from whoever you find it with, even a hypocrite.”• (no teacher limit )

Week Three

Sources and Means of Knowledge

Revelation (الوحي: القرآن والسنة)Reason (العقل)Five Senses (الحواس الخمسة)Inspiration(اإللهام)

The Qur’an as Source of Knowledge

• The Quran is the Word of Allah that contains complete guidance for mankind.

• Much of the Quran is about Allah, His attributes and man's relationship to Him. But it also contains directives for its followers, historical accounts of certain prophets and peoples, arguments for accepting Muhammad as a genuine Prophet and good news for the believers and warnings for the disbelievers.

The Different Kind of Knowledge in the Qur’an

• The following are some of the different kind of knowledge in the Qur’an:

• 1. Tawhid and nature of the Spiritual World2. Law and Commandments3. Historical Accounts4. Wisdom5. Prophecies

1. Tawhid and the Nature of Spiritual World

• The central theme of the Quran is, of course, the doctrine of One God. In Surah al Hashr, some of Allah’s attributes are described as follows:

• He is God, there is no god except Him;The Knower of the unseen and the seen;He is the Gracious, the Merciful.He is God, there is no god except Him;The Sovereign, the Holy One, the Giver of peace, the Bestower ofSecurity, the Protector, the Mighty, the Subduer, the Exalted.Glory be to God, above that they associate.

• He is God, the Creator, the Maker, the Fashioner.His are the most beautiful names.All that is in the heavens and the earth glorifies Him,He is the Mighty, the Wise. (59:23 25)

• Besides containing illuminating facts about Allah and His various attributes, the Quran explains the spiritual world in considerable detail: the nature of angels, the nature of hell and heaven, the concept of the Day of Judgment, etc.

• Scriptures of other religions also talk about these spiritual things, but the philosophy contained in the Quran is far more rational, meaningful and capable of standing up to the test of time.

• 2. Law and Commandments• Most of all, the Quran is the Law for the Muslims. It

lays down commandments for worshipping God and contains numerous codes for the social and moral behaviour of its followers. In this respect, the Quran supersedes all previous Laws and Dispensations given to earlier prophets. The commandments in the Quran clearly tell the Muslims what to DO and what NOT to do. The following are some of the "positive" commandments in the Quran:

• o worship One God (2:22)o pray to the Lord in humility and in secret (7:56)o observe the Daily Prayer (2:44)o enjoin Prayer on your household (20:133)o keep the fasts during the month of Ramadhan (2:184)o pay the Zakat (2:44)o spend secretly and openly (14: 32)o perform the pilgrimage (2:197)

• o eat of the good and pure things (2:173)o give the orphans their due (4:3)o make peace between the parties that fight each other (49:10)o call the people to their Lord with wisdom and exhortation (16:126)o fulfill the covenants (16:92)o discharge the trusts (4:59)o observe justice (4:136)o keep the oaths and fulfill the promises (5:2), (5:90)o be good to others (16:91)o be good to the parents (2:84)

• Similarly, there are "negative" commandments in the Quran which prohibit or forbid the Muslims from:

• o associating any other deity with God (2:23)o reviling other people's deities (6:109)o making friends with people with whom God is angry (60:14)o killing other people (2:105)o stealing other people's property (5:39)o devouring the property of the orphan (17:35)

• o eating certain forbidden foods (2:174), (5:4)o consuming alcoholic drinks (5:91)o giving false testimony (2:284)o taking interest (3:131)o uttering unseemly speech in public (4:149)o indecency and manifest evil (16:91)o gambling (5:91)o marrying idolatrous people (2:222)o entering homes before asking for permission (24:28)o spreading disorder in the earth (7:57)

• Besides the above mentioned DO's and DON'T's, there are many other commandments in the Quran which control the institutions of marriage, divorce, inheritance and fighting.

• All Muslims are supposed to follow these commandments. The willful violation of any of these commandments constitutes sin, and the violation of some of the social commandments can even be punishable by the society.

3. Historical Accounts

• The Quran contains historical accounts of many earlier prophets and peoples. The purpose of narrating these stories is to show mankind how loving and faithful God can be to His true servants and chosen people and also how utterly destructive His wrath can be upon those who disregard His Commands.

• The various prophets whose lives are narrated in the Quran include Abraham, Joseph, Moses and Jesus, among others. Some of the earlier peoples that are mentioned in the Quran include, among others:

• o The people of A'd to whom Hood was sento the people of Thamood to whom Saleh was sento the people of Midian to whom Shoaib was sento the people of the Woodo the people of the Hijro the people of Tubbao the people of the Elephant

• The Quran also gives an account of many incidents that took place during the life of the Prophet Muhammad. However, not many contemporaries of the Holy Prophet are mentioned by name. The only two persons whose names appear in the Quran are Zayd, the freed slave and adopted son of the Prophet and Abu Ahab, an uncle and arch enemy of his.

• Zayd's name occurs in Surah al Ahzab, verse 38, and Abu Lahab's name occurs in Surah Ahab, the 111th Chapter of the Holy Quran. The Prophet's own name, Muhammad, is mentioned only four times in the Holy Quran. At all other places he is referred to as the Prophet, the Messenger, the Warner or by some other similar title.

4. Wisdom

• Most important of all, the Holy Quran is the Book of Wisdom. Any person, whether he is a Muslim or not, can benefit from this treasure of God's Wisdom. Below are given some samplings of this wisdom:

• " "A kind word and forgiveness are better than charity followed by injury " (2:264)" "God burdens no soul beyond its capacity" (2:287)" "Man is created of haste" (21:38)" "If God helps you, none can overcome you; but if He forsakes you, then who is there who can help you beside Him" (3:161)" "No soul that bears a burden shall bear the burden of another" (53:39)" "Man will have nothing but what he strives for" (53:40)

5. Prophecies

• The Quran contains numerous prophecies which cover a wide span of time. Some of these prophecies were realized within days of the original revelation while others took months or years. Many were fulfilled after the death of the Holy Prophet and some relate to events, inventions and discoveries of the present day.

• Some of the prophecies even concern events of the distant future, up to the Day of Judgment. As God says in the Quran: "For every prophecy there is a fixed time" (6:68). Below are given some of the prophecies as examples:

• (i) When the Holy Prophet was leaving Mecca at the time of Al-Hijrah, he received the revelation:

• "He Who has made the Quran binding on thee will most surely bring thee back to thy birth place" (28:86)

• This prophecy was eventually fulfilled with the conquest of Mecca and the triumphant return of the Holy Prophet.

• (ii) In the year 622 A.D., Chosroe's armies gained victories against Heraclius, the Emperor of Rome. The Iranians got control of Syria, Palestine, Egypt and Asia Minor and their armies reached within ten miles of the city of Constantinople. The people of Mecca rejoiced at this victory of the fire worshipers of Iran against the People of the Book. At this time the Holy Prophet received the following revelation:

• "The Romans have been defeated in the land nearby, And they, after their defeat, will be victorious in a few years; The dominion belongs to God, before and after, And on that day the believers will rejoice over the help of God" (30:36)

• This prophecy of Surah Room was fulfilled in a few years when the Romans defeated the Iranian armies and recovered their lost territories.

• This victory of the Romans also coincided with the victory of the Muslims at Badr and thus the second part of the prophecy, that the Muslims will rejoice that day, was also fulfilled.

The Characteristics of the Qur’an

1- Guidance for and mercy to believers

KبI فTيهT هGدQى ي Iال ر GابI Tت Kك TكI ال “ ”ذIل IينTقw KمGت Tل )2(البقرة: ل

This is the book; in it is guidance, sure, without doubt, to those who fear Allah. 97

ª TقIوKم حKمIةQ ل IرIى وQدGه ª Kم ل Tى عIلIع GاهI Kن Iابª فIصwل Tت Tك IاهGمK ب Kن ئ Tج KدIقI ”وIلGونI“ (األعراف: GؤKمTن )52ي

For We had certainly sent unto them a Book, based on knowledge, which We explained in detail, a guide and a mercy to all who believe.

2. Spiritual/ social healerTمIا فTي فIاء] ل TشIو KمG [ك ب Iر KنTة] مIظTعKوIم KمG Kك wاسG قIدK جIاءIت eهIا الن ي

I Iاأ ”ي“ (يونس: IينT KمGؤKمTن Tل حKمIة] ل IرIى وQدGهIو TورGدe57الص(

O mankind! there has come to you a direction from your Lord and a healing for the (diseases) in your hearts, and for those who believe, a Guidance and a Mercy.

3- LightIعGوا wب وهG وIات GرIصI وهG وIن Gر wزIعIو TهT Gوا ب wذTينI ءIامIن ”فIال “ IونGحT KمGفKل TكI هGمG ال Iئ Gول KزTلI مIعIهG أ ن

G wذTي أ eورI ال الن)157(األعراف:

So it is those who believe in him (the Messenger), honour him, help him, and follow the Light which is sent down with him, it is they who will prosper. 100

Iا Kن ل IزK Iن wذTي أ eورT ال TهT وIالن ول Gس IرIو Tهw Tالل Gوا ب GونI ‘ “فIآمTن IعKمIل TمIا ت wهG ب وIاللTير] ب I8 (التغابن: "خ(

Believe, therefore, in Allah and His Messenger, and in the Light which We have sent down. And Allah is well acquainted with all that you do.

4- Preacher for believers“ (آل عمران: IينTقw KمGت Tل wاسT وIهGدQى وIمIوKعTظIة] ل Tلن Iان] ل Iي ”هIذIا ب

Here is a plain statement to men, a guidance and instruction to those who fear Allah! 102

5- Revealing reality and clarifying doubts

“ (النمل: ªينT Iابª مGب Tت ءIانT وIك KرGقK IاتG ال TلKكI ءIاي )1 “طس ت

Ta. Sin. These are verses of the Qur’an, a Book that makes things clear and showing its reality.

KمG Kت Gن ا مTمwا ك QيرT Iث GمK ك Iك [نG ل Iي Gب Iا ي Gن ول Gس Iر KمG IابT قIدK جIاءIك Tت Kك IهKلI ال Iا أ ”يGور] wهT ن GمK مTنI الل Tيرª قIدK جIاءIك Iث IعKفGو عIنK ك IابT وIي Tت Kك GخKفGونI مTنI ال ت

“ (المائدة: Tين] Iاب] مGب Tت )15وIكO People of the Book! there has come to you Our Messenger, revealing to you much that you used to hide in the Book, and passing over much (that is now unnecessary): There has come to you from Allah a (new) light and a perspicuous Book.

6- Miraculous• The Qur’an is the main miracle of the Messenger of Allah and the main proof of the authenticity of his prophethood.

• The miracles contained in it are the proof of its authenticity as the real Book of Allah

The Sunnah as a Source of Knowledge

• The Muslim Ummah is unanimously agreed that the Sunnah is the second source of Islamic knowledge. Al-Suyuti says that whoever denies that the hadith of the Prophet (peace be upon him) is a source of religious knowledge and legal evidence in Islam has fallen into disbelief and left the fold of Islam.

Al-Shawkani says: “The validity of the Sunnah and the fact that it is sufficient evidence for determining Islamic Law are fundamental tenets of Islamic belief. No one denies this save those who have no share of Islam.”

• The evidence for this is as follows:

Allah says the following:

“Whatever the Messenger gives you take it, and whatever he forbids you abstain from it.”

“Obey Allah and obey the Messenger and beware. For if you turn back, then know that it is the Messengers duty only to convey the Clear Message.”

Allah orders us to refer all our matters of dispute back to Allah and His Messenger (peace be upon him):

“O you who believe, obey Allah and obey the Messenger and those in authority among you. If you fall into dispute about a matter, then refer it back to Allah and His Messenger if you believe in Allah and the Last Day.” 108

Literal Meaning: • Sunnah سنة)) means a clear path, an

established course of conduct, the pattern of life, a precedent and custom.

• The word sunnah and its plural sunan have been used in the Qur’an sixteen times. In all these instances, sunnah has been used to imply an established practice or course of conduct.

• It may be a good example or a bad one, and it may be set by an individual, a sect or a community.

”من سن سنة حسنة فله أجرها وأجر من عمل بها إلى يوم القيامة ومن سن سنة سيئة فله وزرها ووزر من عمل بها

إلى يوم القيامة“

“Whosoever originates in Islam any good way/ precedent (good sunnah) has its reward and the reward of whoever acts upon it till the Day of Judgment. And whosoever originates in Islam a bad way/ precedent (bad sunnah) bears its burden and the burden of whoever acts upon it till the Day of Judgment”

• The opposite of sunnah is bid`ah (innovation), which is characterized by lack of precedent and continuity with the past.’

Technical meaning: a. The acts, sayings and approvals of the Messenger of Allah. 112

Kinds of Sunnah with respect to the channels of the ahkam

1. Sunnah which is intended to be binding law: This kind includes the sayings, acts and approval of the Prophet (saw) through which he intended the laying down of the law or the explanation of the ahkam (law) laid down by the Qur’an . This comprises the largest part of the sunnah.

2- Sunnah which is specific to the

Prophet(صلى الله عليه وسلم)

This kind includes those acts which are

specific to the Prophet ( صلى الله عليه The number of these acts is very .(وسلمlimited. One example is the number of his marriages, marriage without dowry, not eating out of charity (صدقة).

3. Ordinary physical acts performed by every human beingLike eating, drinking, walking. Such acts are not meant to lay down laws. If one imitates the Prophet (saw) in these acts out of love for him and with the intention to get reward, he will be rewarded for this.But the etiquettes and manners prescribed by the Messenger of Allah for the performance of such acts are part of the which is meant to be binding law. 115

4. Acts based on human experience• This may include acts that pertain to

his experience as a human being, like the organizing of the army, tactics of war, trading skills.

• These acts don’t become precedents of law, because their basis is skill and experience rather than revelation.

• However, if they are still relevant to one’s situation they might be followed.

Status of the Sunnah with respect to the Qur’an • The Sunnah is the second source just next to the Qur’an which is the first source.

• There will be no Islam without the adoption of the sunnah. 117

• The Sunnah is basically an elaboration and commentary on the Qur’an .

• Some ahkam are found in the Qur’an in general, undetermined or unelaborated form.

• The Sunnah restricts, qualifies, or elaborates these ahkam. 118

• The Sunnah is a concrete implementation, a tangible form and the actual embodiment of the Qur’an

• The Sunnah may lay down some rules that are not mentioned in the Qur’an

• Qur’an says: “And whatsoever the messenger brought to you, follow it. And whatsoever he forbids, abstain from it” (al-Hashr:7)

The knowledge we get from The Sunnah

• Worship (عبادة) The rulings and teachings related to

عبادة• Halal and haram:

In food, drinks, clothes, and transactions:

- the Sunnah interprets what needs to be interpreted in the Qur’an .

- The Sunnah may add some prohibitions which are not included in the Qur’an .

• Law (family, criminal, commercial, procedural, international )

• Manner of conduct: The biography of the Prophet (saw) is the model of individual moral conduct.“A noble model you have in Allah’s Apostle, for all whose hope is in Allah, and in the final Day, and who often remember Allah” (al-Ahzab:21)

• The model in implementing and embodying the teachings and principles of the Qur’an

• The model in the relationship between humans and Allah (‘ibadah)

• The model in establishing a family and treating wives as well as children. 122

• A model in dealing with people.• A model in hard-working, patience, and perseverance etc.

Leadership:• He was a model leader, and from him we learn the requirements of a successful leader.

Da‘wah:

•How he started from nothing and ended with hundreds of thousands of followers after two decades only.

Nation building and social reformation:

• How could he establish a nation and changed a quite primitive society dominated by tribalism and rivalries between different tribes and social classes to a civilized and strong state characterized by unity, cooperation, and brotherhood. 125

• Eliminating idolatry and establishing Tawhid• Eliminating bad social values in dealing with

the weak social classes: women, slaves, poor people, black people, etc.

Reason (العقل)

as a Source of Knowledge

Reason as a Source of Knowledge

• The term “reason” is used in different senses and meanings:

1. The power of being able to think in a logical and rational manner, as distinct from experience or emotions.

2. Ability to think clearly and coherently3. The ability or process of drawing logical

inferences.

Meanings/ Functions of Reason:

1. Reason is sometimes used to denote a number of self-evident principles (such as the principle of non-contradiction) which govern the process of thinking of mentally competent people, regardless of their cultural background.

- These fundamental truths are intuitively apprehended

- as opposed to sensation, perception, feeling, desire (the existence of which is denied by empiricists) 129

• In this sense, reason is an instrument used for examining the coherence and rationality of a body of statements.

• The examination allows us to conclude that the examined statements are:- Either coherent, and hence in conformity with the principles of reason;- Or contradictory, and thus in violation of reason

• Reason which gives a priori knowledge (pure reason)

2. The capacity of rational beings to acknowledge the truth of certain assertions and deny the truth of others with the power to abstract, analyze, synthesize

• A body of knowledge which has been examined and systemized by the principle of logic and considered by certain people as reasonable.

• = Reason as an mental faculty.• Reason is to be associated with methods

and mechanisms used in science and knowledge, generally, rather than a source of knowledge. 131

Reason vs. Revelation• Reason is gift from Allah and it’s the most valued

part of human body• Reason is the basis of taklif (legal capacity)

because it is the power of discernment by which humans can distinguish between ‘good’ and ‘bad’, ‘right’ and ‘wrong’

• Reason is the basis of Iman/ faith, thus, it is given the authority to examine the authenticity of prophets and the revelation they claim to bring from God.

• The Qur’an is full of references which command and exhort people to think, contemplate, and to examine the claimed revelation

• This shows that: - Islam values reason; and - Islam is confident that there will be no contradiction between what is contained

in the revelation and what can reasoned by human reason

• What is claimed by unbelievers to be irrational or unreasonable is either:

• = Mere speculation and ignorance, such as when they deny some beliefs or they misunderstand them

hق jحlال jنmي مmنlغoال ي qنqالظ qنmا إsنjظ qالmإ lمoه oرjثlكjأ oعmبqتjا ي jمjو”“ (يونس: jونoلjع lفjا ي jمmيم� بmلjع jهqالل qنmئ�ا إlي j36ش(

But most of them follow nothing but conjecture and speculation: truly conjecture and peculation can never challenge or replace truth. Verily Allah is well aware of all that they do. (10:36)

= Or mere wishes and eluded hopes (hawa)

KوI IانI هGودQا أ Tالw مIنK ك wةI إ ن IجK IدKخGلI ال IنK ي Gوا ل ”وIقIال

KمG Kت Gن TنK ك GمK إ Iك هIان KرG Gوا ب eهGمK قGلK هIات Tي مIانI TلKكI أ ى ت IارIصI ن

)111(البقرة: صIادTقTين“And they say: "None shall enter Paradise unless he be a Jew or a Christian." Those are their vain desires. Say: "Produce your proof if you are truthful." (2: 111)

• Interestingly, those who claim to reject religion/ revelation based on logic and rationality are characterized by the Qur’an as those who fail to use their mental faculties/ reason properly.

TعKهIا وIال wب IمKرT فIات رTيعIةª مTنI األ Iى شIلIع IاكI Kن عIل Iج wمG ”ث“ (الجاثية: IونGمI IعKل wذTينI ال ي IهKوIاءI ال TعK أ wب Iت )18ت

“Then We put you on the right way of religion; so follow that way, and do not follow the desires of those who do not know.” (45: 18)

TمIا ال KعTقG ب Iن wذTي ي IلT ال IمIث وا ك GرIفI wذTينI ك IلG ال ”وIمIثKم] عGمKي] فIهGمK ال Gك TدIاءQ صGمÂ ب w دGعIاءQ وIن Tال مIعG إ KسI ي

I“ونGلTقKعI )171 (البقرة: يThe parable of those who reject Faith is as if one were to shout like a goat-herd, to things that listen to nothing but calls and cries: deaf, dumb, and blind, they are void of wisdom. (2: 171)

Al-Hawas (senses)as Means to Knowledge

• Senses as sources of Knowledge The Qur’an urges us to use the faculties of senses.

• It blames the Kuffar for not using their senses properly.

• The faculties of sense will bear witness for or against one on the Day of Judgment.

Sound Senses (Hawwas al-Salimah)

1. Hearing2. Sight, 3. Smell, 4. taste, 5. touch

MethodologyDefinition:Method:

A particular way of doing something, esp. a systematic one; implies an orderly logical arrangement.

Methodology:1.The theoretical analysis of the methods

appropriate to a field of study or to the body of methods and principles particular to a branch of knowledge.

Kinds of Methodologies

i. Methodology in revealed knowledgeii. Methodology in human knowledge (pure and social sciences)iii. Integrative methodology of revealed knowledge and human knowledge.

What is Islamic Methodology?

•Methodology means a technique or method. •It is the field of inquiry concerned with the examination of methods used in the study of natural sciences, human and social sciences and religious sciences in order to understand the subjects.• A comprehensive Islamic methodology is means to Islamize and integrate knowledge on the basis of the combination between the revelation and reason in order to overhaul the obstacles and challenges facing a modern man and the society.

Methodologies used by the early Muslim scholars

Ijtihad (wahy, `aql and

Hawas)

Istihsan(Juristic

Preference)

Masalih Mursalah

(public interest)

`Urf(a particular

Custom)

Consultation &

Consensus

Chain of Transformation

Reliable Narrators

Verifications

Collection of Data

Islamic Methodologies

Islamic Methodology

1. Collection of data of the Qur’an and Sunnah2. Verified techniques used by the narrators in order

to ensure the authenticity of narrations. 3. Compilation of the Qur’an and Sunnah.4. Considering the reliable narrators with specific

criteria.5. Chain of transformation, no gap between two

generations and not less than 40 forty narrators. 6. Memorizations of the Qur’an and Sunnah

Islamic Methodology

7. Consultation among the scholars and consensus based on majority opinions.

8. Ijtihad (rational arguments, explanation, interpretation and adjustment with the local culture and custom)

9. Istihsan (juristic preference), supplementary methods in order to make up for the growing number of new situations that were difficult with the textual and the analogical arguments.

Islamic Methodology

10. Maslahah or Masalih Mursalah (public interest), supplementary methods, if the texts of the Qur’an and Hadith or consensus or analogy were not available.

11. `Urf (custom of a particular society or a nation), supporting for adjustment from avoiding the contradictions and social division and disunity for the public interest.

• Merits of the Traditional Approach• Merits of the traditional approach were the sincerity, piety,

enthusiasm, commitment, and dedication of the early Muslim researchers, many of whom looked for their rewards in the Hereafter.

Islamic research, experimentation and empirical investigation were considered acts of Ñibadah.

The God-consciousness of the traditional scholars was reflected in their writings and research, which they would commence with bismillah (in the name of Allah), seek His blessings and conclude by dedicating their results to Him.

• The holistic nature of the traditional Islamic educational system made no distinction between revealed knowledge and empirically derived knowledge.

• Knowledge was perceived as a comprehensive whole, with empirically derived knowledge subject to the verification of revealed knowledge.

Tawhidic Criteria for Islamic Methodology

Three main tawhidic criteria for Islamic methodology are as follow: 1. Anything which does not correspond with the reality must be rejected.2. Ultimate contradictions must be denied and rejected.3. Approaches must be open in order to adjust and accommodate new

situations facing the society and man.

•Merits of Islamic Methodology•Summarized

Knowing context,Purpose and

Application of theTexts

As Ibadah

Mastery of Arabic

Language

Combination of Wahy & Aql Identifying the

Short-comingsOf EmpiricalKnowledge.

Self-Initiative (EstablishingInstitutions)

Reflection Of

Allah Awareness

Commitment toPeople and

society

PureIntention

For humanity

Allah’spleasure

Merit of Islamic

Methodologies

Verification of

Validities,shortcoming

IntegratingBetween

Wahy and Aql

Traditional Methods as Inspiration

Bilingual Competency

Regaining Sincerity and Pure intention

For humanity

Unavailability Financial and

Technical support

Mis-PropagationAnd

Misconception

Absence of Islamic

Curriculum

Creativity and Initiative ness

Depended on Western Method

Depended onTraditional

method

Obstacles And

Recommendations for

Muslim Scholars

Methodology in Human Knowledge (pure and social sciences)

Science• From Latin word scientia means systematic knowledge of the physical or material world

Knowledge of Science• Is acquired through experience, observation and research

• Discursive: preceded by arguments

• Inductive and deductive158

Two scientific methods/ logical systems :

induction & deduction

1. Deductive method (istinbat)(استنباط)

• The researcher begins with a theory and then derives one or more hypotheses from it for testing. 159

• Next, the researcher defines the variables in each hypothesis and the operations to be used to measure them in specific observable terms.

• The researcher implements those observations to see whether they confirm or fail to confirms the hypotheses.

2. Inductive method (istiqra’)(استقراء)• A method of discovering general rules and

principles from particular facts and examples.• In induction one starts from observed data and

develops a generalization which explains the relationships between the objects observed.

Characteristics of Scientific Method

1. Everything is open to question• In our quest to understand things,

we should strive to keep an open mind about everything we thing we know or we want to understand.

• What we call “knowledge” is transitional and subject to refutation!!• Is this possible?• Can this characteristic be open? • To which extent can we hold this perception?

2. Evidence based on observation

• Scientific method seeks knowledge through observed evidence not authority, tradition or ideology.

• The evidence should be systematic, comprehensive, and objective as possible. 163

Basic Steps in Scientific Research:

1. Collection of data•This is a common basis of all sciences; pure, human, and social. 164

• This is a function of perception and cognition.

- The mind goes on collecting data from all kinds of observations and experiences. Simultaneously, the mind, by using its power of identification and retention (the ability to remember things), goes on establishing relationships

• The observation will be on some assumed correlation between some aspects according to some tentative hypothesis to prove if there is any interrelationships between them.

• This observation can be done in a laboratory (physics, chemistry, biology, etc.) or in a field when the parts under study spread over vast areas in time and space (astronomy, geology).

• Observation can be done through senses and perceptive power or by help of scientific equipment (devices for measurement) and technological equipment (devices to facilitate work and utilizing the resource of environment).

• The advance of scientific and technological equipment have contributed to the expansion of methods and meanings of collection of scientific data and the horizon of observation.

• In Muslim history of science it is a fact that Muslim scientists realized at an early stage the importance of scientific equipment for collection of data, therefore they introduced big astrolabes (scientific instrument used for reckoning time and for observational purposes to enable astronomers to calculate the position of the Sun and prominent stars with respect to both the horizon and the meridian)…

and quadrants (an instrument for measuring angles, especially to check your position at sea or to look at stars) for exact observations of stars and planets, and even had invented a spherical astrolabe.

Measures to guard against distortion: The person taking observations should be

clear in his mind; he should not be obsessed by any preconceived ideas.

He should record only what is really happening (objective).

He needs patience and perseverance to ensure the reliability of his observations.

• Even the observations taken with all this care cannot be taken at their face value, until preliminary statistical tests confirm its reliability, or a number of other scientists confirm it independently.

• The rules of observation laid down by Jabir ibn Hayyan (chemistry):1. The time and season must be carefully chosen;2. It is best for the laboratory to be in a secluded (quiet and private) place ; 171

3. The chemist must have trusted friends;4. He must have sufficient time to conduct

experiments;5. Patience and reticence (not disclosing results

hastily before testing them);6. Perseverance; 7. He must not be deceived by appearances

into bringing his operations to too hasty a conclusion.

2. Classification and analysis of data:• To arrange the data in some regular order;• To find out the characteristics of the population

from where the random sample of data was taken;

• To establish the relations and correlations between different members of the population under study or with members of other series.

3. Hypothesis:• After studying the characteristics of

the members of the population under study, it comes the stage when the researcher begins to ask the question “How” about the working of those members and their correlations.

• The answer to this question is the hypothesis which describes in words or in symbols the relationship that appear to exist between them.

• This hypothesis will be depending, to some extant, on guessing. This guess is based on the past observation, experience and knowledge.

• There may be many hypotheses depending on the number of variable parameters involved.

4- Hypotheses testing:• The hypotheses will put into testing through experiments in different produced conditions to show their validity and applicability.

• If the predictions in the hypothesis come out correct, then the status of the hypothesis is raised to that of a “theory”. If this theory is found to be universally applicable, it is called a “law of nature”.

Observation

Logical deduction

Experimentation and empirical observations (under controlled conditions)

The hypothesis is validated = Theory

Origination of Scientific methodology• Muslim scientists were the first ones to

introduce this method and to emphasize the role of experimentation.

• Jabir ibn Hayyan, for example, stated clearly in his book on chemistry: “the first essential is to perform practical work and experiments. One who does not do so will never attain mastery”.

Among the rules of experiments

laid down by him:1. The operator should know the

reason for performing the experiment (hypotheses and predictions should be set clearly);

2. The instructions must be properly understood; 180

• Impossible and profitless processes should be avoided (vague hypotheses which don’t lead to definite predictions, or hasty experiments which lead to vague results, are of no value). 181

Example:

•Until the 10th century the Greek and Egyptian theory of geocentric cosmology was assumed to be true, and It was held by early Muslim scientists.

• According to this theory the fixed stars are farther than the stars of the Milky Way/ the Galaxy (the system of stars that contains our sun and its planets) which supposed to be close to the earth and to be situated in the atmosphere of the earth. 183

• In Greeks astronomy, this was an axiom and all other problems of astronomy had to satisfy this “truth”.

• The Muslim astronomer Ibn al-Haytham, based on his inductive method and with help of the equipment developed by Muslim scientists, came to a conclusion that the stars of the Milky Way were as far off as the other fixed stars, and that they were not situated in the atmosphere of the earth.

• Ibn al-Haytham was facing two contradicting hypotheses: the Greeks “axiom” and his hypothesis.

• And the question was: how to decide about the validity of these two opposing hypotheses?

Ibn al-Haytham suggested an experiment to decide about these hypotheses:

1. to measure the distance from the same place in different seasons.

2. to measure the distance at the same time from two places far apart on the earth. 186

3. The result was that if the stars of the Milky Way are in the atmosphere of the earth, then, in both the sets of observations suggested, their relative positions will be different.

• If the stars of the Milky Way are as far as the other fixed stars, there will be no change in the relative positions of the two sets of stars in either cases.

• Observations were taken and it was found that the stars of the Milky Way did not change their relative positions among the fixed stars. 188

• Here the validity of the hypothesis was not tested by the help of deductive logic alone. Only the predictions were deduced by logic and geometry. But the validity of the hypothesis was proved by experiment and observation. And this is what is called the inductive method of modern science.

Draper, Conflict between Science and Religion

• The characteristics of their (Muslims) method are experiment and observation, geometrical and mathematical sciences they worked up as instruments of reasoning.

• In their numerous writings on mechanics, hydrostatics, optics, etc. it is interesting to remark that the solution to a problem is always by performing an experimental observation.

• It was this that made them the originators of chemistry;

that led them to the invention of all kinds of apparatus for distillation (to make a liquid pure by heating it until it becomes a gas, then cooling it and collecting the drops of liquid that form), sublimation (conversion of a substance from the solid to the vapour state without its becoming liquid), fusion (the process or result of joining two or more things together to form one, like the fusion of copper and zinc to produce brass), filtration (the process of filtering a liquid or gas), etc.;

that caused them in Astronomy to appeal to divided instruments such as quadrants and astrolabes, in Chemistry to employ the balance, the theory of which they were perfectly familiar with, to construct tables of specific gravity and astronomical tables like those of Baghdad and Spain, great improvements in Geometry, the invention of Algebra and the adoption of Indian numeration in Arithmetic. Such were the results of the performance of the inductive method – their declining the reveries (imaginations/ dreams) of Plato.” 192

• Francis Bacon, who is considered by the West as one of the founders of inductive/ scientific method, in his book Novum Organum (1st quarter of the 17th century) while pleading for the introduction of empiricism in Europe says again and again that:“great authorities” follow this and consider this method better than the old deductive method of Greeks.

• But he never once mentions the name of the “great authorities” and the “wise people”

• No one applied this method before except Muslim scientists. It is suggested that he did not mention them by name for fear of inquisition. 194

Achievements of scientific method:• Freed sciences from the domination of rigid

deductive method that is more suitable to theoretical and philosophical studies.

• Limited the sphere of intellectual speculations and made a big room for empirical knowledge.

• Freed scientific research from the grip of Greek axioms.

• Limited the sphere of metaphysical studies and made shift to natural and physical studies.

• Successful results achieved by scientists gave them confidence in this scientific method and encouraged them to further their research.

• This, in turn, led to expansion of the horizon of scientific research; discovering new laws and opening new areas.

• Experimental endeavour led to the transformation of science to technology, and the invention of sophisticated machines and equipment.

“Side effects” of the scientific method

• The overconfidence in and adoration of the scientific method led to extreme rationality.

• Extreme rationality led to the adoption of scientific method in the field of human and social sciences. 199

Empiricism/ logical-positivism

(from the Greek word empeiria = experience.)

• Inaugurated by Francis Bacon and developed by John Locke (1632-1704) In philosophy, the attitude that beliefs are to be accepted and acted upon only if they first have been

confirmed by actual experience.

• Stressing experience, Empiricism is opposed to the claims of authority, intuition, imaginative conjecture, and abstract, theoretical, or systematic reasoning (Rationalism) as sources of reliable belief.

• The essence of empiricism is observation, measurement, and quantification of sense data available to the observer.

Early empiricism vs. Revelation

• Although Bacon proclaims the universal applicability of induction, he himself treats it almost exclusively as a means to natural knowledge and ignores its social application.

• Most divine knowledge must come from revelation, and reason has nothing to do with it. There is such a thing as divine philosophy (what was later called rational, or natural, theology), but its sole task and competence is to prove that there is a God.

• John Locke one of the fathers of empiricism did consider revelation, in principle, as a source of certain type of knowledge. But he assigned to it a very marginal and subordinate role.

• He argues that knowledge acquired by human reasoning is more reliable and certain than knowledge received through revelation.

• Because one may doubt the preservation of the original revelation through the act of narration, or question the lack of means for validating or substantiating its content.

• But one can always be certain about what his faculty of understanding considers true. 205

• He gives revelation the upper hand over reason in two instances:

1. In questions belonging to the realm of faith, because it’s inaccessible to human reasoning.

2. Revelation should supercede reason in the realm of probable knowledge which does not rise to certainty.

• (But one can always be certain about what his faculty of understanding considers true.)

PositivismIn philosophy, generally, any system that confines itself to the data of experience and excludes a priori (knowledge that is independent of all particular experiences, as opposed to a posteriori knowledge, which derives from experience alone) or metaphysical speculations.

As a philosophical ideology and movement, Positivism first assumed its distinctive features in the work of Auguste Comte (1798–1857).

It then developed through several stages known by various names, such as Empirio criticism, Logical Positivism, and Logical Empiricism, etc. 208

The basic affirmations of Positivism are:

1.That all knowledge regarding matters of fact is based on the “positive” data of experience;

2.That beyond the realm of fact is that of pure logic and pure mathematics, which were, in a later phase of Positivism, classified as purely formal sciences.

3. Strict adherence to the testimony of observation and experience is the all-important imperative of the Positivists.

4. In its basic ideological posture, Positivism is worldly, secular, anti-theological, and anti-metaphysical.

Naturalism/ natural method• A theory that relates scientific method to philosophy by affirming that all beings and events in the universe are natural.

• Consequently, all knowledge of the universe falls within the pale of scientific investigation. 211

Usually naturalism denies the existence of truly supernatural realities.

Naturalists assert that nature is reality. There is nothing beyond, nothing “other than,” no “other world” of being.

• Naturalism presumes that nature is in principle completely knowable.

• There is in nature a regularity, unity, and wholeness that implies objective laws, without which the pursuit of scientific knowledge would be absurd.

• Naturalism has no ontological preference: dualism and monism, atheism and theism, idealism and materialism are all per se compatible with it.

Two positive results of bahaviourism 1. Development of neurosciences. 2. Development of behaviour therapy

(behaviour modification), which focused on modifying observable behaviour, rather than on the thoughts and feelings of the patient (as in psychoanalysis).

Conclusion

W. M. Smart, The origin of the earth.

• Let us not then exalt the scientific method unduly as the close preserve of the scientist nor, which is much more important, as the only means by which we attempt to discover the secrets of nature.

• It is easy for a scientist to be a materialist if he sees only in the universe the apparently relentless (continuous) unfolding of natural law, and forgets that there are domains where the laws of physics are irrelevant 217

• But more and more scientists are realizing that they are exploring only one section the great world of nature in all its manifold complexity; beauty, moral, conduct, spiritual values, religious experience, are all outside their domain, yet all come within man’s scrutiny when he attempts to interpret the universe as a whole and strives to discern purpose therein…”

Harris, Kelvin (1979), Education and Knowledge

The limitations of empiricism in human and social sciences can be manifested in different areas among them: Derived conclusions could not

be logically valid for generalization because there could be exceptions.

• Methodology of data collection is theory laden, that is, the investigator has preconceptions and motives, which influence his choice of methodology of investigation and this subsequently affects the outcome 220

• “The humanistic studies of Western man and the social analysis of Western society by a Western scientist are necessarily "Western" and cannot serve as models for the study of Muslims or of their society.”

Ismail Raji al-Faruqi (1977), "Islamizing the Social Sciences"

The Search for an Islamic Methodology

Methodology comprises: 1. Technical procedures2. Conditions for using methods/ conceptual

aspects of methodology

1. Natural and physical sciences

The scientific method in its technical procedures has a universal application.

It was initially started by Muslim scientists and, later developed by Western scientists, and became as a heritage of humanity.

• There is no objection to adopting the technical procedures developed by non-Muslims.

• It needs to be applied within the Islamic ethical and ideological frame.

• Production of Muslim scientists 224

2. Social & human sciences• The main objects to the Western methods

used in the domain of human & social sciences are:

1. They are heavily inclined towards materialism and application of procedures of the natural sciences. Exclusion of spiritual aspect.

1. They embody the Western concepts & values (exclusion of revelation, materialism, atheism, etc.)

2. They set the Western values & concepts as universal norms and models by which other societies should by judged. 226

• The employment of this Western methodology in the Muslim world is leading toward Westernization of Muslim societies.

• Refer back to slide 260.

The issues of:• Rejecting revelation and contrasting

scientific with revealed knowledge and;• Confining reality to the empirical one under

the justification that reason cannot ascertain transcendental reality;

• Are not real problems in Islam.

- These structures are not immediately encountered by the senses. Instead, the structures of empirical existence are inferred through the use of categories abstracted from the sensible, and mediated by purely “rational” categories and statements.

e.g. Our understanding of the relationship between the earth and the sun is mediated by mental constructs, and hence is completely at variance with the immediate impression received from the senses. 230

2. Revelation, at least in its Islamic form, seeks its justification in empirical reality.

• Divine revelation sees empirical reality as the manifestation of a transcendental reality.

• The interconnectedness of the empirical and transcendental is always stressed by the Qur’an

• To understand revelation a proper and profound understanding, sometimes, we need the empirical knowledge, and to be able to understand nature a comprehensive understanding we need revelation.

• The science-revelation conflict is neither imperative nor universal, but specific to Western religion and experience. There is no need at all to reproduce it Muslim culture.

Setting the norm/ standard/ model• In social and human science norms, models,

standards are crucial for understanding, judging, and changing human behaviour as well as social phenomena.

• The norms/ standards/ models are used to deduce conclusions.

• Western scholarship assumes that the practices of the Western society (which is assumed to stand at the peak of human evolution) become the standard of normality.

Integrative Methodology of Revealed Knowledge and Human Knowledge

• The common point among Muslim scholars who are concerned with Islamization of knowledge/ Islamic methodology is the incorporation of Revelation into different fields of research. 235

• But when it comes to “How” the answers may be different.

• Until now, only little have been done, and more efforts are required to establish a viable Islamic methodology for different social and human sciences 236

Islamic Methodology should:• Incorporate revelation as a source of

knowledge and give it its due role in guiding human inquiry of knowledge.

• Work under the directions of our worldview (the origin & nature of man and universe, the purpose of their creation, and their destiny).

• Reflect the Islamic objectives and values

• Set our norms/ standards/ models which are derived from the Qur’an, the Sunnah, and the practice of the early Muslim society

Conclusion• Muslims of the past always followed the Islamic methodology

in the research: • They based their work on the principle of tawhid;• They verified the information to ensure its authenticity;• They were sincere, pious, enthusiastic, committed and

dedicated researchers;• They perceived knowledge as a comprehensive whole;• They avoided any innovation in the religion for fear of Allah’s

punishment;

• They had greater familiarity with classical Arabic than contemporary Muslim scholars, which facilitated their understanding and analysis of the original texts;

• They used to commence their work with bismillahi al-Rahman al-Rahim (in the Name of Allah, the Gracious, the Merciful), seeking Allah’s blessings and conclude by dedicating their results to Him; in this way they treated their research as an act of ‘ibadah.

Islam and Civilization

1. Meaning of civilization2. Civilization and Culture3. Arabic terms for civilization4. Characteristics of Civilization

Arabic terms:• al- Hadarah/ Al-Tamaddun/ al-Madaniyyah

• Al-Tamaddun/ al-Madaniyyah: derived from the word ‘madinah’(city or town), and ‘din’(religion).

• Al-‘Umran242

Meaning of CivilizationAn advanced level of development in society that is marked by complex social and political organization, and material, scientific, and artistic progress

A society, its culture and its way of life during a particular period of time or in a particular part of the world.

• The way and level of life of people in the cities as contrasted with the way and level of life in rural areas.

• The relation between ‘madinah’ and ‘din’ indicates the role of religion in the establishment of civilization and refinement of social culture 244

• Civilization designates a condition of human society characterized by a high level of cultural and technological achievements;

• and correspondingly complex social and political development

• It is an advanced state of intellectual, cultural and material development in human society

• Each civilization has a body or matter and a soul.

• The body of the civilization is its material achievements such as buildings, infrastructure, agriculture, industry, educational institutions, technological equipment, and all that is related to various pleasures of worldly life.

The soul of civilization is the set of;• ideologies, • concepts, • moral values, • manners and traditions that are embodied in

the behavior of individuals, groups, and their interrelations.

Pre-Islamic Civilizations• Civilizations before Islam focused on the materialistic aspects

of life as well as the bodily and sensuous side of man. • They made worldly affairs their immediate concern and the

destination of their knowledge, and left no room for Allah or the Hereafter in their philosophy or in their cultural and educational system.

• They disconnected man from Allah and the earth from the heaven.

Characteristics of Islamic Civilization

• Islamic civilization is a civilization of moderation and balance. It is thus:

• Spiritual and materialistic.• Idealistic and real.• Holy and human.

Characteristics of Islamic civilization

1- Tawhid

Muslim civilization was the first universal civilization that was based on al-Tawhid.

• The only one who deserves submission

• The only one who deserves worship

• The only one who deserves absolute obedience. 250

• Eliminates idolatry (idols, and statues)

• Frees common people from the oppression of the kings, Papacy, and Brahmanism

• Sets right the relationship between the ruler and the ruled (all people are equal)

2. Universality• Islamic civilization was the first civilization which

embraced the entire humanity• It declared equality of all human beings of all

descents, races, and colours• “Verily the most honoured of you in the sight of

Allah is he who is the most righteous of you” (49: 13).

• Open to the contribution of all members of the Muslim ummah regardless of their race, ethnicity, or colour, and even non-Muslim citizens.

• This civilization is attributed to all Muslims on an equal basis.

• (Arab nationalism – Western civilization = supremacy of white man)

• [Universality vs. Globalization]

3- RationalIt gives human reason a high position• Its faith is based on reasoning and

conviction• It rejects superstitious and

unfounded beliefs.• It does not go to the extreme of

denying the truths which are not directly related to empirical knowledge but are based on revealed knowledge

4. Tolerance • Tolerance towards people of different

religions (especially Christians and Jews)• Minorities enjoyed a high level of tolerance

and freedom of religion and economic pursuit.

• This characteristic is peculiar for a civilization based on religious foundations.

• It would be reasonable for a secularist who does not believe in any religion to treat religions equally and give people freedom of belief, but it may be difficult for a religious person to do so.

5. Integrated and balanced civilization

• Integrates the faith with the state/ rejection of secularism

• Integrates the body with the spirit (material vs. spiritual)

• Integrates the worldly life with the life in the hereafter

• Integrates empirical sciences with revelation

• Assigns priority to moral principles = morality vs. pragmatism

• Integration in a balanced manner

• Balance means following a middle course between two extremes of thought and action. 258

Western CivilizationCharacteristics of Western

civilization• In terms of material progress and

scientific exploration, the modern Western civilization has surpassed all civilizations across history.

• Pushing forward man’s incentives and capabilities to exploit nature and benefit from it. 259

•Technological achievements = eased human life, luxury

•Effective management and organization

•Respect of human rights within its homelands

The ideologies of the Western civilization are:

1. Materialism • This civilization may not deny the existence

of God strongly and openly, or deny the existence of the spirit.

• But it does not recognize the value of “God” in its ideological system.

• It accepts only things which are considered by it as of “practical value”

•The “practical value” is in luxury and worldly pleasure = this is the real ‘God’ 262

2. Secularism• Inspired by secular philosophy, devoid of

certainty, subject to constant review and change

• Its worldview formulation is not upon revealed knowledge and religious belief but rather upon cultural tradition, speculations to secular life centered upon man as physical entity

• religion as a personal matter limited to individual practice without any interference in social, economic or political activities

• religious practice limited to dead rituals

• Destruction of moral values = utilitarianism/ pragmatism

• Destruction of family (abortion, neglect of the elderly…)

• Created an atmosphere of fear, anxiety and distraction

3. Atheism: The doctrine or belief that there is no God

4. Humanism • Reliance upon the powers of human reason

alone to guide man through life

5. Dualism• Adherence to the validity of dualistic vision

of reality and truth• Affirmation of the reality of the

temporary/impermanent aspect of existence projecting a secular worldview

The Rise and Decline of Islamic

civilization

A brief chronology of Muslim Civilization

Preparatory phase

571: Birth of the Prophet. This year was marked with an

invasion of Makkah and an attempt to destroy Ka‘bah (the

year of the Elephant). 610: The first revelation in the cave at

Mount Hira’. The beginning of Mohammad’s prophethood.

621: First pledge at Aqaba. The search for a place to establish Muslim state.

622: Second pledge at Aqaba. The acceptance of the

people of Yathrib to receive the Prophet (saw) and his followers

The Emergence of the State622: The Hijrah (migration to Yathrib/

Madina), marks the establishment of the Muslim state.

624: Battle of Badr. The new power in the Arab

peninsula.628: Truce of Hudaibiya.

Peace to give people a chance to know about the new religion, and

to focus on strengthening the newly emerged state. 271

628: The Prophet addresses letters to various heads of states. Going international (beyond Arabian territories)

630: Muslims return back to their homeland Makkah after being expelled from it. 272

631: Expedition to TabukSending a message to the

Persian authorities who had been occupying the Arab territories and hostile to the new religion.

632: Farewell pilgrimage at Makkah. The Prophet addresses his

followers with his last speech.632: Death of the Prophet (saw).

Election of Abu Bakr as the Caliph.

Transitory instability• Attempts to destroy the new religion and state

• Pseudo-prophets, • Rejection of paying Zakat (disloyalty to the central authority)

Wars of liberation:633 - 641: Liberation of Arab territories

(Bahrain, Oman, Iraq, Syria, al-Quds/ Jerusalem, and the remaining parts of Jazirah. (occupied by Persians and Roman Byzantines)

636: Defeating the occupying forces of the Romans (Battle of Yermuk) followed by the liberation of Syria and al-Quds.

636: The last major battle against Persian Empire (the battle of Qadsiyyah)

the fall of their capital ‘Madain’.

641: - Liberation of oppressed people in Egypt.- The Catholic Archbishop of Egypt invites the

Muslims to help free Egypt from Roman oppressors.

- This exemplifies the alliances formed between Muslims, Christians and Jews due to the Muslims' establishment of religious freedom for Christians and Jews.

644: Umar dies and is succeeded by Caliph Uthman

654: Islam spreads into all of North Africa which was partly occupied by Romans.

656: Ali becomes the Caliph. Battle of the Camel. Another period of turmoil and political instability (fighting between different political groups)

660: Mu'awiyah declares himself as the Caliph at Damascus. 278

661: Ali assassinated. Accession of Hasan. An attempt to transform the Islamic political system to a monarchy

system. Al-Hasan bin Ali abdicates (gives up/ renounces) in favour of Mu‘awiyah. Mu'awiyah becomes the sole Caliph.

• 680: Death of Muawiyah. Accession of His son

Yazid. The monarchy system

successfully established

710: Tariq ibn Malik crosses the strait separating Africa and Europe

with a group of Muslims and enters Spain. A year later, 7000 Muslim men invade Gibraltar.

718: By this year almost the entire Iberian peninsula is under Muslim control.

750: Fall of Damascus. End of the Umayyad rule.

750: The establishment of the Abbasid rule 281

756: The first breakawayAbdul Rahman founds the

Umayyad state in Spain.763: Foundation of Baghdad. 767: The second breakaway

Khawarij set up their own state by Ibn Madrar at Sijilmasa.

Third breakaway:Rustamid state set up in Morocco

Those breakaways were followed by hundreds of other breakaways and civil wars across the Muslim world

792: Invasion of South France.814: Civil war between Amin and

Ma’mun. Amin killed and Mamun becomes the Caliph.

827: Ma’mun declares the Mutazila creed as the state religion.

870: Turks revolt against Muhtadi, his death and accession of

Mu‘tamid.968: Roman Byzantines occupy

Aleppo.1091: The Normans conquer the

island of Sicily; end of the Muslim rule.

1095: The first crusade.1099: The crusaders capture al-

Quds.1144: Second crusade.

1187: Salah al-Din wrests Jerusalem from the Christians.

Third crusade.1212: Battle of AI ‘Uqab in Spain.

Muslims defeated by the Christians in Spain

1248: By this year Muslim control of Spain was reduced to the Kingdom of Granada, which survives for more than two centuries.

1258: Baghdad destroyed by the Mongols. End of the Abbasid rule.

1260: Battle of Ayn Jalut in Syria. The Mongols are defeated by the Mamluks of Egypt;and the spell of the

invincibility of the Mongols is broken.

1266: The eighth crusade. The crusaders invade

Tunisia. Failure of the crusade.

1267: Malik ul Salih establishes the first Muslim state of Samudra Pasai in Indonesia.

The Spaniards invade Morocco. The Marinids drive away the Spaniards from Morocco.

1274: Ninth crusade under Edward I of England. The crusade ends

in fiasco and Edward returns to England.

1371: In the Ottoman Turks empire, Invasion of Bulgaria, Bulgarian territory up to the Balkans annexed by the Turks.

1446: In the Ottoman Turks empire, Second battle of Kossova resulting in the victory of the Turks. Serbia annexed to Turkey.

1453: Capture of Constantinople (Istanbul) by the Ottoman

empire. 1456: Annexation of Serbia by

Ottoman empire.1461: Annexation of Bosnia and

Herzegovina.1462: Annexation of Albania.

1475: Annexation of Crimea (peninsula in southeastern Ukraine between the Black Sea and the Sea of Azov).

Turkey became the master

of the Aegean Sea.

1507: The Portuguese under establish strongholds

in the Persian Gulf.1511: The Portuguese conquer

Malacca from the Muslims.

1517: The Ottomans defeat the Mamluks and

conquer Egypt.1529: Unsuccessful Ottoman

siege of Vienna.292

1550: The rise of the Muslim kingdom of Aceh in Sumatra.

1550: Islam spreads to Java, the Moluccas, and Borneo.

1687: Defeat of the Turks by Austria.

1718: In the war against Austria, Turkey suffers defeat. By the

treaty of Passarowich Turkey loses Hungary.

1797: Russia occupied Daghestan.1811: The British occupied

Indonesia.

1812: Madina fell to Egyptians.1813: Makkah and Taif captured

by Egyptian forces and Saudis expelled from Hijaz.

1827: Malaya became a preserve of the British according to Anglo-Netherlands treaty

in 1824.

1830: French forces occupy Algeria, ending 313 years rule of Turks.

1832: Turks defeated in the battle of Konia by Egyptian forces.

1857: British captured Delhi and eliminated Mughal rule

in India after 332 years. This was also the end of 1000 years of Muslim rule over India.

1859: Imam Shamil defeated by Russian forces in Daghestan

1901: French forces occupy Morocco.

1916: Arab revolt against Ottoman rule. Lawrence

of Arabia leads attacks on the Hijaz Railway.

1918: Syria occupied by France.1921: Abd Allah bin Husayn was

made by the British King of Transjordan.

1924: The Turkish khilafah is abolished.

1948: The official establishment of the Jewish state in Palestine.

Stages of the process of rise and fall

1) Gestation (Hijra –the end of Abu Bakar’s khilafah)

2) Expansion/ Universal Empire

3) Decay (the second half of khilafa Abbasiyyah)

4) Invasion/ fall299

Causes of Rise of Muslim Civilization

1. Spiritual power: a tremendous impulse was given to the Muslim community to explore life and the world around them (life and world created for a purpose). The Muslims spread the word of Allah. Islam – way to save people and liberate them

Literacy• One of the missions of the Prophet was to eliminate illiteracy

from his society. To achieve this, he took the advantage of the presence of educated Qurayshi prisoners of the Badr battle and offered everyone of them the chance to ransom himself by teaching ten Muslims how to write.

2. Ability to transform the ideals of the Qur’an to daily conduct: Hard-work, perseverance, sincerity, honesty, patience

3. Intellectual freedom, freeing human intellect from superstitions, teaching people to think critically and creatively (prohibition of imitation without sound evidence)

4. Political freedom, equality between the ruler and the ruled.“Allah has sent us to free humans from worshipping other humans, and to commit them to worshipping Allah”

5. Openness:• To learn from human experience• To people of different races and

ethnicities. • Muslim civilization was a joint

endeavour of Muslims from different peoples and races

• It was not the military power which enabled early Muslims to dominate half of the then known world. It was their righteousness and their humaneness.

• The Muslims intermarried freely with local people and became part of them.

6. The spirit of seeking knowledge• Most of the rulers of Banu Ummayah and the

first two centuries of al-‘abbasiyyin dynasties were educated or scholars.

• They encouraged learning and scientific enquiry and used to spend on it generously

(the House of Wisdom).

• The establishment of hundreds of schools and universities such as al-Nizamiyyah, al-Azhar, al-Qayrawan etc.

• In addition to the generous spending on education and scholars, waqf (endowment fund) was well developed and played a significant role in developing educational institutions.

• Although there was a relevant level of dictatorship, rulers did not use to interfere in educational institutions and the affairs of

scholars.

Causes of decline

• Tribalism • Ethnocentrism • The Prophet (saw) was able to suppress these

social diseases and reduce them to the minimal level among sahabah and substitute them with a strong brotherhood.

• The new comers to Islam, who used to live under the rule of tribes or monarchs and emperors, brought with them those loyalties.

• Sectarianism• Obsession with power/ prestige/• Striving for power – assassinations

– overthrowing each other – civil wars – separation – seeking help from enemies

• Dictatorship/ political injustice/ changing the political system from shura to monarchy

• Revolutions / insurgencies here and there• Moral decadence: Dishonesty, indifference, cheating, laziness,

neglecting obligation, involvement in haram, interest in pleasure and enjoyment rather than more serious things…etc.

Weakness of central authority:• For most of the last three centuries of the

Abbasid rule, the rulers (Caliphs) became nominal.

• The real sovereign power had passed already to the Turks.

• The rulers became under their direct influence and they were frequently changed or murdered one after another.

• Deterioration in the educational level of the rulers:The guardians, soon became the masters.

• They were men of simple, downright, brutal character, of energy and common sense.

• The Ottoman Turks/ Mamalik were soldiers first. They were soldierly in all they did.

• They did infuse some manhood into the declining empire, which would have perished but for them.

• They managed to free some Muslim territories, stop the advancement of Mongols, and expand the Muslim empire.

• But those rulers were not really qualified to maintain the Muslim civilization.

• At the beginning, for centuries the civilization of Islam was almost unaffected by this transfer of power from a cultured people to a people of comparative illiteracy, rather it continued to progress in spite of it.

• But the Empire was apparently progressing on the wave of a bygone impulse which was fading away.

Academic decline• Islamic sciences reached the stage of stagnation;

• ijtihad was virtually stopped, • fanaticism to juridical as well as theological schools of thought became widespread, 315

• The extremism of philosopher and theologians was met with another extremism of some religious scholars who went to the extent of prohibiting the study of philosophy and the sciences related to it, burning of the books of some philosophers and theologians in some areas such as Ibn Rushd, al-Ghazzali etc.

Muslim Sciences: Origin and

Development

1. Philosophy, natural and physical sciences

• The real development of Muslim natural and physical sciences started after the era of translation.

• Translation of the intellectual heritage of other nations and civilizations started in the 2nd Islamic century from the four major languages: Greek, Syriac, Persian and Sanskrit.

• In the 3rd century, the establishment of bayt al-Hikmah (The House of Wisdom) founded by Harun al-Rashid and well developed by his son al-Ma’mun.

• It was a research and educational institute and the centre for intellectual development. 319

• Many scientific works were rendered into Arabic in the field of mathematics, physics, astronomy, medicine, pharmacology, history, philosophy and other sciences.

• The translators were Muslims as well as non-Muslim citizens.

Translation: advantages & disadvantages

Positive impact• Benefiting from human knowledge and

experienceNegative impact• Translation was not confined to what is

useful (pure sciences)• Extended to theology and metaphysical

issues

• Creating confusion among some Muslims• Led to the creation of an elite of

philosophers who were fascinated with Greek philosophy and to some extent deviated from the right principles of Islam

• Tension between this elite and religious scholars

2. Islamic sciences•Established and developed solely by Muslims

The Contribution of Muslim Scholars

(Natural Sciences)

Major Areas of Contribution

1. The adoption and development of the scientific/ inductive method

2. Development of different fields of science + inventions

3. Transfer of the intellectual heritage of the ancient civilizations to the modern civilization

1- Al-Khawarizmi

• Abu Abdallah Muhammad ibn Musa Al-Khawarizmi. (780-850 CE) his birthplace is Khwarizm (modern name: Khiva) south of the Aral Sea.

• Al-Khawarizmi was a mathematician, astronomer and geographer. He was the founder of several branches and basic concepts of mathematics.

• He influenced mathematical thought to a greater extent than any other mediaeval writer." (Phillip Hitti).

• He is the founder of Algebra (al-Jabr) • In Arabic, the full expression was “Ilm aljabr

wa al-Muqabalah ” (the science of reunion and equations) and Algorithm (the old name for arithmetic)

• These terms are derived from the title of his work, HisabAl-Jabr wal al-Muqabalah (Book of Calculations, Restoration and Reduction).

• His work on algebra was outstanding, as he not only initiated the subject in a systematic form but he also developed it to the extent of giving analytical solutions of linear and quadratic equations, which established him as the founder of Algebra.

• He also gives geometrical solutions (with figures) of quadratic equations, for example x2 + 1Ox = 39, an equation often repeated by later writers.

• In the twelfth century Gerard of Cremona and Roberts of Chester translated the ‘Algebra” of Al-Khawarizmi into Latin.

• Mathematicians used it all over the world until the sixteenth century.

Algorithm = Arithmetic•His arithmetic synthesized Greek and Hindu knowledge and also contained his own contribution of fundamental importance to mathematics and science. 331

• He explained the use of zero, a numeral of fundamental importance developed by the Muslims.

• He developed at length several arithmetical procedures, including the decimal system and operations on fractions. 332

• He introduced the Indian system of numerals (now generally known as Arabic numerals) which was later passed to Europe.

• He wrote many books on arithmetic, among them: Kitab al-Jam’a wa al-Tafriq bi al-Hisab al-Hind, which was translated to and preserved in Latin language (the Arabic version was lost)

• A Latin translation of a Muslim arithmetic text was discovered in 1857 CE at the University of Cambridge library.

• Entitled 'Algoritimi de Numero Indorumآ’, which is believed to be a copy of Al-Khawarizmiآ’s arithmetic text, which was translated into Latin in the twelfth century by Adelard of Bath (an English scholar).

Geography• He revised and corrected Ptolemy's views• He produced the first map of the known world

in 830 CE. • His geography captioned Kitab Surat al-Ard,

(The Face of the Earth) together with its maps, was translated to Latin language.

• He worked on measuring the volume and circumference (the line that goes around the earth) of the earth (this measurement was ordered by Al-Ma’mun)

Geometry• He had many contributions to geometry including:• His astronomical and trigonometric tables, revised

by Maslama Al-Majrti (Second half of tenth century), were translated into Latin as early as l126 by Adelard of Bath.

• They were the first Muslim tables and contained not simply the sine function but also the tangent (Maslama's interpolation).

• He also perfected the geometric representation of conic sections and developed the calculus of two errors, which practically led him to the concept of differentiation.

Mechanics• He contributed to work related to clocks,

sundials (an ancient device for telling the time when the sun is shining) and astrolabes.

2. Al-Razi

• Abu Bakr Muhammad b. Zakariyya (Rhazes)(ca.250/854-313/925 or 323/935), in Rayy, Iran.

• Physician, philosopher and alchemist. • He was first placed in-charge of the

first Royal Hospital at Rayy, from where he soon moved to a similar position in Baghdad where he remained the head of its famous Muqtadari Hospital for along time. 339

Works:• 1- Kitab al-Mansuri, which was

translated into Latin in the 15th century A.D., comprised ten volumes and dealt exhaustively with Greco-Muslim medicine. Some of its volumes were published separately in Europe.

• 2-Kitab al-Judari wa al-Hasabah was the first treatise on smallpox and chicken-pox, and is largely based on Razi's original contribution.

• He was the first to draw clear comparisons between smallpox and chicken-pox.

• This book was the first book on smallpox, and was translated over a dozen times into Latin and other European languages.

3. Kitab al-Hasa fi al-kula wa 'l-mathana (Stones in the kidney and bladder) is one of the most famous of his medical writings. 341

4. Al-Hawi was the largest medical encyclopaedia composed by then.

It contained on each medical subject all important information that was available from Greek and Muslim sources,

and this was concluded by him by giving his own remarks based on his experience and views.

Medical system:

• A special feature of his medical system was that he greatly favoured cure through correct and regulated food.

• This was combined with his emphasis on the influence of psychological factors on health. 343

Medical research:• His medical research was highly methodical, as revealed in his notebooks.

• His medical methods were characterized by lack of dogmatism and total reliance on clinical observation. 344

• He also tried to test medicines first on animals in order to evaluate their effects and side effects.

• He was also an expert surgeon and was the first to use opium for anaesthesia.

• He had an independent mind and that was strikingly revealed in his book al-Shukuk 'ala Jalinus (Doubts about Galen).

• Here al-Razi rejects claims of Galen's, from the alleged superiority of the Greek language to many of his cosmological and medical views.

• In his criticism of Galen’s medical views, he used to rely on his experimentation and clinical records 346

3. Al-Biruni

• Muhammad Ibn Ahmad Abul-Rayhan Al-Biruni (973-1050AD), from Haran, Syria.

• His production exceeds 146 titles in more than 20 different disciplines, ranging from astronomy to mathematics, mathematical geography, religion, and philosophy.

• But the bulk of his work lies in mathematics and related disciplines (96 titles). Only 22 works have survived; and only 13 of these have been published.

• His ‘Al-Qanun al-Mas’udi’ is a most extensive astronomical encyclopaedia, slightly short of 1,500 pages. 348

In it:• he determines the motion of the solar apogee

(the point in the orbit of the sun in space when it is furthest from the earth),

• he corrects Ptolemy's findings,• he was able to state for the first time that the

motion is not identical to that of precession, but comes very close to it.

he employed mathematical techniques unknown to his predecessors that involve analysis of instantaneous motion and acceleration, described in terminology that can best be understood if we assume that he had "mathematical functions" in mind.

• Six hundred years before Galileo, Al-Biruni discussed the theory of the earth rotating about its own axis.

• Using the astrolabe and the presence of a mountain near a sea or flat plain, he calculated the earth circumference by solving a highly complex geodesic equation.

• His book ‘Tahdid’ (the demarcation of the coordinates of cities) was written so as to determine the Qibla.

• He determined the local meridian (one of the lines that is drawn from the North Pole to the South Pole) and the coordinates of any locality.

• With the aid of mathematics, he also enabled the direction of the Qibla to be determined from anywhere in the world.

4. Al-Kindi (Al-Kindus)

• Abu Yusuf Yaآ’qub ibn Ishaq was born in 801 in Kufah, Iraq.

• Al-Kindi was best known as a philosopher, but he was also a physician, pharmacist and he has some contributions to physics, mathematics, geography, astronomy, and chemistry.

• He learned Greek and Syriac languages. He was proficient in the arts of the Greeks, Persians and Hindus.

• He was employed as a calligrapher as he was well known for his beautiful calligraphy.

• al-Ma'mun (813-833) appointed him as a researcher and translator in the House of Wisdom (Bayt al-Hikmah), Baghdad.

• He was one of the first Muslim scholars involved in translating and commenting on Greek philosophical manuscripts.

• He first wrote treatise in epistemology and

logic books such as Risalah fi Hudud

al-Ashya’ wa Rusumiha (On the Definitions of Things and their Descriptions).

• His other philosophy works include Rasa’il al-Kindi al-falsafiyya (Philosophical

Treatises of al-Kindi), • Fi al-falsafa al-ula (On First Philosophy), Fi

wahdaniyat Allah wa tanahiy jism al-‘alam (On the Oneness of God and the Limitation of the Body of the World),

Fi kammiyat kutub Aristutalis wa ma yuhtaju ilaihi fi tahsil al-falsafa (The Quantity of Aristotleآ’s Books and What is Required for the Acquisition of Philosophy) and

Fi al-hila li-daf‘ al-ahzan (On the Art of Averting Sorrows).

• Although al-Kindi was influenced by the work of Aristotle (384-322 BC), he tried to put the Greek’s ideas in a new context and to lay down the foundations of a new philosophy.

• He first elaborated a system of thought based on the logic of Greek philosophy, hence developed logic and systematic explanations for some of the debated theological issues of his time, such as creation, immortality, God's knowledge, and prophecy. 359

• He contributed 11 works to arithmetic. In these works he wrote on Indian numbers, the harmony of numbers, lines and multiplication with numbers, relative quantities, measuring proportion and time, and numerical procedures and cancellation.

• He made rich contributions to the Arabic system of numerals, which was largely developed by al-Khawarizmi.

• He contributed also to medicine. He produced 22 publications on medical topics. One of his major contributions in medicine and pharmaceutics is to determine and apply a correct dosage, which formed the bases medical formulary.

• Several of his books were translated into Latin and was known as.

• His thoughts very much influenced medieval Europe.

5. Al-Zahrawi (Albucasis)• Abu-Qasim Khalaf ibn Abbas. • He was born in al-Zahra near Cordoba

in 936AD, and died in 1013 AD.• He was one of the greatest surgeons of

his time. • His encyclopaedia of surgery was used

as standard reference work in the subject in all the universities of Europe for over five hundred years.

• His outstanding contribution in medicine is his encyclopaedic work 'at-Tasrif li-man ajiza an Al-talif' in thirty treatise.

• His at-Tasrif, completed about 1000 AD, was the result of almost fifty years of medical education and experience.

• This encyclopaedia was intended for medical students and the practising physician, for whom it was a ready and useful companion in a multitude of situations since it answers all kinds of clinical problems.

• It contained the earliest picture of surgical instruments in history, about 200 instruments are described and illustrated.

• In places the use of instrument i.e. the surgical procedure itself is shown.

• In discourse l and 2, al-Zahrawi classified 325 diseases and discussed their symptomatology and treatment.

• In page 145, he described, for the first time, in medical history, a hemorrhagic disease transmitted by unaffected women to their male children; today we call it hemophilia.

• These two volumes were translated into Latin and printed in Augsburg in 1519.

• Volume 28 is on pharmacy and was translated into Latin as early as 1288 as "Liber Servitoris".

• Volume 30, on surgery, became the most famous and had by far the widest and the greatest influence.

• The 300 pages of this volume represent the first book of this size devoted solely to surgery, which at that time also included dentistry and what one may term surgical dermatology.

• He developed all aspects of surgery and various branches; ophthalmology diseases of the ear, nose, and throat, and of the head and neck, general surgery, obstetrics, gynecology; military medicine, urology, and orthopedic surgery. 368

• It was translated into Latin by Gerard Cremona (1114-1187) it went into at least ten Latin editions between 1497 and 1544.

• The last edition was that of John Channing in Oxford (I778) this contains both the original Arabic text and its Latin translation on alternate pages.

• Almost all European authors of surgical texts from 12th to the 16th centuries referred to al-Zahrawi's surgery and copied from him

Human Sciences &

Law and Jurisprudence

Abu Ali Al-Hassan ibn Abdullah ibn Sina (981-1037)• Was born in Asfahan near Bukhara (Central Asia)• By the age of ten he had become well versed in

the study of the Holy Qur’an and basic sciences. • Known in the West by the name Avicenna.• Was the most famous physician, philosopher,

encyclopedist, mathematician, and astronomer of his time.

• At the age of seventeen he was successful in curing Nooh ibn Mansor, the king of Bukhara, of an illness in which all the well-known physicians had given up hope.

• On his recovery the king wished to reward him but the young physician only desired permission to use his uniquely stocked library.

• He traveled to Jurjan after his father’s death where he met his famous contemporary Abu Raihan al-Biruni

• His major contribution to medical science is his famous book known as al-Qanun fi al-Tibb; which is known as Canon in the West. In this book he reviewed the medical knowledge available from ancient and Muslim sources and he also made many original contributions.

• The Qanun deals with general medicines, drugs (seven hundred and sixty), diseases affecting all parts of the body from head to foot, especially pathology and pharmacopoeia.

• His book was recognized as the most authentic materia medica.

• Among his original contributions are such advances as recognition of the contagious nature of phthisis and tuberculosis, distribution of diseases by water and soil, and interaction between psychology and health.

• He was the first to describe meningitis and made rich contributions to anatomy, gynecology and child health.

• Ibn al-Sina was the first scientist to describe the minute and graphic description of different parts of the eye, such as conductive sciera, cornea, choroid, iris, retina, layer lens, aqueous humour, optic nerve and optic chiasma.

• Ibn Sina condemned conjectures and presumptions in anatomy and called upon physicians and surgeons to base their knowledge on a close study of human body.

• He observed that Aorta at its origin contains three valves which open when the blood rushes into it from the heart during contraction and closes during relaxation of the heart so that the blood may not be poured back into the heart.

• Dr William Osler, author of the Evolution of Modern Science, writes, “The Qanun has remained a medical bible for a longer period than any other book.”

• Ibn Sina also wrote Kitab al-Shifa (Book of Healing), known in its Latin translation as ‘Sanatio’. It is a philosophical encyclopedia covering a vast area of knowledge from philosophy to science.

Human Sciences:•Philosophy•Theology•Sociology

• The role of great Muslim Thinkers in the field of ‘aqidah and tasawwuf to the growth of knowledge and priceless contribution to the process of learning in the history of Islamic culture and civilization.

• To name but a few, al-Ghazzali, al-Ash’ari, al-Maturidiyy, al-Baqillani, al-Shahrastani, Ibn al-’Arabiyy, al-Qusyairi, ect

Ibn Rushd• Abul Walid Mohammad Ibn Rushd

(known as Averroes)• He was a physician and philosopher,

jurist• He wrote a 7-volume medical

encyclopedia, Kitab al-Kulliyat fi al-Tibb (Latin name Colliget, a corruption of the word kulliyat= generalities), used at European universities until the eighteenth century. 381

• Ibn Rushd's philosophy was an attempt to synthesize Islamic faith and reason in light of the available Greek heritage.

• He asserted the "primacy of reason", or a purely philosophical rationalism

• For him, the primacy of reason is unquestioned but compatible with Islamic faith.

• His contribution to philosophy was significant to Europe rather than to the Muslim world.

• His contribution to Europe was in two major areas:

i. transfer and commentary on Aristotle’s philosophy

Ii. spreading rationalism

• European philosophers discovered Aristotle through Ibn Rushd's writings and commentaries on Aristotle’s works. And he used to be called "the Great Commentator.“

• His commentaries on Aristotle were translated into Latin and Hebrew, and soon became a part of the curriculum at different European universities and institutions of learning.

Rationalism:

• He was regarded as the herald of rationalism long before the Renaissance (Gilson)

• Later, his works became the ruling mode of social thought in the West. And scholars of medieval Europe were provoked and inspired by those writings.

• A dominant and influential school of philosophical thought emerged under his name (Averroism)

• From the end of the twelfth century to the end of the sixteenth century Averroism remained the dominant school of thought,

• The results were the Renaissance in the thirteenth century and the Protestant Reformation in the sixteenth century.

• His singular influence in stimulating the Western Renaissance is acknowledged "as the landmark in the history of Western civilization" (Gilson, 1938, 30).

Ibn Khaldun (1332-1395C.E)• Full name, Abd al-Rahman bin Muhammad.• Born in Tunisia in 732 A.H (1332 C.E), in an influential and

learned family. • Many of his ancestors had held high posts in the Tunis

government.

His Studies• His father, however, avoided politics and devoted his time to

study jurisprudence, philosophy and poetry and excelled in all these branches of knowledge.

• Unlike his father, Ibn khaldun was engaged in both learning and politics.

• His close friend and associate, Ibn Khattab, described him as “a virtuous man, good natured, shy, opposed to oppression, difficult to handle, well-informed on intellectual and traditional science, wise of judgement and knowing a lot of things by heart.”

• Ibn Khaldun made great intellectual contributions in many areas of learning. He is internationally recognized as the founder and father of sociology, father of philosophy, historian of civilization, and the father of the economic science.

• He is best known for his famous Muqaddimah (prolegomena) which is a masterpiece in literature on philosophy of history and sociology.

• The main theme of Muqaddimah was to identify psychological, economic, environmental and social facts that contribute to the advancement of human civilization and the currents of history.

• He analyzed the dynamics of group relationships and showed how group feelings, al-‘Asabiyyah, produce the ascent of a new civilization and political power.

• He identified an almost rhythmic repetition of the rise and fall in human civilization, and analyzed factors contributing to it.

• His views attracted the attention of Muslim scholars as well as many Western thinkers.

• He pioneered the critical study of history.• He provided an analytical study of human

civilization, its beginning, factors contributing to its development and the causes of decline.

• Thus, he found a new science: the science of social development or sociology, as it is called today.

• He wrote: “I have written on history a book in which I discussed the causes and effects of the development of states and civilizations, and I followed in arranging the material of the book an unfamiliar method, and I followed in writing it a strange and innovative way.”

• Thus, by selecting his particular method of analysis, he created two new sciences: Historiography and Sociology simultaneously.

• He saw reason as a necessity in judging history and social events.

• He pointed out that injustice, despotism and tyranny are the clear signs of the downfall of the state.

• He remarked that historians have committed errors in their study of historical events, due to three major factors:

• 1) Their ignorance of the natures of civilization and people;• 2) Their bias and prejudice; and• 3) Their blind acceptance of reports given by others.

• He pointed out that true progress and development comes through correct understanding of history, and correct understanding of which can only be achieved by observing the following three main points:

• 1) A historian should not be in any way prejudiced for or against any one or any idea;

• 2) He needs to conform and scrutinize the reported information; and

• 3) He should not limit history to the study of political and military news or to news about rulers and states. For history should include the study of all social, religious and economic conditions.

Law and Jurisprudence

• The five major schools of legal thought

• The impact of Muslim jurisprudence on European civil law.

• Four Great Imams• Any mention of fiqh can’t be made without talking

about the four great imams of fiqh and their schools of thought. Imam Abu Hanifa, Imam Malik ibn Anas,Imam Shafi`i, and Imam Ahmad ibn Hanbal are the luminous stars of the sky of Islamic jurisprudence. It is very important to note and realize that despite the differences of opinion in the matters of fiqh, these blessed souls had nothing but the utmost respect for each other.

Imam Abu Hanifa

• First of the four great imams of fiqh, Nu`man ibn Thabit, Imam Abu Hanifa was born in 80 A.H. in Kufa. He is known as imâm al-a`zam (the greatest imam) and called “The Imam” by Abu Dawud. His school has the largest number of followers among the four imams. He was the only tâbi`i (who met with the companions of Prophet Muhammad peace be upon him) out of the four luminaries. He had the privilege of seeing Anas ibn Malik, Sahl ibn Sad as-Sa’idi, ‘Abdullah ibn Abi Awfa and Abu al-Fadl Amir ibn Wasila.

• Hammad Basri, Ata bin Abi Rabah, Imam Baaqir, Imam Jafer Saadiq, Abdullah ibn Umar, Aqabah bin Umar and many other distinguished scholars are among the teachers of imam Abu Hanifa. Qadi Abu Yusuf and Imam Muhammed are among his famous students.

• He was the pioneer in classification and compilation of fiqh. One of the biggest contributions of Imam Abu Hanifa is that he organized fiqh into functional sub categories starting with tahara (purification). All other imams and scholars followed his organization. He is known for his unparallel knowledge of fiqh and skill in qiyaas as well as taqwa and an amazing memory.

• A quote attributed to Imam Shafi’i states that a person who wanted to specialize in fiqh should read Abu Hanifa’s books. Abdullah Ibn Mubarak said, “I have not seen another specialist as learned as Abu Hanifa in the knowledge of fiqh.” Sufyan al-Thawri encapsulated all of the qualities of imâm al-a`zam in this statement, “This man holds a high rank in knowledge, and if I did not stand up for his science I would stand up for his age, and if not for his age then for his God wariness (wara`), and if not for his God wariness then for his jurisprudence (fiqh).”

• Qadi Abu Yusuf , while describing imam Abu Hanifa’s personality, said, “As far as I know, Abu Hanifah was extremely pious, avoided forbidden things, remained silent and absorbed in his thoughts most of the time, and answered a question only if he knew the answer. He was very generous and self-respecting, never asked a favor of anybody, shunned the company of the worldly-minded and held worldly power and position in contempt. He avoided slander and only talked well of people. He was a man of profound learning and was as generous with his knowledge as with his money.”

• Despite being regarded as one of the greatest contributors to Islamic jurisprudence, Imam Shafi`i openly acknowledges the stature of Imam Abu Hanifa. “People are all the children of Abu Hanifa in fiqh.”

• During the reign of Caliph Mansur of the Umayyad dynasty, Imam Abu Hanifa was offered the seat of Qaadi but he refused and was imprisoned thereafter. In 150 A.H. he was reportedly poisoned by the orders of the caliph and passed away.

• Imam Malik Bin Anas• Imam Malik ibn Anas was the second of the four great

imams of fiqh. He was born in 93 A.H. in Madinah. He had great reverence and respect for his birthplace and to show his respect, he never rode an animal inside Madinah. He studied under the finest teachers like Nafi’Abul-Zanaad, Hishaam bin Urwah bin Zubair, Abdullah bin Dinaar, Muhammad bin Muslim bin Shihaab al-Zhuhri and a number of other notables.

• Muwatta (“the Approved”) is his seminal work that contains the most authentic and sound ahadith and sayings of the companions of Prophet Muhammad (pbuh). Imam Shafi`i considers it the most correct and the most beneficial book on earth after Qur’an. According to Imam Malik, he had seventy jurists of Madinah examine Muwatta and each one of them approved it.

• He was extremely careful in narrating hadith and said, “I do not accept knowledge from four types of people: a person well-known to be foolish, even though all the other people narrate from him, a person involved in committing heresy and calling others towards innovation in Deen, a person who lies in regular conversation with people, even though I do not accuse him as liar in regards to Hadith, a person who is pious worshipper or scholar, but does not properly and correctly memorize what he narrates.”

• His chain of narration (from Malik from Nafi’ from Ibn Umar) was called “the golden chain of narrators” by Imam Bukhari.

• He was regarded in the highest esteem by other three of the great imams.

• Imam Shafi`i says, “If Malik and Ibn Uyainah where not here, the knowledge of Hijaaz would be gone.”

• Imam Ahmed bin Hanbal praised him, “I compared Imam Malik to Awzaa’eey, Thawri, Laith, Hammaad, and al-Hakam in knowledge, and he is the leader in Hadith and Fiqh.”

• Imam Abu Hanifah said while acknowledging his qualities, “I have never seen anyone more fast understanding, correct answering, and test-taking than Imam Malik.”

• After a brief illness he passed away on the 11th of Rabi-ul-Awwal in the year 179 A.H. and was buried in Janatul Baqi in Madinah.

• Imam Shafi`i• Imaam Muhammad bin Idris Shafi`i was one of the

greatest imams of fiqh. He was born in 150 A.H. in Palestine, the same year as Imam Abu Hanifa died. He shared the lineage with Prophet Muhammad (peace be upon him). With very humble beginnings, he came to Makkah at the age of 10 where he began his formal education.

• He studied fiqh from teachers like Imam Shaybaani who was one of the famous scholars of the Hanafi School of fiqh, Muslim bin Khalil al Zanji, Sufyaan bin Uyayana and Imam Maalik bin Anas. He had an amazing memory which enabled him to memorize Qur’an by the age of seven and by the time he turned 15, he had memorized Muwatta

• Imam Shafi`i is attributed with two madhahib; al-qadîm (the Old) from his stay in Iraq and al-jadîd (the New) from his stay in Egypt. Al-jadid forms most of the Shafi`i fiqh except in a limited number of cases where scholars have followed al-qadîm. The most famous works of the imam include Kitab al-Umm (the source of al-qadîm) and Kitab al-Hujja (the source of al-jadîd).

• A significant contribution of imam Shafiì is the distinction between good bidà and bad bidà. In his words, “Therefore, whatever innovation conforms to the Sunnah is approved (mahmûd), and whatever opposes it is abominable (madhmûm).”

• He is known for his mastery of the Arabic language, eloquence, humility, and knowledge of hadith. As acknowledged by Imaam Ahmed bin Hanbal, “Our napes were in the hands of the Companions of Abu Hanifah (RA) when it came to hadith (i.e. we were inclined to them more) until we saw Imaam Shafi`i, he was the most knowledgeable in the Book of Allah and the Sunnah of Rasulullah (Sallallahu Alaihi Wa Sallam) that he would even suffice one who was not well informed in Hadith.”

• On another occasion Imaam Ahmed bin Hanbal said, “When I am questioned about some matter that I do not know of I say to myself Imaam Shafi`i knows about this and he will have some say in it, because he is an ‘Alim (Scholar) of Quraish. And the Prophet (Sallallahu Alaihi Wa Sallam) said, An Alim of Quraish fills the earth with knowledge.”

• He met with his creator on the last day of Rajab in Egypt in the year 204 A.H.

• Imam Ahmad ibn Hanbal• Imam Ahmad ibn Hanbal also referred as “Sheikh ul-

Islam” and the “Imam of Ahl al-Sunnah, was born in Baghdad in 164 A.H. He started learning fiqh from the famous Hanafi scholar Qadhi Abu Yusuf but later discontinued the study of fiqh in favor of hadith. He was an authority in many disciplines including Hadith, fiqh, tafsir, science of abrogation, theology, recitation of Qur’an, and Arabic language.

• One of the most significant events of his life was the trial of ‘khalq-e-Qur’an’ (creation of Qur’an) during the reign of Abbaside caliph Ma’mun. Mu`tazila had instigated the belief that Allah created His speech as a distinct entity and called it the Qur’an. This was against the orthodox Muslim belief. The caliph forced all of the scholars of the time to accept this belief and most of them did but Imam Ahmad completely disregarded the pressure and refused to accept this heresy. As a result, he was imprisoned and severely tortured for over two years.

• He was highly regarded by the likes of Imam Shafi`i, who said, “I left Baghdad, and I did not leave behind me a man better, having more knowledge, or greater fiqh (understanding), nor having greater taqwa (piety) than Ahmad Ibn Hanbal.”

• According to Abu Dawood, “The lectures of Ahmad were sittings of the Hereafter. He would not mention in them anything of the worldly affairs; and I never saw him mention this world.” The famous Hanfi scholar Yahya ibn Ma’in praised him in these words, “I have not seen the like of Ahmad, we have accompanied him for fifty years, and he never boasted about anything from the good which he was characterized with.”

• After a brief illness he took his last breath on Friday, the 12 of Rabi’ al-Awwal 241 A.H. His funeral procession was perhaps the largest in the history of Arabia; over one million people attended the funeral.

Challenges Confronting Muslims

Globally

• Challenges of Modern Science and Technology and the Muslim Responses

• Challenges of reinvention of Islamic civilization

The challenge of modern science and technology

• Pure sciences and technology in themselves can be neutral

• But since they are the outcome of human endeavor, and since human endeavor cannot be separated from human values, science and technology will be always value-laden. 423

Positive Aspects of Western Civilization

• Contributed modern technology that enable people to achieve great scientific development at all domains such as in communication and transportation

• Introduced good management in perfecting one’s work

• Respects human dignity and concerned with freedom and human rights

• Exchange of power by democratic means• Provides with high quality products• Introduced computer that eased the

complicated tasks

Negative Aspects of contemporary Western Civilization

• Breaking up all moral values of Divine guidance

• Unimportance of family structure whereby free sexual relations, breaking of noble human feelings by drying its sources and drying up the noble emotions between husband, wife and children

• Creation and use of weapons of mass destruction

• Pollution of clean water, air and contamination of land by toxic substances

• Neglecting principle aims of human life in this world

• Modern science and technology is the product of the West and as a result is Western oriented/ carries their values and paradoxes.

• To develop an Islamic methodology of scientific research 428

• To islamize the existing science and put them in an Islamic context.

• To produce Muslim minds who will be able to produce sciences and technology which may serve Islamic values and Muslim interests.

• Brain drain in the Muslim world- Political instability- Lack of incentives and facilities- Bad living conditions

• Sponsorship/Government sponsorship: - lack of funds, - unconvinced of the merit of scientific

research• Joint ventures (OIC, Arab league, regional groups

…etc.)

Islam Hadari: Its Role in Reviving Islamic Civilization

• Historical Background: • Islam Hadari was publicized nation-wide for the

first time in the 2004 Manifesto of the National Front for the tenth General Election held in March 2004.

• Dato’ Seri Abdullah Badawi, as the fifth Prime Minister of Malaysia, made Islam Hadari a new policy of his government

• Literal meaning: the term ‘ Hadari hadhari’ means ‘civilizational’; thus ‘Islam Hadari’ means ‘civilizational Islam’. In Arabic, it is termed as ‘al-Islam Hadari’

• Definition:

• “A comprehensive approach for the development of mankind, society and country based on the perspective of Islamic civilization.”

• Islam Hadari is an approach that emphasizes development, consistent with the tenets of Islam and focused on enhancing the quality of life.

• It aims to achieve this via the mastery of knowledge and the development of the individual and the nation;

• Islam Hadari is not a new religion. It is not a new teaching nor is it a new mazhab (denomination).

• Islam Hadari is an effort to bring the Ummah back to basics, back to the Fundamentals, as prescribed in the Quran and the Hadith that form the foundation of Islamic civilization.

Vision:• To make Malaysia a model Islamic country,

that is, an advanced nation based on its own indigenous matrix.

Mission:• To implement the development agenda of the

country and human based on an Islamic approach which is universal, advanced, civilized, tolerant and balanced.

Principles of Islam Hadari1. Faith in and piety towards

Allah2. A just and trustworthy

government3. Free and independent People 4. Mastery of knowledge5. Balanced and comprehensive

economic development 437

6. A good quality of life7. Protection of the rights of

minority groups and women8. Cultural and moral integrity9. Safeguarding of the

environment10. Strong defence capacities

Development & Implementation of Islam Hadari obstacles

Poverty and illiteracy • Both are considered as the biggest threat to Muslim societies today.

• Both poverty and illiteracy may lead to underdevelopment of the country 439

Secular Vs Religious knowledge

• It is not a secular approach as claimed by some people

• It is an approach toward regeneration and renewal of society and civilization of the 21st century in accordance with the noble values and injunctions of Islam.

Radicalism and Extremism • 9/11 incident• From there onwards Muslims have been

labeled as terrorists.• Some non- Muslim argue that such

guidelines will affect them adversely.

Inconsistencies and confusions

•Lack of advertising made by the higher authority.

•Mindset of people.•Solutions: seminars/forums to be organized. 442

Development• balanced development - cultural and religious

diversity will be protected based on a value and moral system

• internalization of high moral values - ensure prosperity, harmony and peace in multiracial society

• cultural integration must be consistent with the noble values of Islam

Prospects Knowledge • acquiring knowledge is compulsory and an

act of ibadah• Islam Hadari encourages learning from

others• Prophet Muhammad said “Go forth and seek

knowledge even if you have to travel to China

Wealth• wealth must be acquired in halal way• society must be bold and independent in

acquiring wealth • Surah al-Qasas (77)

“ Life in hereafter depends on the ability of individual to achieve good life in all aspects – spiritual, physical & material”

Health• Sick and physically weak - unable to carry

out religious duties and responsibilities • good health – society with free spirit will

produce positively• Prophet Muhammad s.a.w has said “The

mu’mins who are strong are better and loved by Allah than those who are weak”

STRATEGIES

To expend Islam Hadari into the building of civilization

• Islamic countries should enhance and develop their institutions of knowledge at all levels.

• People should be more open-minded and forward looking. 447

• To work towards reducing/eliminating poverty

• To increase economic resources and financial assets.

• To improve the living standards of people

• To make a continuous effort towards the physical and spiritual development of the human beings. 448

• To hold religious and civilizational dialogues

• To expand Islam Hadari that reflects intellectuality, humanity, tolerance and critical thinking.

• To persuade our non-Muslim colleagues not to be prejudiced against Muslims 449

• To protect the political institution and keep the country in peace

• To help preparing Muslims in facing global challenges

• To have long term plans & programs for instilling responsibility towards the defense and dignity of the nation, country and individual

• To remove Islamophobia from non-Muslims

• To urge International community to stop actions that lead to the perpetuation of injustices against Muslim countries and the Muslim Ummah

• Government to cooperate with nations in the region and Islamic nations all over the world

• Defending the country from internal and external aggression

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object of knowledge

innate knowledge

existence of soul

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world of ideas

doctrine of sense perception

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