themistocles and his part on the greco-persian wars (499-472/1)
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Classical Greek History J. A. Caballero Prieto
1
Themistocles and his part on the Greco-Persian Wars (499-472/11)
All the glory of Athens -The Parthenon, Plato’s Academy, the immortal tragedies, even the revolutionary experiment in
democracy- can be traced back to one public meeting, one obstinate citizen, and a speech about silver and ships. (John
R. Hale Lords of the Sea)
1 All dates are BCE
Classical Greek History J. A. Caballero Prieto
2
No matter how much we look at antiquity through the eyes of the modern world we tend to miss
the people who really made an impact in ancient times. There are men, usually of great caliber,
that slip between the cracks of history never to be seen or found except for and by the initiated.
Much like the Eleusinian mysteries, the subject of my investigation tends to march off into the
unknown, having accomplished, albeit not single-handedly, the salvation of an entire ancient
Greek city-state, nay of Hellas itself.
Themistocles, son of Neocles, arose from the unknown in Athens. A product of the very
radical democracy initiated in 510 (fourteen years after his estimated birth) he reached manhood
CA 494, just in time to become eponymous ephor in 493 and build Athens’ walls, as well as to
participate in the battles of Marathon with the famous Miltiades. He would also orchestrate the
naval operation at Artemisium despite a very eager Lacedaemonian Admiral, organized the
evacuation of Athens’ citizens to Troezen and Salamis, defeat the Persian invaders at Salamis in
480 and surely lead his clan battalion during the battle of Plataea in 479 for a final Persian
defeat. All this was accomplished while building Athens into a naval empire, battling negative
Delphic predictions, promoting radical democracy and fighting it up with his nemesis Aristides.
Little of Themistocles is spoken in popular culture or trivial history; no movies have been
made about his person2. However, Themistocles was part of the Persian defeat in 490 and key in
the destruction of their navy in 480. Themistocles was the true savior of democracy, yet he will
be ostracized by the very people, and through the very system, he fought to uphold.
Themistocles’ Early years
Themistocles was born in the year 5243 to Neocles, Athenian born, and Abrotonon, a
Thracian4. Born in a middle class Athenian household in the Lycomidae
5 clan, he grew up
surrounded by Aristocrats that looked down on him. However, he never allowed for anyone to
put him down, making even those higher born children train with him in order to show his right
to equal status. This necessity for equality would later show in favor of Themistocles and the
people he would fight to empower. One of his teachers is said to have told him that “you my boy
will be nothing small, but great one way or another, for good or else for bad.”6
Plutarch further documents that Themistocles boasted whenever possible, at one time
offending fellow Athenians while attending the Olympic games, putting on a fancy show and
bringing with him ostentatious tents that did not become a Greek of his class. Themistocles
“went beyond all men in the passion for distinction”7. He was also well liked by the common
people, who seem to see him as the bridge between them and the aristocrats. Plutarch also
mentions that he called every citizen by name8.
Thus, we see in Themistocles a middle class Athenian that arose to the highest levels of
power by demonstrating that he, whether he had Aristocratic training or not, could have as much
2 He barely makes an appearance on “The 300 Spartans” (1962) and is completely ignored in the remake “300”
from 2006 3 According to the Oxford Classical Dictionary; Secondary sources vary on the dates of birth and death. Other dates
often given are 525/523 - 460 BC 4 Plut. Them p.162. Although the write also mentions an Euterpe as a possible mother of Themistocles.
5 Frost
6 Plut. Them. p.163
7 Plut. Them. p. 165
8 Plut. Them. p. 166
Classical Greek History J. A. Caballero Prieto
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ἀρεηή9 and ζωθροςύνη
10 as any other high born man of Athens. Indeed Themistocles would rise
to achieve the highest levels of political and military life.
499-494: Aristagoras of Miletus and the Ionian Rebellion
There must be a brief introduction as to the events that initiated the Greco-Persian wars
of which Themistocles would be a protagonist.
It would seem that at the time Themistocles was about twenty-five years old, Aristagoras
son of Molpagoras, in an attempt to help Naxian exiles, initiates a local rebellion and quarrels
with the Persian Satrap Megabates, who warns the Naxians of an impendent Persian attack11
.
However, Aristagoras fails in his attempt, and thinking the Persians will want revenge plans a
revolt against them. The Ionian tyrant is deposed, and then Aristagoras sails to Sparta in order to
seek help from Laconians; however, king Cleomenes refuses to aid him despite his bribes12
.
Refused at Sparta, Aristagoras turns to Athens for support and around 498 the city sends twenty
triremes, along with six more from Eretria in Euboea, across the Aegean in order to aid the
Ionians who are now in full revolt13
.
However, after some initial successes, the Ionian revolt fails, and the Athenians along
with the Eretrians retreat, but not before a temple is burnt in Sardis along with a sanctuary to the
local goddess Kybele14
. The burning of the temple will lead Darius to tell one of his servants to
tell him “three times whenever his dinner was served: “My Lord, remember the Athenians”15
.
The last of the Ionian revolt was suppressed by 494 with a naval battle at Lade, followed by the
capture of Miletus. Thus, the field was set for the first invasion of Greece.
CA. 493: Eponymous Archon
According to Thucydides, Themistocles became eponymous archon of Athens in 493.
This fact seems to be confirmed by J. Arthur R. Munro in The Chronology of Themistocles'
Career. He states that “Dionysus of Halicarnassus (vi. 34) gives Themistocles as the name of the
archon eponymous of 493”. Charles W. Fornara also concurs, adding that he derives part of his
evidence “according to the Armenian version of Eusebius’ Chronica under Ol. 71,1 (497/96).”
Although the date is off our initial date of 493, we can easily attribute the lack of agreement to a
calculation error made by one of the ancient historians. The point made however, is that
Themistocles was indeed eponymous archon at one point, and that he used this archonship to the
benefit of the city’s port. During this year16
, Themistocles manages to convince Athens to fortify
the Piraeus with hastily built walls filled with rubble, to defend against any attack. Themistocles
successfully predicted that if Athens was ever hard pressed, she would rely on the Piraeus to
keep her fed, or that, in dire necessity, the Athenians could be evacuated through that same
9 Lit. Goodness, excellence
10 Lit. Moderation, Discretion
11 Herod. 5.30-33
12 Herod. 5.38
13 Herod. 5.55, 65, 97
14 Herod. 5.102
15 Herod. 5.106
16 ca 493
Classical Greek History J. A. Caballero Prieto
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location. The walls could only be built to about half the size that Themistocles wanted, but later
on17
the city would have a chance to finish the work started18
.
It would seem reasonable that Themistocles saw something in Piraeus and the navy that
no other aristocrat could see. His father Neocles, was said to have expressed that the ships of
Athens had been abandoned to their luck at the dry docks of Piraeus, and that this was a comparison to
“…how the people cast of their leaders when they have no more for to them”.19
This remark may
have made a deep mark on young Themistocles, for he always saw the navy as the salvation of
Athens, and made sure that Athens needed him as long as possible.
According to Frank J. Frost, this may be the time at which Themistocles married the
daughter of Alysander of Alopeke: “The deme fairly bristles with important persons” and “it may
have meant an improvement in Themistocles’ social and economic position.”20
However, as Hale
explains: “within a few years the Persian threat seemingly evaporated, and the costly project was
left unfinished. The wall and the stumps of towers at the Piraeus now stood to only half the
height that Themistocles had envisioned, a constant reminder of his poor powers as a prophet.”
It would seem that despite the visionary work of Themistocles, his preparations would
indeed be only halfway ready when the Persians would initiate what they saw as a counter attack
for the Athenian aid given during the Ionian revolt. However, it would only be one more year
until the Athenians saw the threat of the Persian army looming in the horinzon.
CA 492: Darius’ first expedition
I shall briefly mention that the first attempt at revenge against Greece by Darius ends in
utter failure when the Persian fleet is wrecked by the violent winds off Mount Athos in the
northern Aegean. Nonetheless, the Persians add parts of Thrace and the kingdom of Macedon to
their realm21
. Another expedition soon follows.
490: Marathon
In 490, Darius dashes across the Aegean, conquering the island of Naxos22
. During the
expedition, the Persians collect allies at the islands they passed. When they arrive at Euboea the
city of Eretria is besieged and after it held for six days, it was betrayed by two of its own
citizens.
Hippias now leads the Persians towards Marathon, supposedly, because the area is good
for landing cavalry23
. According his article Herodotus and the Battle of Marathon, J. A. S. Evans
claims that Hippias was there with the apparent intention of his re-establishment as a tyrant.24
17
478 according to Thucydides 18
Thuc. 1.93 19
Hale p.4 20
Frank p.113 21
Thuc. 6.45 22
Herod. 6.95 23
Herod. 9.13.3; Thuc. 7.27.5 24
P.282
Classical Greek History J. A. Caballero Prieto
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Although the Spartans have been sent for via runner, call Pheidippides, the Laconians send back
word stating that they will not be able to arrive until the moon is full25
.
Miltiades is recognized as the great leader of this battle. He organizes the tribal leaders
and decides he will attack when it is his day to preside, since they leaders are taking turns daily
in order to keep command fair26
. At one point the Athenians, after they see the Persians
embarking in order to mount an attack on Athens, charge the Persian line obliterating their
enemies. After that battle they march to Athens, arriving before the Persian army does, and are
able to take defensive positions, dissuading their enemies from even attempting Piraeus27
. The
Persians return to their homeland in shame.
The story is well known, however, was Themistocles present? And if so, what was his
role during the battle? Erich S. Gruen asserts that “Miltiades and Themistocles cooperated
politically”.28
The fact that Themistocles had been eponymous archon only two years prior, and
that he had married into a higher-class clan, as well as the idea that he was pro-radical
democracy makes Themistocles and asset. It would seem strange if he was not present at the very
meetings described by Herodotus, indeed even counseling Miltiades as to what to do next.
Plutarch however, describes Themistocles as a jealous opponent who wanted to best his rival
beyond all else; he quotes him as saying that “the trophy of Miltiades would not let him sleep”29
.
Simply enough, the necessity of every able Athenian body at marathon was an imperative,
especially since the Spartan army was not to arrive until the full moon. It is likely that
Themistocles was present, at the very least, in charge of his clan troops.
489-486: Darius’ Death and Succession
After the defeat at Marathon, Darius prepares a third invasion of Greece, but he is
delayed by an Egyptian rebellion and later dies. He had chosen Xerxes as his successor however,
who diverts from the plan to attack Athens due to a series of revolts in the empire30
. Miltiades,
after a series of fiascos, is prosecuted for deceiving the Athenian people in 488 and dies in 489,
opening the door for Themistocles to consolidate his political power. It will still be nine years
before Xerxes will venture west, however a defining moment in Greek history was about to
occur. A decision that will mark the difference between Athens remaining a local power, or
become an empire, the choice between silver or triremes.
483/82: Silver and the 100 Triremes
In 483, with many Athenian leaders ostracized or dead, Themistocles is near the height of
his power. During this time, a large silver vein is found at Laureion31
“a rugged knot of hills
25
Herod. 6.105-107 26
Herod. 6.109-110 27
Herod. 6.110-116 28
P.92 29
Plut. Them. p.164 30
Herod. 7.1-6 31
Lit. Place of Silver
Classical Greek History J. A. Caballero Prieto
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near the southern top of Attica, about twenty-five miles from Athens”.32
These mines had enough
money to produce 100 triremes33
. However, the citizens of Athens wanted to divide the gains
amongst themselves, an amount of ten drachmas per person. Although Themistocles, with what
is by now a well-developed power of persuasion, convinces the Athenians to build ships instead;
and so they do. Herodotus, speaking in flashback, praises Themistocles for his foresight, since by
480, by the time Xerxes attacks, the Athenian navy is 200 triremes strong. This force will be the
backbone of the allied maritime defense during the next Persian attack.
There was of course an ulterior motive for Themistocles, his family lands were in
“Phrearroi, on the edge of the mining district.34
There is a good chance that Themistocles may
have known a sizable vein was soon to be found, and therefore he would have time to think
ahead about what to do with the newfound wealth. This made Themistocles’ land more valuable
as well, granting him and his family more power over the decisions daily made in Athens.
Opposing Themistocles is his old rival Aristides; however, after a debate and much
campaigning, the latter is ostracized in 48235
. In addition, Frost suggests that “by fortifying
Piraeus and creating a navy [Themistocles] had shifted the balance of power to the lower
classes”.36
While Plutarch quotes a slogan of the time37
: “ἡ καηὰ θάλλαηαν ἀρχὴ γένεζίς ἐζηι
δημοκραηίας”38
.
Themistocles had reinforced Athens position by strengthening her walls, assisted at the
victory at Marathon, helped institute the radical democracy that would define Athens and much
of the western world. Now he was about to face his greatest challenge, the destruction of his city
by the Persian invaders who sought revenge on the Athenians for the destruction of ancient
temples in Ionia.
481-479: Xerxes Invasion
Xerxes leads a massive army westward from his capital Susa to the city of Sardis. His
engineers prepare bridges across the Hellespont and cut a canal through the peninsula at Mount
Athos. When Darius sent a request to Athens for earth and water it was “Themistocles, by the
consent of the people seized upon the interpreter, and put him to death, for presuming to publish
the barbarian orders and decrees in the Greek language.”39
He will also take care of a bribed
Arthmius of Zelea, who has been corrupted by Persian gold and is now coming to Athens to
attempt to persuade them to betray the rest of Hellas. As a result, Arthmius and his descendants
were condemned to be “degraded and disenfranchised”. Themistocles is also given responsibility
by Plutarch of the city’s peace through eradicating civil war. It would seem that thanks to
Themistocles, Athens would be able to present a Greek united front against the Persians40
.
The Athenians however, send for a prediction from the Delphic oracle, the Pythia
Aristonike gave the following prophecy:
32
Hale p.7 33
in addition to the 100 the Athenians already possessed. 34
Hale p.8 35
Aristides will be recalled in 480 in order to help face the incoming Persian threat. 36
P. 107 37
Plut. Them. 19.6 38
Lit. Democracy was first created upon the sea 39
Plut. Them. p. 166 40
Plut. Them. p.167
Classical Greek History J. A. Caballero Prieto
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Why sit so idle, you poor wretched men? To the ends of the land
You should fee.
Leave your homes, leave the heights of your circular fortress,
For neither the head nor the body remains in its place,
Nor the feet underneath, nor the hands nor the middle
Is left as it was, but now all is obscure. For casting it down
Is fire and Ares so sharp on the heels of a Syrian chariot
And he will destroy many cities with towers, and not yours alone;
And into the devouring fire he will give the temples of eternal gods,
Which now drip with sweat and shake in their fear
As blood gushes darkly from the tops of their roofs,
Foreseeing the force of compelling disaster.
Now step out of the shrine, and shroud over your heart with the
Evils to come.
The Athenians were not looking at this prediction with any hope for the future. Their
request for a second oracle is also met with despair; it read thus41
:
Unable is Pallas to appease Zeus Olympian
With copious prayers, with counsel quite cunning.
Now to you once again my word I shall speak, making it adamantine:
The rest will be taken, all lying within the boundary of Kekrops
And that of the hollow of sacred Cithaeron.
But a wall made of wood does farsighted Zeus to Tritogenes grant
Alone and unravaged, to help you and your children,
Do not await peacefully the horse and the foot,
The army gigantic that comes from the mainland;
Withdraw, turn your backs, though someday you still will meet
Face to face.
O salamis Divinie, the children of women you will yet destroy
While Demeter is scattered or while she is gathered.
There begun a debate as to what the wooden walls meant, some said that it was the
wooden wall then around the acropolis, others thought that it meant the triremes, but they
foresaw death once embarked. It is interesting that here we see the first mention of Themistocles
in Herodotus, he wrote: “But among the Athenians was a certain man who had just recently
come into the highest prominence; his name was Themistocles, and he was called the son of
Neokles. Now this man asserted that the explanation of the oracle interpreters was not entirely
correct.”42
Themistocles goes on to defend that the warning was not intended towards Athens, but
her enemies, and that they wooden wall was indeed the navy, which would save them for
destruction. The people took to Themistocles’ prediction despite the expert interpreters’ simply
because it sounded better43
; the politician also seemed to have understood that Xerxes’ navy was
the weakest of its assets, since it was manned solely with subjugated peoples and commanded by
Persians; perhaps easier to demoralize and defeat.44
41
Herod. 7.140-1 42
Herod. 7.143.2 43
Herod. 7.143.3 44
Hale p.34
Classical Greek History J. A. Caballero Prieto
8
Tempe
At the end of 481, beginning of 480, the Hellenes who are willing to resist the Persians
meet in council at the Isthmus of Corinth; the Thessalonians threaten to join the Persians if they
are not defended. Themistocles who is an attendance as the delegate from Athens suggests that
the Athenians should embark an army and sail to Tempe in order to stop the Persians as far north
as possible; he linked up with a body of Lacedaemonians and headed to “the pass that leads from
Macedon into Thessaly. It runs along the River Peneios, which flows between Mount Olympus
and Mount Ossa”45
. The allies have about 10.000 hoplites. However, a warning from Alexander I
of Macedon and the discovery (according to Herodotus) of a pass that could encircle their
position makes the allies retreat back to the isthmus. The Thessalians medized immediately
after46
.
Artemisium
Once the position at Tempe had been lost, the only option for the allies was to set up a
two-front war, so it is decided that the pass of Thermopylae is defensible enough for this
purpose. A naval expedition is sent to Artemisium, in conjunction with a Spartan-led land army.
Admiralship does not fall to Themistocles despite his city’s 200 triremes, however; it is under
Eurybiades son of Eurylkeides, a Spartan king47
and land-lover with little to no maritime
experience; although we should not count resourceful Themistocles out yet. When Eurybiades
loses hope at the size of the Persian fleet, with money that he obtained from the Euboeans
Themistocles bribed Eurybiades and the Corinthian commander to remain in charge but quietly,
so the Themistocles himself could lead the efforts at sea. Themistocles understood that the naval
contingent was protecting Leonidas’ back at Thermopylae; to retreat at that time would have
meant the destruction of the allies at that pass by allowing the Persian navy to outflank them and
attack them from the rear.
Themistocles holds fast to his position, ensuring the survival of Leonidas and the allied
forces at the Thermopylae pass. The confused Persians are at a loss as to what to do, however a
contingent of 200 Persian48
ships are sent around Euboea to try and cut Themistocles off, but all
Persian ship shipwrecked off the Eastern coast of the island. Under Themistocles’ direction,
naval battles are won, which dismay the Persians further.49
On the third day of the conflict however, Ephialtes50
betrays the land position at
Thermopylae and a synchronized attack is suffered by both Leonidas and Themistocles. Both
hold on as long as they can, but the Athenians have half of their ships damaged51
so they decide
to retreat. Themistocles set fires in Euboea and killed the flocks present in the island in order to
hinder the Persian advance through lack of supplied. Finally a messenger boat communicates to
Themistocles that Leonidas and the allies at the pass have been overwhelmed, and that the
45
Herod. 7.173 46
Herod. 7.174 47
Plut. Them. and Histories 8.2 48
Manned with Phoenician vessels and forced labor 49
Herod. 8.8 50
Lit. Nightmare 51
Herod. 8.18
Classical Greek History J. A. Caballero Prieto
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commander and all the Spartiates are dead52
. The naval contingent no longer delays and ships to
their accorded fall back location.
Salamis
Once they cross Thermopylae the Persians take Phocia and burn twelve cities, there being
nothing the allies can do. The oracle at Delphi is surprisingly spared.53
It is at this time that
Themistocles evacuates all women and children from Athens to Troezen, safely behind the
Isthmus and into the Peloponnese (see J. A. S Evans article The Oracle of the "Wooden Wall" for
a detailed account on this subject). We do not have any direct record of the words or method
used by Themistocles to convince Athens to make such a sacrifice, but it speaks volumes for the
politician’s ability to inspire trust and commitment54
.
The allies now hold a council of war at Salamis, where the Athenians had set up a
“government in exile”55
, and the Corinthians amongst others are strongly suggesting the defense
of the isthmus in order to prevent an invasion of the Peloponnese. During the discussions, news
arrive that the Persians have burned Thespiai and Plataea, and that they are entering into
defenseless Attica. Athens is taken and the acropolis burnt. The fires are most likely visible from
Salamis, where Themistocles and the rest of the Athenians find themselves without a city. At this
point, a certain Mnesiphilos convinces Themistocles to make a plea to remain at Salamis and
offer a naval battle there56
, so our naval commander convinces Eurybiades to set up a last council
of war. One can only imagine the feeling of desperation that Themistocles may be experiencing,
his city burning, having failed his fellow citizens.
Herodotus reports that even before Eurybiades opened the meeting, the usually
calculative Themistocles begins to speak “with great urgency, since “he was now quite
desperate.”57
However, Adeimantos a Corinthian commander reprehends him. Themistocles,
undaunted, continues his argument unstopped by Eurybiades58
, stating that the fleet should offer
battle at Salamis due to the advantages it supposes. However, the Corinthian commander, eager
to defend the isthmus insults him by telling Themistocles that he should not be able to propose a
motion for a vote, since he is a man without a city.
One can tell the desperation and frustration of Themistocles in the next sentences by
Herodotus. Themistocles replied “with venom directed against Adeimantos and the Corinthians”
telling them that the Athenians had 200 fully manned ships, that being greater land than Corinth,
and that if he needed to invade the city itself, he would not hesitate. Then he turns to Eurybiades
and tells him that Athens will sail off to Italy and leave the allies with little naval power59
.
52
Herod. 7.224 speaks of the death, while the message is conveyed in 8.22 53
Perhaps a foothold to claims of Persian corruption of the shrine through bribery, although Herodotus claims divine intervention 54
Herod. 8.41 55
Hale p.39 56
Herod. 8.58. The epic homage here is quite obvious. An older character, unknown to us, advices Themistocles as to what needs to be done next; Herodotus may be trying to explain away Themistocles impetuous request of a second council as the idea of an older, wiser man as he seems to view the general as inexperienced 57
Herod. 8.59 58
The commander may have opposed the engagement at Salamis although he was probably still under Themistocles’ influential bribe 59
Herod. 8.61-62
Classical Greek History J. A. Caballero Prieto
10
The Corinthian is heard of no further, and Eurybiades grants Themistocles’ motion.
However, there is a second debate later on, seeming as if the allies would indeed retreat to the
isthmus and defend that section of the country. Themistocles’ genius nature comes out more than
at any other time. He sends a message to Xerxes letting him know that some of the allies will
attempt a retreat, which the king finds credible, sending part of his navy to cut off any chances of
escape. Some have suggested that Themistocles was attempting to create a win-win situation for
himself. If the Hellenes lose, he would be spared as the one who allowed such a defeat, if they
win, he would be responsible for the Persian naval division, allowing the allied cities to face a
smaller contingent.
It seems to me however, that Themistocles remembered the lessons of the battle at
Marathon and Thermopylae. He knew that a divided Persian navy would be easier to defeat, and
that an elated Xerxes would be more likely to send his naval forces into the straight if he thought
the Greeks were in disarray. Once in the enclosed space of Salamis, the more maneuverable
Greek triremes could ambush the Phoenicians and destroy them, then turning upon the encircling
part of the Persian navy, destroying them as well, or intimidating them into retreat as had happen
at Athens ten years prior.
Themistocles’ old enemy, Aristides, who has been recalled from exile, braves the
elements, death and his own pride to tell him that the Persians are indeed enveloping the allied
forces and that there is not escape. Themistocles reveals that this was part of his plan, and that
Aristides should tell the allies, since they would be more likely to believe him60
. The allies have
yet another council of war, and Herodotus reports Themistocles giving a final speech to them in
regards to the worst and best of humanity letting everyone know they have a choice61
. A. J.
Graham, in his article Themistocles' Speech before Salamis: The Interpretation of Herodotus
8.83.1 analyzes the translation of Herodotus and determines it to mean that “Themistocles alone
of them all foretold victory”.62
At any rate, Themistocles seems to have given an inspirational
speech worth of his stature. The admiral would get (and win) his battle at sea the battle of
Salamis; an incredible success by any standard. Herodotus reports a “rumor” in regards to
Corinthian vessels and their leader, Adaimantus, cowering and fleeing the scene63
, we do not
know who started it, Themistocles however was a likely culprit.
The Persians back is now broken, Xerxes retreats to his homeland, leaving Mardonius in
charge of the now decimated land forces. The Persian ships now sail to the Hellespont to protect
the king’s retreat through the bridge they had set up, to which Themistocles proposes to have the
navy sail and cut both the retreating Persian fleet off and destroy the bridges. However,
Eurybiades opposes this, saying that it is best to let the enemy leave, rather than trapping it in
Greece and forcing them to fight64
. Themistocles accepts this reasoning. However, the
Athenians, enraged by the sacrilege at Athens, want to pursue the enemy fleet. Herodotus
suggests that Themistocles persuades them not to in order to gain favor with Persia, I think the
admiral had it right, but not the historian, since the Athenians cannot effectively pursue a counter
attack with their country and city in shambles. However, Themistocles does initiate, seemingly
60
Herod. 8.81; Plut. Them. p.172 61
Herod. 8.83 62
P.325 63
Herod. 8.94; This seems more like an attempt by Herodotus to further discredit the Corinthian contingent after they had opposed Themistocles and the Athenian proposal 64
Herod. 8.108
Classical Greek History J. A. Caballero Prieto
11
on his own, a punitive campaign against some of the medized islands to get money from them, in
order to rebuild Athens.
478-472: Thanks to Themistocles
With the Persians defeated, Themistocles continues to serve Athens. It is certain,
although we have no direct record, that the general led his tribal battalion during the final battle
of Plataea. In 478, thanks to Themistocles distraction of the Spartans, the Athenians rebuild their
city walls65
. The Athenian general Aristides66
follows the Spartan regent Pausanias with an
Athenian squadron to Cyprus and the Byzantium, where the Ionians beg the Athenians to
become their hegemon.
In 477, the Athenians and their allies establish the so-called Delian League. Athens will
lead punitive campaigns against the Persian Empire, and the allies will contribute either ships or
money. Aristides assesses the contributions. The Athenians general Cimon leads the first annual
campaign, capturing the city of Eion on the Strymon River in Thrace.
Once, when “Themistocles entered the [Olympic] stadium, the audience neglected the
contestants all day long to gaze on him, and pointed him out with admiring applause to visiting
strangers, so that he too was delighted, and confessed to his friends that he was now reaping in
full measure the harvest of his toils in behalf of Hellas."67
Thus we see that, if only for a small
moment, Themistocles was able to gather the rewards of his sacrifices, extensively spoken of by
Borimir Jordan on his article The Honors for Themistocles after Salamis. Yet, the prediction of
his father Neocles quoted above would become true: that when no longer needed, leaders are
abandoned.
With Aristides and other politicians back in the equation, Themistocles begins to be
accused of abusing his power and influence. In 476, driven by the desire to quench these
accusations, Themistocles sponsors a performance of Phrynichus’ Phoenician Women to remind
the Athenians of his own contribution to the victory over the Persians, which gains him
temporary safety. Although, after political battles and being a victim of his own success, further
rumors of Themistocles abuses during the Greco-Persian wars spread. Around 47268
or 47169
Themistocles is ostracized. We have more examples of ostraka70
used on his banishment than for
any other politician. He will never return to Greece, dying ironically, in a city of the empire he
had so blatantly fought against.71
Conclusion
However we look at Themistocles, we must conclude that he was someone of special
caliber, even in the remarkable time in which he lived. His actions during the Greco-Persian
65
Plut. Them. p.176 66
Themistocles’ great rival, returned from exile 67
Plut. Them. 17 68
Cary p.162 69
Munro p.333 70
Ostracism voting ballots 71
Hale, Chronology, ps.319-321
Classical Greek History J. A. Caballero Prieto
12
wars, especially during the Xerxian invasion, saved Greece from being taken over by the oriental
empire, keeping its way of life and system of government. Themistocles empowered more
people than any other politician to choose for themselves, setting up the radical democracy that
Pericles would carry into the future. Athens is now on the path towards empire, and the decades
from 479 to 399 are arguably the most incredible of human history; producing some of the
greatest minds of all time.
Themistocles was calculative, manipulative, unashamed, unapologetic, simply an
Athenian of the late fifth century who bowed to no one and knew no master. He participated in
the greatest battles of all time, and was the driving force behind a Democratic system which we
attempt to follow today. I believe there has been no greater commander in all of history than
Themistocles, nor a more capable politician.
Classical Greek History J. A. Caballero Prieto
13
Bibliography
Ancient Sources
Herodotus, Purvis, Andrea L. (Translator), Strassler, Robert B. (Editor), Thomas, Rosalind
(Introduction) (2009) The landmark Herodotus Anchor Books
Plutarch, Dryden, Johyn (Translator) Lehmann, Clayton Miles (Introduction) (2006) Lives The
Barnes and Noble Library of Essential Reading
Thucydides, Crawley, Richard (Translator), Strassler, Robert B. (Editor), Hanson, Victor Davis
(Introduction) (2008) The landmark Thucydides Free Press
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Cary, M. (1922) When Was Themistocles Ostracised? The Classical Review Vol. 36, No. 7/8,
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Evans, J. A. S. (1993) Herodotus and the Battle of Marathon Historia: Zeitschrift für Alte
Geschichte Vol. 42, No. 3 (3rd Qtr.), pp. 279-307 Published by: Franz Steiner Verlag
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Frost, Frank J. (1968) Themistocles' Place in Athenian Politics California Studies in Classical
Antiquity Vol. 1, pp. 105-124 Published by: University of California Press
Graham, A. J. (1996) Themistocles' Speech before Salamis: The Interpretation of Herodotus
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Classical Antiquity Vol. 3, pp. 91-98 Published by: University of California Press
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Jordan, Borimir (1988) The Honors for Themistocles after Salamis The American Journal of
Philology Vol. 109, No. 4, pp. 547-571 Published by: The Johns Hopkins University
Press
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Munro, J. Arthur R. (1982) The Chronology of Themistocles' Career The Classical Review Vol.
6, No. 8, pp. 333-334 Published by: Cambridge University Press on behalf of The
Classical Association
Oxford Classical Dictionary, Hornblower and Spawforth (1998) s.v.
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