turn analysis
Post on 26-Dec-2015
80 Views
Preview:
DESCRIPTION
TRANSCRIPT
FLIGHTOPERATIONS
ENGINEERING
1For Training Purposes Only © Copyright 2009 Boeing
Turn Analysis
Page 1
Magaly CruzFlight Operations Engineering
Boeing Commercial AirplanesMarch 2009
2For Training Purposes Only © Copyright 2009 Boeing
Contents
• Why Consider a Turn Analysis• Regulatory Requirements• Obstacle Information Sources• Turn Analysis Performance Methods (Sample Problem)
• Examples of Special Airport Studies• Engine Inoperative Turn Calculation Updates
3For Training Purposes Only © Copyright 2009 Boeing
Why Consider A Turn
• Airport departure procedures for obstruction clearance assume that aircraft are capable of maintaining a climb profile which is normally achievable with all engine climb performance. Continued adherence to departure procedures may not be possible in the event of an engine failure
• Contingency procedures may be required to provide for any situation occurring during the departure procedure in which the aircraft becomes unable to maintain specified climb gradient . . .
(Paraphrased from ICAO procedures for air navigation services -aircraft operations, volume II - construction of visual and instrument flight procedures)
4For Training Purposes Only © Copyright 2009 Boeing
Performance Consequences
In many cases a turn will eliminate the need to consider limiting obstacles.
• Increases maximum takeoff weight− Improves payload and/or range
• May introduce new obstacles into the flight path
• Range of allowable V2 speeds limited to maintain desired turn radius− May result in a minimum and/or maximum allowable takeoff
weight
• Need to check margin to stick shaker for banks in excess of 15°
• Airplane performance change: Gradient loss, effect of wind
5For Training Purposes Only © Copyright 2009 Boeing
Contents
• Why Consider a Turn Analysis
• Regulatory Requirements
• Obstacle Information Sources
• Turn Analysis Performance Methods (Sample Problem)
• Examples of Special Airport Studies
“FAA Corridor” “ICAO Splay”
6For Training Purposes Only © Copyright 2009 Boeing
FAR 121.189
d) No person operating a turbine engine power transport category airplane may take off that airplane at a weight greater than that specified in the Airplane Flight Manual –2) ...that allows a net takeoff flight path that clears all
obstacles either by a height of at least 35 feet vertically, or by at least 200 feet horizontally within the airport boundaries and by at least 300 feet horizontally after passing the boundaries.
f) For purposes of this section, it is assumed that the airplane isnot banked before reaching a height of 50 feet, as shown by the ... net takeoff flight path data ... in the Airplane Flight Manual, and thereafter that the maximum bank is not more than 15 degrees.
7For Training Purposes Only © Copyright 2009 Boeing
ICAO Annex 6 - Operations Of Aircraft
3.1 No aeroplane is taken off at a weight in excess of that shown in the Airplane Flight Manual to correspond with a net takeoff flight path which clears all obstacles either by at least a height of 10.7 m (35 ft) vertically or at least 90 m [~300 ft] plus 0.125 D laterally, where D is the horizontal distance the aeroplane has traveled from the end of takeoff distance available ... It is assumed that the aeroplane is not banked before the clearance of the net takeoff flight path above obstacles is at least 15.2 m (50 ft) and that the bank thereafter does not exceed 15 degrees.
3. Takeoff obstacle clearance limitations
8For Training Purposes Only © Copyright 2009 Boeing
Vertical Obstacle Clearance
FAA / ICAO / EU-OPS
FAA/ICAO: Turn allowed when 50 ft height reached 15° max bank, unless exemption is granted
EU-OPS: see following slide
Gross Flight Path
Net Flight Path 35 ft
* For EU-OPS, 50 ft clearance required for banks greater than 15°
*
9For Training Purposes Only © Copyright 2009 Boeing
Max Bank Angle – EU-OPS
Track changes shall not be allowed up to the point at which the net take-off flight path has achieved a height equal to one half the wingspan but not less than 50 ft above the elevation of the end of the take-off run available. Thereafter, up to a height of 400 ft it is assumed that the aeroplane is banked by no more than 15°. Above 400 ft height bank angles greater than 15°, but not more than 25°may be scheduled;
(c) (1)
An operator must use special procedures, subject to the approval of the Authority, to apply increased bank angles of not more than 20° between 200 ft and 400 ft, or not more than 30° above 400 ft.
(3)
EU-OPS 1.495 (Formerly JAROPS 1.495)
10For Training Purposes Only © Copyright 2009 Boeing
Horizontal Obstacle Clearance
FAA AC 120-91 “Airport Obstacle Analysis” provides additional guidance material regarding obstacle clearance. Outlines two methods “area analysis” and “flight track analysis”.
200 ft (61 m)
Airport Boundary
300 ft (91 m)
FAA Corridor
11For Training Purposes Only © Copyright 2009 Boeing
Horizontal Obstacle Clearance
VMC by Day < 15 Degrees 300 mVMC by Day > 15 Degrees 600 mIMC/VMC Night < 15 Degrees 600 mIMC/VMC Night > 15 Degrees 900 m
90 m
Condition Heading Change Max Half Width
900 m 600 m 300 m
4080 m 6480 m
1680 m
* For EU-OPS, 90m or 60m + ½ wingspan is allowed, whichever is less
*
ICAO / EU-OPS SplayICAO Annex 6: 3.1.1 - 3.1.3; EU-OPS 1.495 (d) - (e)
12For Training Purposes Only © Copyright 2009 Boeing
Boeing Heritage Wingspans
• 717-200: 93 ft (28m)• 737-100/200: 93 ft (28m)• 737-300/400/500: 95 ft (29m)• 727-100/200: 108 ft (33m)• 737-600/700/800/900: 113 ft (34m)• 757-200/300: 125 ft (38m)• 767-200/300: 156 ft (48m)• 767-400: 170 ft (52m)• 747-100/200/300: 196 ft (60m)• 777-200/300: 200 ft (61m)• 777-300ER: 213 ft (65m)• 747-400: 213 ft (65m)
Smaller EU-OPS initial splay half-width allowed:(½ span + 60m)
Greater EU-OPS vertical distance to start of turn:
(½ span)
13For Training Purposes Only © Copyright 2009 Boeing
McDonnell Douglas Heritage Wingspans
• DC-9: 89-93 ft (27-28m)
• MD-80/90: 108 ft (33m)
• DC-8: 142-148 ft (43-45m)
• DC-10-10: 155 ft (47m)
• DC-10-30/40: 165 ft (50m)
• MD-11: 170 ft (52m)
Smaller EU-OPS initial splay half-width allowed for all Douglas heritage airplanes (½ span + 60m)
Greater EU-OPS vertical distance to start of turn:
(½ span)
14For Training Purposes Only © Copyright 2009 Boeing
Obstacle Accountability Area Summary
N/A
300 ft
200 ft
35 ft
FAA
12.5%12.5%6.25%, or 12.5%(3)Splay %
~1000 -3000 ft~1000 -3000 ft2000 ft or 3000 ft(2)Final Splay Half-Width
295 ft(5)295 ft200 ftInitial Splay Half-Width
35 ft(4)35 ft35 ft(1)Vertical Clearance
EU-OPSICAOFAA AC 120-91
(1) Clearance calculated from lowest part of airplane for banks > 15°(2) 3000 ft for turns with heading changes > 15°(3) 12.5% (when the turn begins) for turns with heading changes > 15°(4) 50 ft for banks > 15°(5) 197 ft plus ½ wingspan allowed
15For Training Purposes Only © Copyright 2009 Boeing
Contents
• Why Consider a Turn Analysis• Regulatory Requirements• Obstacle Information Sources• Turn Analysis Performance Methods (Sample Problem)
• Examples of Special Airport Studies• Engine Inoperative Turn Calculation Updates
16For Training Purposes Only © Copyright 2009 Boeing
Airport/Obstacle Information
• Airport Characteristics Data Bank (ACDB)– Volume 1 Summary and Explanation– Volume 2 Africa - Indian Ocean Region– Volume 3 Caribbean and South American Regions– Volume 4 European Region– Volume 5 Middle East and Asia Regions– Volume 6 North Atlantic, North American and
Pacific Regions
• Aerodrome Obstruction Chart - Type A
http://www.icao.int http://icaodsu.openface.ca
ICAO Sources
17For Training Purposes Only © Copyright 2009 Boeing
Airport/Obstacle Information
NAT
AFI ASIA
NAM
PAC SAM
CAR MID
PAC
EUR
ICAO Air Navigation Regions
18For Training Purposes Only © Copyright 2009 Boeing
Airport Characteristics Data Bank
19For Training Purposes Only © Copyright 2009 Boeing
ICAO Type A Aerodrome Obstruction ChartInnsbruck, Austria
20For Training Purposes Only © Copyright 2009 Boeing
Airport/Obstacle Information
• Published by most national governments
• Provide Standard Instrument Departure (SID) procedures
− Minimum performance requirements
− Climb profile (minimum gradient)
− Maneuvering limitations (maximum turn radius)
Aeronautical Information Publications (AIP)
21For Training Purposes Only © Copyright 2009 Boeing
AIP Standard Instrument DepartureInnsbruck Rwy 08/26
(Example of required minimum climb profile)
22For Training Purposes Only © Copyright 2009 Boeing
Visual Approach Chart (IFR) For All Aircraft
23For Training Purposes Only © Copyright 2009 Boeing
Airport/Obstacle Information
• Airport and Obstacle Database (AODB)
– Provides data in digital and graphical formats for nearly 3000 airports
– Available with monthly or yearly subscription fee
– Online data download available with daily revisions
http://www.aodb.iata.org
IATA
24For Training Purposes Only © Copyright 2009 Boeing
Airport/Obstacle Information
• Airport Data Service
– Part of Jeppesen’s OpsData programs and services
– Runway and obstacle data for airports worldwide
Email: opsdata@jeppesen.comWeb: http://www.jeppesen.com
• Airway Manuals
– Limited obstacle information in graphical form
Jeppesen
25For Training Purposes Only © Copyright 2009 Boeing
Airport/Obstacle Information
• National Aeronautical Charting Office (NACO) ~ part of the FAA Aviation Systems Standards - http://www.naco.faa.gov
• Airport Obstruction Charts (AOC)– Created from data provided by NOAA National Geodetic
Survey (NGS) - http://www.ngs.noaa.gov– Includes tabular data: Aeronautical Data Sheets (ADS)
• Digital Aeronautical Information CD (DAICD)– Digital Aeronautical Chart Supplement
• High/Low Altitude Airways• SIDS, STARS, and Departure Procedures
– Digital Obstacle File (DOF)– NAVAID Digital Data File
United States Airports
26For Training Purposes Only © Copyright 2009 Boeing
Airport/Obstacle Information
• Geological Survey Maps– Maintained by Department of the Interior Geological Survey– Provide surface contour information and some obstacles
• Airport Inspection Forms 5110– Provided by airport authorities for virtually all U.S. Airports– Compiled for each state by FAA Regional Offices
• AirNav (http://www.airnav.com)– Airport runway information– Limited obstruction data– NAVAIDs and Instrument Procedures
United States Airports (cont’d)
27For Training Purposes Only © Copyright 2009 Boeing
Airport/Obstacle Information
• SITA
• LIDO
• Topographical Maps
• Airport Authority
• Google Earth
• Others?
Other Sources
28For Training Purposes Only © Copyright 2009 Boeing
Obstacle Data Requirements
7. Sources of Obstacle Data. Operators are expected to use the best and most accurate available obstacle data for a particular airport at the time of analysis. Data sources do not require specific FAA approval. Operators should be aware that . . . any single source may not include all the pertinent information necessary for doing a takeoff analysis.
FAA AC 120-91
FAA Order 8400.10 “Air Transportation Operations Inspector’s Handbook” [Volume 4, Chapter 3, Section 4] contains guidance information for POI’s to approve airport data acquisition systems.
29For Training Purposes Only © Copyright 2009 Boeing
Contents
• Why Consider a Turn Analysis• Regulatory Requirements• Obstacle Information Sources• Turn Analysis Performance Methods
(Sample Problem)• Examples of Special Airport Studies• Engine Inoperative Turn Calculation Updates
30For Training Purposes Only © Copyright 2009 Boeing
Turn Analysis Procedure
• Study the terrain in the area around the airport and select a departure path– Several paths may have to be analyzed
• Determine any critical obstacles for the chosen departure path
• Determine the required turn radius
• Examine other issues:– Weather (winds, OAT, QNH)– Piloting considerations
31For Training Purposes Only © Copyright 2009 Boeing
Example Problem
Allowable takeoff weights based on a 15 degree climbing banked left turn [2266m maximum radius] commenced 4080m from the end of the runway to magnetic heading 270 degrees.
This procedure is based on a VFR departure only.
Takeoff Procedure
32For Training Purposes Only © Copyright 2009 Boeing
Example Problem
Obstacle 2 - 320m
4080m
Radius - 2266m
2800m
Conditions: VMC by Day,ICAO Guidelines
Large O
bstacles
Obstacle 1 - 160m
600m
33For Training Purposes Only © Copyright 2009 Boeing
Performance Considerations
• Performance limited weight consideration– Field Length– Climb– Obstacle– Tire Speed– Brake Energy
• In addition– Weight associated with turn radius limited
speed
34For Training Purposes Only © Copyright 2009 Boeing
Effect Of Speed On Turn Radius
Centripetal acceleration: a = V 2 / R
FasterSpeed
SlowerSpeed
R = V 2 / aR = V 2 / [g*tan(φ)]
35For Training Purposes Only © Copyright 2009 Boeing
Turn Radius Limited Speed
Given: Turn radius = 2266m; Bank angle (φ) = 15°
Find turn radius limited speed: VT = R*g*tan(φ) [g = 9.81 m/s2] VT = 2266m*9.81 m/s2*tan(15°) VT = 77.2 m/s Conversion Factor = 1.944 [knots / (m/s)] VT = 150 KTAS
36For Training Purposes Only © Copyright 2009 Boeing
Turn Radius Limited Speed
Alternatively:
From the PEM find the turn radius limited true airspeed by entering bank and turn radiusof 7500 ft (2266m)
14
13
12
11
10
9
8
7
6
5
4
3
2
1
050 1510 2520 3530 4540 50
True Airspeed (knots)
1.5° per second turn(4 min. turn)
Radius of turn (1000 ft)
Angle of bank, degrees
2001901801701601501401301203° per second turn(2 min. turn)
37For Training Purposes Only © Copyright 2009 Boeing
Convert from true airspeed to indicated airspeed:
V2MAX = VT * σ σ = = = 0.878
V2MAX = 150 * 0.878
V2MAX = 141 KIAS
Turn Radius Limited Speed
Weight associated with V2MAX is the Turn Radius Limited Weight
δ 0.8961.02 θ
Given: Turn radius = 2266m; Bank angle (φ) = 15° Airport Pressure Altitude = 915m (δ = 0.896)
OAT = 20°C (θ = 1.02)
38For Training Purposes Only © Copyright 2009 Boeing
Calculation Methods
• AFM-DPI Airplanes (777, 737ng, 747-400, 757-300, 767-400ER)– Use BTM “first principles” databases which can
calculate turning departure performance directly
• Non-AFM-DPI Airplanes– Use BTOPS “model table” lookup which only considers
straight-out departures– Must artificially adjust obstacle heights and locations– Need to calculate the “equivalent still air distance” for
analyses with wind
39For Training Purposes Only © Copyright 2009 Boeing
Distance To Obstacles
Equations:
arc1 = (50°/180°)*π*Rarc2 = (130°/180°)*π*R
Obstacle 1 - 160m
arc1
50°
arc2
Obstacle 2 - 320m
4080m
2800m
Non AFM-DPI Airplanes
40For Training Purposes Only © Copyright 2009 Boeing
2800 m
Distance to obstacle 1: D1 = 4080m + (50/180)π*2266mD1 = 4080m + 1980m
D1 = 6060m
Distance to obstacle 2: D2 = 4080m + π*2266m + 2800mD2 = 4080m + 7120m + 2800m
D2 = 14,000m
Obstacle 2
4080 m 50°
Obstacle 1
Distance To ObstaclesNon AFM-DPI Airplanes (continued)
41For Training Purposes Only © Copyright 2009 Boeing
Adjust Obstacle Height
Why do we adjust height of obstacle?• Boeing takeoff performance software for BTOPS airplanes
considers only straight out departures.• Climb capability in a turn is decreased• Adjusting height will yield an equivalent straight out
departure
Equations related to climb gradient:
295.4σ SV2
Wcos(φ)
( ) W1 + ƒacc
T-D∆DW
CL = γ = ∆γ ≈ ∆CD
CLφ=0
≈
Non AFM-DPI Airplanes (continued)
42For Training Purposes Only © Copyright 2009 Boeing
.5
Adjust Obstacle Height
• From the Boeing Performance Engineering Manual:
0 5 10 15 20 25Bank angle, φ (degrees)
0
1.0
1.5
2.0
• Low speed• Gear up 15, 25
Gradient decrement (%)
Flaps
1
UP
5, 10
Non AFM-DPI Airplanes (continued)
43For Training Purposes Only © Copyright 2009 Boeing
Adjust Obstacle Height
Gradient decrement = 0.6% or 0.006
Obstacle #1:
Obstacle #2:
12m
0.006
0.006
43m
Adjusted obstacle height:160m + 12m = 172m
Adjusted obstacle height:320m + 43m = 363m
1980m
7120m
Non AFM-DPI Airplanes (continued)
44For Training Purposes Only © Copyright 2009 Boeing
Actual Takeoff Flight Path
Start of turn
End ofturn
43m
320m 12m 160m
7120m
14,000m
4080m 1980m
Actual takeoff flight path considering turnEquivalent straight out departure
Non AFM-DPI Airplanes (continued)
45For Training Purposes Only © Copyright 2009 Boeing
Sample Problem
Non DPI Airplanes
AFM-DPI Airplanes
Cert Type
363014000#2
17206060#1
320-45321280#2
160-14575815#1
Height (m)Lateral Distance (m)
Longitudinal Distance (m)Obstacle
Obstacle Definition Summary
equivalent straight out departure
46For Training Purposes Only © Copyright 2009 Boeing
Boeing Calculation Tools
• Certified Performance– Paper AFM– AFM-DPI
• Takeoff Analysis– Boeing Performance Software (BPS)– Standard Takeoff Analysis Software (STAS)
• Analytical Tools– Performance Engineers Manual (PEM)– Boeing Climbout Program (BCOP)
47For Training Purposes Only © Copyright 2009 Boeing
Sample Problem InputBoeing Performance Software (BPS)
• BPS is a graphical user interface for many individual Boeing software programs:
– STAS (Takeoff)– LAND (Landing)– INFLT/REPORT (Enroute)– APM/HISTRY (Cruise
Performance Monitoring)
• Turn analyses may also be calculated using STAS directly
48For Training Purposes Only © Copyright 2009 Boeing
Sample Problem InputBPS Obstacle Splay Setup
AFM-DPI airplane certifications only
• ICAO/JAA splay definition for VMC by day and heading change greater than 15°
• Non AFM-DPI airplanes incapable of excluding obstacles outside a splay
49For Training Purposes Only © Copyright 2009 Boeing
Sample Problem Input
Rwy 09a:Definition for actual obstacle locations
(turn calculated directly by BPS)
Rwy 09b:Definition for “equivalent straight out departure”(representative of BTOPS airplane definition)
BPS Obstacle/Turn Definitions
50For Training Purposes Only © Copyright 2009 Boeing
Sample Problem Results
ELEVATION 915 M XYZ
*** FLAPS 05 *** AIR COND AUTO ANTI-ICE OFF NO NAME NOWHERE, USA
737-700 CFM56-7B22 DATED 23-MARCH-2004MAX BRAKE RELEASE WT-KG, LIMIT CODE AND TAKEOFF SPEEDS FOR ZERO WINDTAKEOFF OAT CLIMB ** RWY 09a ** ** RWY 09b **PWR DEG C LIMIT WEIGHT V1 VR V2 WEIGHT V1 VR V2
94.0 30 62000 55300* 122 124 129 55100* 122 124 12994.4 28 63100 56400* 123 125 130 56100* 123 125 13094.7 26 64300 57500* 124 126 132 57200* 124 126 13294.9 24 65500 58500* 125 128 133 58300* 125 127 13394.6 22 65500 58600* 126 128 133 58300* 125 127 13394.3 20 65600 58600* 126 128 133 58300* 125 127 13394.0 18 65600 58600* 126 128 133 58400* 125 127 13393.7 16 65700 58600* 126 128 133 58400* 125 127 13393.4 14 65700 58700* 126 128 133 58400* 125 127 13393.1 12 65800 58700* 126 128 133 58400* 125 127 13392.8 10 65800 58700* 126 128 133 58400* 125 127 13392.5 8 65800 58700* 126 128 133 58400* 125 127 13392.1 6 65900 58700* 126 128 133 58400* 125 127 13391.8 4 65900 58700* 126 128 133 58400* 125 127 13391.5 2 66000 58800* 126 128 133 58500* 125 127 13391.2 0 66000 59200* 127 128 134 58500* 125 127 133
MAX BRAKE RELEASE WT MUST NOT EXCEED MAX CERT TAKEOFF WT OF 68945 KGLIMIT CODE IS F=FIELD, T=TIRE SPEED, B=BRAKE ENERGY, V=VMCG, *=OBSTACLE/LEVEL-OFF
OBS FROM LO-M/M RUNWAY HT DIST OFFSET HT DIST OFFSET HT DIST OFFSET09R 160 5815 -1457 320 1280 -453209L 172 6060 0 363 14000 0
Turn calculated by BPS
Equivalent straight-out departure
Results demonstrate general equivalence between the two methods
51For Training Purposes Only © Copyright 2009 Boeing
Wind Effects
• AFM-DPI Airplanes (777, 737ng, 747-400, 757-300, 767-400ER)– BPS and AFM-DPI are capable of handling the
changing wind component
• Non-AFM-DPI Airplanes– Need to set up an equivalent still air straight out
flight path– The effects are non-linear – potential for
headwind, crosswind, and tailwind– Equivalent obstacle distances and heights will be
different
52For Training Purposes Only © Copyright 2009 Boeing
Flight Path With Wind
Crossw
ind
20 Knotwind(10.3 m/s)
No wind path Wind path
Tailwind
Headwind
Obs 2
Obs 1
For Training Purposes Only © Copyright 2009 Boeing
Flight Path With Wind (continued)
∆X=Wind speed*Time∆X=10.3m/s * [45°/2 deg/s]∆X=237m
Flight path displaced:
Time Displacement
45°
∆X
23s 237m
Rate of heading change (ψ):ψ = Total Heading Change / Total Timeψ = 180° / [7120m / 77.2 m/s]ψ = 2 deg/sec
For Training Purposes Only © Copyright 2009 Boeing
Flight Path With Wind (continued)
475m
23s 237m46s 475m69s 712m92s 950m
Flight path displaced:
Time Displacement
237m
712m
950m
No wind path Wind path
∆X=Wind speed*Time
55For Training Purposes Only © Copyright 2009 Boeing
Adjust Obstacle Distance and Height
Develop the Equivalent Still Air Distance formula
Non AFM-DPI Airplanes
Dair = * DgroundVair
Vground
Dair = * DgroundVair
Vair - headwind
Two key relationships:Dground = Vground * TimeDair = Vair * Time Time is the same
Rearrange these expressions:
Recognize that Vground = Vair - headwind:
56For Training Purposes Only © Copyright 2009 Boeing
Adjust Obstacle Distance and Height
Find equivalent still air distances:
Non AFM-DPI Airplanes (continued)
d1
d4d3
d2
d1air = * 4080m 77.2m/s77.2m/s – 10.3m/s
d1air = 4710m
No wind path Wind path
As an example, find d1air:
Dair = * DgroundVair
Vair - headwind Obs 2
Obs 1
57For Training Purposes Only © Copyright 2009 Boeing
Adjust Obstacle Distance and Height
Find equivalent still air distances:
Non AFM-DPI Airplanes (continued)
d1
d4d3
d2
d1air = 4710md2air = 2430md3air = 4755md4air = 1630m
No wind path Wind path
Dair = * DgroundVair
Vair - headwind
Dair Obs1 = d1air + d2airDair Obs1 = 7140m
Dair Obs2 = d1air + d2air + d3air + d4airDair Obs2 = 13525m
Requires integration due to changing wind component
Obs 2
Obs 1
58For Training Purposes Only © Copyright 2009 Boeing
Adjust Obstacle Distance and Height
Find adjusted heights:
Non AFM-DPI Airplanes (continued)
d1
d4d3
d2
No wind path Wind path
Hadjusted = Hactual + Grad. Decrement * Dist
HObs1 = 160m + 0.006*2430mHObs1 = 175m
HObs2 = 320m + 0.006*(2430m+4755m)HObs2 = 363m
Obs 2
Obs 1
d3aird2air
59For Training Purposes Only © Copyright 2009 Boeing
Obstacle Definition Summary
36301352520 kt
1750714020 kt
#2
#1
Obstacle
363014475-10 kt
3630140000 kt
17105610-10 kt
172060600 kt
Height (m)Lateral Distance (m)
Longitudinal Distance (m)Wind
Wind Effect – Non AFM-DPI Airplanes
equivalent straight out departure
60For Training Purposes Only © Copyright 2009 Boeing
Calculation Tools: AFM-DPIIntroduction
• Source of certified performance data for 777, 737ng, 747-400, 757-300, and 767-400ER
• Also available as a retrofit on models formerly certified with paper AFM performance, including 747-400, 767-200 and 767-300
• First principles calculation optimizes takeoff, landing, and enroute limit weights
61For Training Purposes Only © Copyright 2009 Boeing
Calculation Tools: AFM-DPI (cont’d)Defining Turns
selecting a turning departure
defining the turn
62For Training Purposes Only © Copyright 2009 Boeing
Calculation Tools: AFM-DPI (cont’d)Result Excerpts
Point Calculation
All Limit Weights Trend Data ----------------------------
Certificate Limit: Maximum Takeoff Weight = 81646 KG Minimum Takeoff Weight at Brake Release = 40824 KG
Wind Field Obstacle(Both) Length Climb ClearanceKnots KG KG KG------- --------- --------- ----------10.00 58083+ 65587 58083+ 0.00 62514 65587 58627+ 10.00 64055 65587 58633+ 20.00 65650 65587 58667+ 30.00 67303 65587 58678+ 40.00 68853 65587 58874+
Obstacles ---------
Obstacle Reference Point: Liftoff End of Runway Obstacle clearance (Clrnc.) includes required regulatory margin.
Dist. Ht. Offset Clrnc. | Dist. Ht. Offset Clrnc. # METERS FEET METERS FEET | # METERS FEET METERS FEET -- ------ ------ ------ ------ | -- ------ ------ ------ ------1 5815 525 -1457 81 | 2 1280 1050 -4532 0
Takeoff Limit Weights ---------------------
Field Length Limit 62514 KG #Brake Energy Limit 81647 KG #Tire Speed Limit 81647 KG Climb Limit 65587 KG
CRITICAL: Obstacle Clearance Limit 58627 KG Certificate Limit 81646 KG
Trend Analysis
(no wind)
(trend on wind)
∆ ≈ 800 kg
63For Training Purposes Only © Copyright 2009 Boeing
Calculation Tools: BCOPBoeing Climbout Program (BCOP)
Key Attributes:• All engine and engine out
takeoff, landing, and terminal area performance calculation
• SID/STAR analysis• Approach/Go-Around analysis• FAA Integrated Noise Module
(INM)• Does not solve for gross weight,
does not perform obstacle analysis, or output net flight path data
64For Training Purposes Only © Copyright 2009 Boeing
Calculation Tools: BCOP (cont’d)Introduction
Computation Type
Airplane Config
Airport Info
Navigation
Initial Conditions
In-Flight Starting Conditions
65For Training Purposes Only © Copyright 2009 Boeing
Calculation Tools: BCOP (cont’d)Vertical Profile Example
5
4
3
2
- Denotes end of segment point
1
End at 1000 ft above runway
End at Gear Up V2 + increment
End at flaps up position
End at 250 KIAS
End at 10000 ft above runway
1. Takeoff2. Constant Speed3. Acceleration4. Acceleration5. Constant Speed
Profile Segments
66For Training Purposes Only © Copyright 2009 Boeing
Calculation Tools: BCOP (cont’d)Horizontal Profile Example
2
NAV1
NAV2
NAV3
3
1
Runway DME Distance
Rad
ial X
YZ
1. Fly Heading. Turn to new heading at DME from NAV1.2. Fly Heading. At altitude, turn direct to NAV2.3. Fly Direct to NAV2. Turn to intercept NAV3 Radial XYZ.
Profile Segments
67For Training Purposes Only © Copyright 2009 Boeing
Calculation Tools: BCOP (cont’d)Results From Sample Problem
Height X Pos Y Pos KIAS KTAS ROC Bank Flt Path CL................................... start of turn ...................................285 6100 0 133.2 144.2 423 -15 14.2 1.65112287 6174 2 133.2 144.2 423 -15 14.2 1.65110290 6248 7 133.2 144.2 423 -15 14.2 1.65108292 6322 14 133.2 144.2 423 -15 14.2 1.65105294 6396 24 133.2 144.2 423 -15 14.2 1.65103296 6469 36 133.2 144.2 422 -15 14.2 1.65101298 6541 51 133.2 144.3 422 -15 14.2 1.65099300 6613 69 133.2 144.3 422 -15 14.2 1.65097302 6685 89 133.2 144.3 422 -15 14.2 1.65095305 6755 112 133.2 144.3 422 -15 14.2 1.65092307 6825 137 133.2 144.3 421 -15 14.2 1.65090309 6894 165 133.2 144.3 421 -15 14.2 1.65088
Tabular
Graphical
68For Training Purposes Only © Copyright 2009 Boeing
Calculation Tool for the future:Performance Engineers Tool (PET)
PET Mission Statement:“Flight Operations Engineers’ single point of access for
Boeing airplane performance.”
PET is a graphical user interface that will replaceBPS, BCOP and the AFM-DPI interface for the 787 and all
other DPI airplane models.
69For Training Purposes Only © Copyright 2009 Boeing
Calculation Tool for the future:Performance Engineers Tool (PET) (cont.)
OperationalPerformance
Flight Path selection replaces BCOP
Takeoff selection
Perform Turn Analysis using one single tool
70For Training Purposes Only © Copyright 2009 Boeing
Calculation Tool for the future:Performance Engineers Tool (PET) (cont.)
Certified Performance(AFM-DPI) tab replaces the AFM-DPI interface
71For Training Purposes Only © Copyright 2009 Boeing
Contents
• Why Consider a Turn Analysis• Regulatory Requirements• Obstacle Information Sources• Turn Analysis Performance Methods (Sample
Problem)• Examples of Special Airport Studies• Engine Inoperative Turn Calculation Updates
72For Training Purposes Only © Copyright 2009 Boeing
St. Maarten – Dutch Antilles
Runway 09“Right hand turn MANDATORY. Hazard beacons on hills to the East must be visible.”
Princess Juliana International
73For Training Purposes Only © Copyright 2009 Boeing
St. Maarten Study
(121m) (220m)
84m
757-200 / RB211-535E4 SID Procedure Revised Procedure
Revised Procedure:Climbing banked right turn of radius 1620m for heading change of 97°
74For Training Purposes Only © Copyright 2009 Boeing
St. Maarten Study
Analysis of procedure
Small turn radius required to avoid large obstacles outside of turn
V2 may be very limited due to tighter turn radius• Need to consider bank angle greater than 15°• Analyze each flap setting to find optimum flap
Need to alert flight crew about Billy Folly Hill (121m) inside of turn when operating at less than limited weight
75For Training Purposes Only © Copyright 2009 Boeing
St. Maarten Study
Given turn radius, find limited speed: VT = R*g*tan(φ) R = 1620m
15 127 124
20 148 144
25 167 163
30 187 182
KIAS at sea level and 30°CObs distance = 1620m*π*(97°/180°)+600m = 3340mObs height (actual) = 84m
Bank angle KTAS KIAS
76For Training Purposes Only © Copyright 2009 Boeing
1 0.46 97
5 0.50 98
15 0.63 102
20 0.60 101
Flap Gradient Adjusted obstacledecrement (0/0) height (m)
St. Maarten Study
Takeoff analysis results:MTOW = 78,800 kg Flaps 20 (Optimum Flap), A/C OffV2 = V2Max = 124 KIASTurn radius limited
15° Bank Angle
Limited Weight
77For Training Purposes Only © Copyright 2009 Boeing
1 0.84 107
5 0.93 110
15 1.17 116
20 1.10 114
St. Maarten Study
20° Bank Angle
Limited Weight (continued)
Flap Gradient Adjusted obstacledecrement (0/0) height (m)
Takeoff analysis results:MTOW = 100,000 kg Flaps 20 (Optimum Flap), A/C OffV2 = 140 KIAS; V2Max = 144 KIASObstacle limited
78For Training Purposes Only © Copyright 2009 Boeing
St. Maarten Study
• Certified performance data is targeted to ensure 30° bank angle before stick shaker at V2 (15° banking capability plus 15° overshoot protection)
• When exceeding 15° bank angle, it is advisable to check that adequate overshoot protection of 15° is maintained
• Note: Some Boeing airplanes have more than 30° margin to stick shaker at normal V2 because speeds were increased to satisfy:– Tail strike avoidance requirements, and/or– Minimum unstick speed criteria (Vmu)
Margin to Stick Shaker
79For Training Purposes Only © Copyright 2009 Boeing
St. Maarten Study
Forward CG Wings level190
150000 170000 190000 210000 230000 250000 270000
170
150
130
110
90
UP/UP
Flap/Gear
1/UP5/UP15/UP
25/DOWN30/DOWN
20/UP
Gross weight (lb)
Stick shaker speed, VSS(KEAS)
Margin to Stick Shaker (continued)
From the PEM:Vss = 125 KEAS
757-200 / 535E4 PEM
Important Note:The PEM shows simplified stick shaker speeds. The actual stick shaker speed schedule may additionally be a function of other variables, such as thrust and load factor. Consult with Boeing prior to using this data for your margin to stick shaker assessment.
80For Training Purposes Only © Copyright 2009 Boeing
St. Maarten Study
General equation for bank capability to stick shaker:
Margin to Stick Shaker (continued)
This can be derived by equating the following lift coefficients:
• Actual speed, banked at stick shaker limit• Stick shaker speed, wings level
⎟⎟⎠
⎞⎜⎜⎝
⎛⎟⎟⎠
⎞⎜⎜⎝
⎛°
=⎟⎟⎠
⎞⎜⎜⎝
⎛⎟⎟⎠
⎞⎜⎜⎝
⎛=
SVW
SVWc
ssssLss 22
2)0cos(
2)cos( ρρφ
2
)cos( ⎟⎠⎞
⎜⎝⎛=
VVss
ssφ
Conclusion: Allows 20° bank capability and 17° of overshoot protection. Maneuver margin is still maintained.
In our St. Maarten example, Vss = 125 KEAS and V2 = 140 KEAS:
2
140125)cos( ⎟
⎠⎞
⎜⎝⎛=ssφ °= 1.37ssφ
81For Training Purposes Only © Copyright 2009 Boeing
Effect Of Speed Increase
Speed increase in combination with increased bank angle (beyond 15°) can improve turn capability while maintaining maneuver margin.
Two methods to increase speed:
• Improved Climb– AFM Improved Climb performance data
(used at Innsbruck)• In-air acceleration
– PEM acceleration and climb trades (used at Lhasa)
82For Training Purposes Only © Copyright 2009 Boeing
Improved Climb
0Speed increase (units)
Takeoff safety speed, V2(KIAS)
2 4 6 8 10 12100
110
120
130
140
150
160
170
180
190
200
210V2
• Can specify units of speed increase for turn procedure
• Data can be calculated by AFM-DPI or BPS
• Also published in AFM Section 4 and the Flight Planning and Performance Manual (FPPM)
83For Training Purposes Only © Copyright 2009 Boeing
In-Air Acceleration
From PEM acceleration and climb trade chart
Given 2.5% gradient available, desire V2+15, for V2 = 150kt:
Time (T) in level flightT = 15 kt ÷ AccelerationT = 15 kt ÷ 0.5 kt/s
T = 30 s Distance (D) in level flight
D = Average Speed * TD = 142.5 kt * 30/3600 hr
D = 1.19 nm
-6
Gradient desired (%)
14
-4 -2 0 2 4 6 8 10
12
10
8
6
4
2
0
-2
-4
-6
Tota
l clim
b gr
adie
nt a
vaila
ble
(%)
Acceleratio
n (KTAS/se
cond)
3.5
-2.5
3.0
-2.0
2.5
-1.5
2.0
1.5
-1.0-0.5
1.0
0
0.5
84For Training Purposes Only © Copyright 2009 Boeing
Recommended Speed Increases
In the absence of data from the manufacturer or a more detailed analysis, the following guidance information is available for consideration to help ensure adequate stall margins:
V2+15V2+15V2+15
V2 to V2+15
Boeing FCTM(737,757,767,777)
Speed
–V2+10V2+10
V2 to V2+10
Boeing FCTM(747-400)
V2+10V2+XX25°––30°
V2+5V2+XX/220°V2V215°
AMC OPS1.495(c)(4)
FAA AC120-91
Bank Angle
“Where ‘XX’ is the all-engine operating speed increment (usually 10 or 15 knots)”
Per FAA AC 120-91:NOTE: On some airplanes, the AFM standard V-speeds may already provide
sufficient stall margin protection without additional adjustments.
For Training Purposes Only © Copyright 2009 Boeing
737-700 / 22KFlaps 5Airport Conditions:
1900 ft, 20°CIn-Flight Conditions:
5000 MSL, 14°C
737-700 / 22KFlaps 5Airport Conditions:
1900 ft, 20°CIn-Flight Conditions:
5000 MSL, 14°C
Example of Speed Increase
TURN RADIUS (METERS)
1592166517381810188319582034211021862262233924142483255226212689275428212899
V2 with15° Bank
1172122612791333138614411497155316091665172217771828187919301980202720772134
V2 with20° Bank
1277133213881444149915571615167317311789184819051958201020632114216422152274
V2+5 with 20° Bank
1081112711721217126213091356140314501497154415901633167517171759179918401888
V2+10 with 25° Bank
9451154400098311846000102112048000105912350000109612552000113512754000117513056000121413258000125313560000129213762000133213964000137014266000140614468000144114670000147714872000151114974000154415176000157915378000161815580000
V2+15 with 30° Bank
V2 (KIAS)
Weight (kg)
Turn Radius Capability Trade at InnsbruckManeuvering within the valley limited to 1700m
15°17°16°11°16°Margin to stick shaker:45°42°36°31°31°Bank to stick shaker (φss):
80000+ kg71000 kg59000 kg63000 kg47000 kgTurn Radius Limited Tkof Wt:
86For Training Purposes Only © Copyright 2009 Boeing
Lhasa
6 At speed Vref 30 +80
• Select FLCH• Set CONT Thrust• Select Eng Out V-NAV Climb
5 At completion of turn
• F/D on• Set speed bug to Vref 30 +80
4 Crossing road
• Speed V2 + 15• 30º bank turn• Continue turn direct RW NDB
NOTE: May get GPWS warning
3
At 200 ft AGL• F/D off• Visually follow road• Set speed bug to V2 + 15• Accelerate to V2 + 15
2 At V2 or engine failure speed
1 Engine failureat or after V1
RW NDG200 mhz 7
Climb to engine outcruise altitude forreturn to Chengdu
Runway 27 Engine Failure Procedure
87For Training Purposes Only © Copyright 2009 Boeing
Contents
• Why Consider a Turn Analysis• Regulatory Requirements• Obstacle Information Sources• Turn Analysis Performance Methods (Sample
Problem)• Examples of Special Airport Studies• Engine Inoperative Turn Calculation Updates
88For Training Purposes Only © Copyright 2009 Boeing
At present our turning flight calculation assumes
• Coordinated turn, i.e., no side force
• Simple relationship between turn radius and bank angle
These assumptions are not consistent with the actual airplane performance and behavior in a turn.
Engine Inoperative Turn Calculation Updates
89For Training Purposes Only © Copyright 2009 Boeing
Coordinated Not Coordinated
β ≠ 0
β = 0
β ≠ 0
“skid”
“slip”
90For Training Purposes Only © Copyright 2009 Boeing
• Airplane cannot accomplish a coordinated turn with one engine inoperative
• FCTM recommends to trim for zero wheel, to achieve near minimum drag (for best gradient)
• To remain on the intended ground track, additional bank angle may be required, possibly reducing the climb gradient capability
• During a fixed bank angle maneuver, the ground track can deviate by a substantial amount
Engine Inoperative Turn Calculation Updates
91For Training Purposes Only © Copyright 2009 Boeing
Engine Inoperative Trim Technique
•It is not possible to trim for zero sideslip on takeoff, missed approach, or go-around, at high thrust settings, with one engine failed
•Pilots are trained to trim for zero wheel, to achieve near minimum drag, for best gradient
92For Training Purposes Only © Copyright 2009 Boeing
β ≠ 0 β ≠ 0
Turns into the failed engine
Turns away fromthe failed engine
Example: right engine has failed, airplane turning left:
Example: left engine has failed, airplane turning left:
V2Actual R exceeds g*tan(Φ)
V2Actual R is less than g*tan(Φ)
93For Training Purposes Only © Copyright 2009 Boeing
Drawing for illustration
purposes only
Cross Track
Lateral Flight Path – Constant 15° Bank Angle TurnLa
tera
l Flig
ht P
ath
Left Engine Out
Right TurnLeft Turn
Engine Inoperative Turn Calculation Updates
AFM AFM
Airplane
Airplane
94For Training Purposes Only © Copyright 2009 Boeing
Engine Inoperative Turn Calculation Updates
Vertical Flight Path – Effect of additional bank angle
• Additional bank angle to maintain track reduces the vertical profile
• AFM net obstacle profile is not violated
Distance from Start of Turn
Hei
ght f
rom
Sta
rt o
f Tur
n
Current AFM (15° bank)
Gross Flight Path
Net Flight Path
Drawing for illustration
purposes only
Actual profile at 18° bank required to hold track
95For Training Purposes Only © Copyright 2009 Boeing
• V2/g*tan(Φ) may not accurately model turn radius with an engine failed:– With constant bank angle:
• Turns toward the failed engine will turn inside the classical radius
• Turns away from the failed engine will exceed the classical radius
– For constant radius turns:
• Turns toward the failed engine will require less bank
• Turns away from the failed engine will require more bank
Engine Inoperative
Turn Radius Summary
96For Training Purposes Only © Copyright 2009 Boeing
Turn Radius SummaryEngine Inoperative
• The engine inoperative turn radius effect just described has not traditionally been included in turn radius calculations for Seattle models; simplified turn equation used for AFM
• Some Douglas models have included it by using different methodology that accounts for engine inoperative performance (717, DC-10, MD-10, MD-11 & MD-90)
• Boeing intends to update AFM-DPI, BTM and the Boeing Climbout Program (BCOP) software to improve the accuracy of engine out lateral track calculations, for all in-production models.
top related