the vulnerability and management to the blue carbon
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International Journal of Lakes and Rivers.
ISSN 0973-4570 Volume 14, Number 1 (2021), pp. 43-70
© Research India Publications
http://www.ripublication.com/ijlr.htm
The Vulnerability and Management to the Blue
Carbon Ecosystem: Coastal Odisha
Siba Prasad Mishra, Kamal Kumar Barik, Sanjeeb Kumar Pattanaik
Centurion University of Technology and management, BBSR, Jatni, India.
Abstract
The buffer zone in tropical coasts of Odisha extends 25km inland with dense
population and a number of urban areas. The fragile vulnerable coast struggles
against disastrous floods, deforestations, droughts, storms, salinity intrusion,
erosion/accretion and biodiversity losses. The vast mangroves towards north
and mangrove associates in south have covered under littoral and swamp
forests as coastal vegetation’s. The blue carbon ecosystem defenses the coast
deterioration, deformations, atmospheric carbon emissions, and biodiversity
losses. Collection of pollen grain, radio carbon records and chemical study of
water along with field visits are part of the study. The GIS studies are made to
ascertain the extent of vulnerability to coast and vegetation. Variations in
heavy metals and nonmetals of water sample of Chilika lagoon, the largest
water bodies of along East coast is found by using XRF spectrometer.
Investigations has been made about recent deformations, and vegetation
losses along the Odisha coast under changing ISM, cyclonic storms, strong
wind and high tides. The major loss of casuarina/coconut plants as storm
impacts are observed during recent storm passes. Plants selection for
afforestation from mangroves or its associates in coastal buffer zone under
influencing climate is reflected. Shift in slamming targets southerly (2013-20)
devastated coastal forests in south but less towards northern coast. The 21st
century coast lines changes are due to storm surges, littoral drift and high tides
gradual loss vegetation by impinging the fluvial regime. The afforestation of
casuarina and acacia needs to be disheartened but salt tolerant mixed
vegetation needs prioritization as they are proved less resisting to strong winds
of cyclonic storms.
Keywords: Odisha coast, mangroves, erosion, afforestation, Chilika,
Mahanadi estuary, Indian summer monsoon.
44 Siba Prasad Mishra, Kamal Kumar Barik, Sanjeeb Kumar Pattanaik
INTRODUCTION:
The main land behind Odisha beach profile (Lat. 17°49' N to 22°34' N and Long.
81°27' E to 87°24' E) with coastal area (21887km2) and population (8975581people)
are as per 2011 Census. The coastal stretch has its unique tidal mangroves, the salt-
tolerant vegetation, brackish water fauna, and sand dune ecosystem, the transitional
zone between marine and terrestrial vegetation. They are enclosed between the Bay of
Bengal (BoB) and lower deltaic plains of the major deltas of the rivers the
Subarnarekha, the Budhabalanga, the Baitarani, the Bramhani, the Mahanadi, and the
Rushikulya (Fig 1). The estuarine landforms have sand dunes, mudflats, swamps,
saltpans and wetlands adjacent to the coast. The fast retreating coast and deteriorating
ecosystem has made the scientists, coast managers, and economists worried about its
sustainability Kumar R et. al 2016[1], Kumar A. et al., 2017[2]. Odisha coast, by
virtue of its topography and geographic location is susceptible to uncertain disastrous
climates and multiple hazards like floods, cyclones, droughts and high tidal waves,
Mukhopadhyay, et al., (2016)[3]. Odisha has 251km2 mangrove forest covered (5.05%
of the country) comprising of dense, moderate and open mangroves are 81km2,
94km2,and 76km2 respectively. The Kendrapara district houses lion’s share of 192km2
mangrove forests and anastomosed drainage system nearshore. Increase of 8Km2
mangrove cover (2017 to 2019) Forest survey of India (ISFR) 2019[4] indicates about
coastal potentiality for mangrove growth.
Mangroves and its associate (casuarina, palm, coconut and Cashew etc.) are
substantial carbon sinks and green corridor to coast and act as barricade against storm,
high tides and surge impacts. Coastal wetlands in Odisha are in light/dark toned silt
and clay, clean/muddy soils and drains are regularly inundated by sea water under
identical hydrologic regime. They are potentially prolific ecosystems and have
emerged biological significance.
Fig 1: The index map of Odisha Coast and features in buffer zone: the study area
The Vulnerability and Management to the Blue Carbon Ecosystem: Coastal Odisha 45
The productive ecosystem delivers food, medicine, honey, wood, genetic, and
ornamental resources. Despite of wastes, climate regulations and brackish water in
creeks, the coasts are tourism hot spots, recreation verandah, and wet land education
(Wetland Atlas 2010[5]). The complex root system of mangroves dissipates wave
energy, lower inflow velocity, and protect coast during natural/anthropogenic
disasters. The wetlands are fertile nesting/ nurture ground for brackish water
biodiversity and microbial taxa influenced by bio-geo-hydrographical and ecological
indices. It is pertinent to study this wetland ecosystem which is a great carbon sink
(Swain, B. K. 2017[6], Mishra, S. P. 2018[7]).
REVIEW OF LITERATURE:
India had 4975km2 mangrove concealment including 1124Km2 (22.593%) along east
coast (EC) of India in 2019. West Bengal houses 42.45% of mangrove forests
(Sundarban), trailed by Gujarat 23.66% and Andaman & Nicobar Islands
12.39%. (Forest survey India, 2019[4], Ravisankar et al., 2004[8]). The ecologically
significant area of Bhitarkanika Sanctuary is 145km2 out of total 672km2 as a national
park in 1998 within a biosphere reserve of 3000km2 consisting of Wildlife Sanctuary,
National Park and the Gahirmatha Marine Wildlife Sanctuary,
http://odishawildlife.org/bhitarakanika.html , The 2nd Ramsar wet land of Odisha had
7653 (84.5%) old and matured mangrove trees during 2008, (Upadhey et al., 2008[9]).
The variation dynamics of mangrove area can be well studied by GIS tool which can
assist coastal managers and the policy makers to plan efficiently for future (Pattanaik
et al., 2010[10]). The salt tolerant crops are either salt excluders or salt secretors or salt
accumulators grow in brackish water (Ong and Gong, 2013[11]). The mangroves in
northern coastal Odisha are comparatively short heighted that epitomizes both
estuarine and riverine ecosystem conducive for mangrove habitats and species
(Upadhyay et al 2014[9]). Mangroves develop in soil with salinity from 0 to 90ppt.
(Red mangroves 60-65ppt. Black & White > 90ppt). The water salinities is >40ppt in
the bays and mud flats https://www.nhmi.org/mangroves/phy .
The Indian coast comprises of 43% (sandy beach), 36% (muddy flats), 11% (rocky),
and (10% marshy) with 97 estuaries (major) and 34 coastal lagoons. Odisha coast
suffers from 199km of erosion, 205km accretion, and 32.1km stable except estuaries
and ports etc. (CPDAC report-2017[12]). About 59.18 km2 of mangrove forests was
deteriorated in India between 1972 to 1982 NRSA (The National Remote Sensing
Agency[13], Nayak et al., 2001[14]). India has lost 40% of mangrove vegetation during
20th century from anthropogenic and natural causes. The east coast (EC) of India has
gained 54km2 mangrove area from 2017 to 2019 (Sahu et al., 2015[15], ISFR 2019[4]).
The study of coastal vegetation have grown importance as they were depleted from
1960’s mainly due to population growth, new ports (Paradip, Dhamra, and Gopalpur),
escalated aqua culture, LU/LC changes, refugees settlement, deforestation, creeks,
without EIA (environmental impact assessment) (Mohanty, 2017[16]).
The Carbon stockpile quantity from plants and in soils in north coastal mangrove
areas of Odisha have potentiality of carbon sequestration and are within 3.4–4.1Tg C
46 Siba Prasad Mishra, Kamal Kumar Barik, Sanjeeb Kumar Pattanaik
that combat the climatic extremes (Banerjee et al, 2020[17], Mitra A 2020[18]).
Luxuriant mangrove ecosystem eliminates construction of sea wall, increases
sequestration, protect beach from erosion, coastal flooding and protect the brackish
water habitats (estuarine crocodiles, Asian water monitors, fiddler crab, fin fishes,
mudskipper and Irrawaddy dolphins (Ravishankar et al., 2004[8], Moritsch et al
2021[19]).
STUDY AREA:
There is significant difference in the length of coast line of Odisha (480.4km (2011)
& 549.5km (2016) as the coast is fragile, dynamic and ever changing as per NCSCM -
2011 and the NASC -2016 GIS study reports, (Table 1 &Fig 2&3).
Table 2: The major rivers, area, length, coastal changes (2011-2016) with important
wetlands within the district
District
(Odisha)
Major Rivers falling
BoB
Coast length
2011/ 2016
Erosion
2011/ 2016
Deposition
2011 /2016
Stable coast
2011/ 2016
Imp wetlands;
Characteristics
km km km km
Balasore Kantiachara,Nunia,
Kamachara,
Khandita,
urhabalanga
Panchpara, Dubdubi
Hans-kara,
Subarnarekha R.
87.96/92.14 23.59/21.6 14.25/52.30 50.12/18.24
shift coast ≈3-
5km in low
tides; Calm
Talasari beach;
eposition
Bhadrak Dhamra Gamai,
Baitarani, Salandi,
Gamei, Kansbans,
Mantei, Kochila,
Genguti,R
52.61/59.88 11.48/13.96 2.81/42.18 38.32/4.14
APJK Island;
Tidal flat 2-5km,
erosion
Dhamara
Kendra-
para
Brahmani, Hansua,
Bans-garh Maipura, 83.55/135.82 35.68/48.96 5.30/32.60 42.57/54.26
B.kanika;Erosio
n, Gahiramatha
Jagsingh-
Pur
Devi,Jatadharmuhan
, Biti-kolia
Balijhori, Mahanadi 58.95/58.72 30.98/34.22 11.09/15.26 16.88/09.24
Hukitala
bay,loss spit;
Barunei Est
uary lateral shift
Puri Chilika TI,
Mangala, Suna
munhi, Bhargavi, K-
badra,
Prachi/Kadua River
136.48/140.04 55.25/21.40 29.22/109.46 51.01/09.18
Lateral channels,
erosion; loss of
casuarina plants.
Ganjam Rushikulya, Bahuda 60.85/62.90 19.71/14.06 24.95/30.38 16.19/18.46
Gpl- erosion, TI
shift, GPL port
Note: Stable coast includes Jetties, ports and coastal structures: Ramesh R. et al, 2011[20], Kankara et
al 2018[21].
The Vulnerability and Management to the Blue Carbon Ecosystem: Coastal Odisha 47
Fig 3: The political map of coastal area with its 25km buffer zone
REASON FOR STUDY:
The mangrove conservation boosts economic status of the coastal inhabitants,
generates employment, tourism, and abates the impacts of vulnerable events,
Bahinipati et al 2012[22]. Bhomia et al 2016[23]. Coastal vegetation and wildlife are
sturdy against extreme weather, erosion, strong winds, storm surges, sand mining, and
anthropogenic stresses. The cyclonic storms 1970, 1971, 1982, 1999, 2013, 2014, and
2019 had shattered the Odisha coastal ecosystem (Mishra S. P. 2020[24]). The VSCS,
Amphan had damaged 24.55% of mangroves (136.77km2) of coastal India and
Bangladesh (28th May 2020, Mongabay series[25]) (Fig 4). The Balukhand coastal
forest, and wildlife sanctuary at Puri was completely devastated in the ESCS Fani,
2019.
Fig 3: The change in Mangrove area between 1999 and 2019
Considering the vulnerability of the coast, storm slam, and anthropogenic activities
0
500000
1000000
1500000
2000000
2500000
Are
a in
Ha
Coastal states if India
Change in Mangrove areas along Indian coasts between years 1999 (series 2) & 2019
(series 1)
Series2 Series1
48 Siba Prasad Mishra, Kamal Kumar Barik, Sanjeeb Kumar Pattanaik
Along Odisha coast, the study is conducted for the coastal buffer zone (3-5km, 5-
10km and 10-15km) during 30-40years. The status of the coastal interface (aggrading
or protruding), the mangrove area changes, assessment of threats to mangroves, and
its associates ecosystem has been searched. The holistic management of the declining
coastal biodiversity, poaching activities, increasing growth of coastal afforestation,
and to search the dominant factors i.e. anthropogenic or natural Ravishankar et al
2004[8] and Forest survey of India 2019 (MoEF&CC[4]).
METHODOLOGY
Present methodology envisages collection of data from past literatures like pollen
studies, carbon dating records, field visits, GIS methodologies to explore the 25km
buffer zones of Odisha coast. The historic records from the Holocene epoch
(13800YBP) were arranged chronologically and its effect on the coastline has been
correlated. SWOT analysis is done and management action plan has been chalked for
the sustainability of the coast like mangrove and/or its associate covers. The rapid
changes in length of coastline due to erosion and accretion have been observed from
the 2004 Tsunami. The effects of cyclones, Indian summer monsoon rainfall (ISM) on
the coastline changes of Odisha is investigated.
Luxuriant mangrove growth is found along the coastal buffer zone beyond the Devi
estuary whereas mangrove associates or mixed inland vegetation in the southern
fringe up to the Bahuda estuary. The two major wet land sources in the northern and
the southern coasts are Chilika and Bhitarkanika with varieties of plants are discussed.
The field visit and comparative study is done.
The study of the elemental differences during high tide creek flows has been done by
using 1 PANalytical B. V., Epsilon, Netherland XRF Spectrometer, using software
EPSILON 3 to get the concentration of elements. The XRF is used to find the
quantity the metals, oxides, nonmetals, metalloids and rare earth elements
Mishra S. P. et al, 2017[26].
The islands in the coast:
The coast has many idyllic islands within its depositional and retreated coasts.
Bhitarkanika has 14 islands where as Chilika lagoon houses small to large islands
(203km2). These major islands are Outer APJ Kalam Island (263.13Ac.), Coconut
Island (97.50 Ac.), Shorts Island (41.25 Ac.), Long Wheeler (52.50 Ac.), Small
Wheeler (10.63 Ac.), Kanika Sands (Udabali), Kalibhanja Dian, Nadiabali Island in
northern fringe whereas Sanakudi, Kalijai, Parikuda, Nuapada, Nalaban etc are within
Chilika. The northern coasts are having luxuriant mangrove growth whereas
mangrove/mixed vegetation are found in the islands of southern coast,
www.Wildlife.odisha.gov.in/webportal/;Mangroves.aspx&https://www. The net
littoral drift along Odisha is northerly. The sediment carried in floods gets deposited
in the N-ly fringe and forms spits. The barrier spits are continuously under
deformation and islands formation ahead of the river outfalls (Manimurali et al.,
2013[27]).
The Vulnerability and Management to the Blue Carbon Ecosystem: Coastal Odisha 49
The shoreline change:
Considering district wise, the Odisha coast comprises of length of 480.4km (Ramesh
et al., 2012[20]) and latest study shows surge of coast line to 549.5km (Kankara et al.,
2018[21]). The major erosion is occurring at places like Pentha, Satabhaya, Kahnupur,
Habilikhuti, Ekakula spit, Konark to Ramachandi, Penthakata Puri and Gopalpur.
About 63 km has been eroded at Satbhaya, Pentha Hukitala Bay and Devi estuary
(Barik et al., 2019[28]). Change in beach profile was prominent from 2004 tsunami.
The RSLR and aeolian forces have eroded 153.8km (28 %) of Odisha’s total coast
from 1999 to 2016 (Kankara et. al. 2018[21]). The Odisha coast has lost 196 km (46%)
by erosion, gained 156km (36%) by deposition, and 78 km (18%) are stable including
ports, Jetti’s and structures. The coasts of Puri and Kendrapara have lost 80km and 41
km respectively whereas Bhadrak has gained 37km (Roy et. al., 2018[29]).
Tidal influence along Coast:
Present Odisha coast is of Holocene origin where the extreme north and south are of
Post-Tertiary Period. The South Mahanadi delta (SMD) was formed during mid
Holocene period (4.2KYBP) when RSLR rose by 7 to 8m higher than present
coast (Naidu 1968[30]) and now protruding @≈9.1km/ 000’ years (Somanna et al
2016[31]). The coast line from the Bahuda to the Mahanadi mouth is micro tidal (≤ 2m
amplitude) with high wave energy and rest meso tidal (2-4m high) towards north.
The Bandar area near Devi river mouth, the waves height are ≈2m during spring tides
and 0.5m in neap tidal and average 1.5m in creeks of Bhitarkanika. The coast has 300-
500m long beach with sand and sand dunes. All the rivers before debouching take a
northern turn forming lateral channel, (Mishra S. P. 2016[32]) (Fig 4)..
Fig 4: The status of coastal wetlands along Odisha coast
50 Siba Prasad Mishra, Kamal Kumar Barik, Sanjeeb Kumar Pattanaik
The Vegetative Cover:
The vegetation along Odisha coast is largely of littoral, salt bush and tidal mangrove
or mixed forests types. The mangroves are dense at Kalibhanjadian (Dhamara
mouth), Bhitarkanika, Nasi, Jatadhar and Saharabedi. And the rest coast with the
mixed vegetation. The coasts Konark to Prayagi have tidal scrub jungles. Commonly
found Mangrove plants along Odisha coast are Bruguiera (Karika), Avicennia (Bani),
Rhizophora (Rai), Exocaria (Guan), Hental (Phoenix paludosa), Sindhuka (Kandelia
candel), Kaliachua (Bruguiera parviflora), Bandari (Bruguiera gymnorrhiza), Garani
(Ceriops decandra), Keruan (Sonneratia apetala) Orua (Sonneratia caseolaris),
Bonarua (Aegialitis rotundifolia), Sisuma (Xylocarpus granatum) etc. (Fig 5 a). Red
Mangroves are (Rhizophora apiculata, R. mangle, R. mucronata) Orange Mangrove
(Bruguiera cylindrica, B. gymnorrhiza, B. parviflora), Black Mangrove (Avicennia
alba, A. germinans, A. marina, A. officinalis) and White Mangrove (Laguncularia
racemose) are less in Odisha coast (Ghosh D., 2011[33], Panda et al., 2016[34]) (Fig 5
a-d).
The Chilika coast has first time developed ≈1.0km2 with, mangroves (rai, bani, garani
and sinduka etc under ICZMP) in the swanky patches of Chilika by 2020. The
mangrove associates like Casurina (Casuarina equisetifolia L, and locally Jhaun),
coconut trees, and cashew plants are present in south Odisha coast. Casuarina plants
of Australian origin were started during early 20th century to protect storms, wind and
waves.
Fig 5: The mangroves, the mud flats, mangrove plantation (Chilika) & erosion
(Pentha)
The Vulnerability and Management to the Blue Carbon Ecosystem: Coastal Odisha 51
The brackish water Fauna
The larger brackish water habitats are crocodiles, dolphins, and many predator
communities. The mangroves have plenty of faunal species like Dog faced water
snake, Olive Ridley Sea Turtles, blue blooded horse shoe crabs, 14 numbers
amphibian species (new Fejervarya cancrivora and Euphlyctis hexa-dactylus) and
many marine species. The mudflats along the coast and adjoining the river estuaries
like Lesser Sand Plover, Little Stint, Red Shank, Green Shank, Whimbrels, Kentish
Plover during low tides The Black-shouldered, Brahminy Kites, Black and Short-toed
Serpent Eagles are found near the estuaries and lagoons. Many migratory birds of
different varieties are found in water bodies, islands and the mangroves (Ghosh D.,
2011[33], Panda et al., 2016[34]) (Fig 5).
Irrawaddy dolphin, the focus of coastal wet lands like Chilika and Bhitarkanika are
the major attraction. Barik S. S., The Hindu; 10, Apr. 2021 has reported the number
of Dolphins (3 types; Irrawaddy, bottle-nose and humpback dolphins) are 544
numbers in 2021 rising from 233in 2020. Irrawaddy variety is 162 in 2021 which was
146 numbers in last year. The Rajnagar mangroves is housing humpback and
bottlenose dolphins 281 and 54 numbers of surged from only 02 and 23 numbers in
FY 2020 which are brackish water species..
Soils of coastal Odisha
The soils along south coast are saline, brackish, sandy, fluvial, aeolian or lacustrine.
From the Mahanadi to the Dhamara mouth, soil is depositional, estuarine that have
formed mudflats, creeks and swamps. The soils are either Aridisols (saline alkali soils
Fig 6 (a): The XRF Spectrometer (b) Devi R estuary (c ) The lagoon Chilika (d) The
Mahanadi delta
52 Siba Prasad Mishra, Kamal Kumar Barik, Sanjeeb Kumar Pattanaik
rich in Ca++, Mg++ & organic matter) or Entisols (Alluvium, deficient in nitrogen,
phosphoric acid and humus). The northern most coasts are sandy, silty, and muddy
with low wave energy.
The coastal wetlands are classified as the north coastal plain (within the Subarnarekha
to the Baitarani estuaries) with salt tolerant species of mangroves. The middle coastal
plain (northern) is from the Baitarani to the Devi estuary with dense mangroves, and
south coastal plains from Astarang to the Bahuda are of mangrove associates and
mixed forests. The buffer zones along Odisha coast are of three categories 0-05km,
05-10km and 10-15km (Fig 6 a-d).
Natural scenic geo-bio-hydro landscapes
Long term Sediment deposition by the rivers of Odisha has developed mudflats,
lagoons, lakes, salt pans, mangrove forests, swamp forests like Bhitarkanika, Hukitala
(bay), Atharbanki, Talasari, and the lagoons Chilika. The drainage channels allow
tidal backwaters that penetrate subterranean inlands has scenic geo-bio-hydro
landscapes along the coast (Table 2)
Table 2: The natural scenic geo-bio-hydro landscapes along the Odisha coast
# Natural
events
Item type District Location River/lake/Area
of mangroves
Exclusivity
1 Talseri–
daipur
Dagara beach
sandy
beach
Balasore 5km Digha
(South)
Subarnarekha
R.
mudflats/red
crabs
2 Subarnarekha Intertidal
mudflat
Balasore 500m wide
river mouth
Subarnrekha R.
(7.76km2)
Dune
vegetation
3 Chandipur Intertidal
mudflat
Balasore 1-4km
beach
Budhabalnga R.
(1.35km2)
rare horse-shoe
& more Red
Crabs
4 Karanjamal dense
mangrove
Bhadrak North of
Dhamara
Kasia river
(29.35km2)
Jetti,
aquaculture,
salt pans,
horseshoe
crabs
5 Barunei Beach/
mangrove
Kendrapada South of
Gahiramatha
Hansua R; dists.
of Bramhani
dense
mangrove;
Olive Ridley
nests
6 Bhitar kanika Mangrove
/creek
Rajnagar/
Kendrapada
Rajkanika &
Rajnagar
Gupti R. mouth
(149.87km2)
Mangrooves,
Hental forest,
crocodiles
7 Jambu
Dweep
sand bar,
mangroves
K-drapada Within
Hukitola
Gobari R., isty.
Mahanadi R.
halophytes,
dense
The Vulnerability and Management to the Blue Carbon Ecosystem: Coastal Odisha 53
# Natural
events
Item type District Location River/lake/Area
of mangroves
Exclusivity
Bay mangroves;
finfishes
8 Paradip;
Bhitar
Kharinasi
Estuarine, J-singhpur Mahanadi
mouth
Atharbanki
51.24km2
mangrove,
swamps, creeks
9 Nuagaon
Mankada
Khia
Erosion;
beach,
Bandar
lagoon
J-singhpur Devi River
mouth
(3.46km2)
Jatadhar lateral
channel,
swamps
Turtle nesting,
beach,
mangrove,
mudflats
10 Balukhanda
–
Ramachandi
beach
&dunes
Puri K-bhadra
estuary
Lateral channel
( Ramachandi)
Turtles; crabs;
Deer sanctuary,
casuarina,
11 Sar & Samag lost lakes
& swamps
Puri Bhargovi R.
branches
lakes converted
swamps
Encroachment,
paddy farms
12 Chilika Lagoon;
swamps
Puri Daya R.
estuary
Lateral channel,
beach/ dunes
Lagoons;
swamps; guest
birds ; Dolphin;
13 Huma/Ganja
Beach
saltpan;
spits;
swamp,
lakes
Ganjam R-kulya
estuary,
Lateralchannels;
lake Tampara
Tortoise nests;
Salt pan,
dunes; fishing
14 Gopalpur Backwater Ganjam South of R.
Rushikulya
Lateral channel,
golden beach
Haripur creek;
Coral boulders
15 Bahuda Estuary Ganjam Bahuda R. Lateral channel ichthyofaunal
diver.
Source modified: Ravisankar et al 2004[8], Saravanan et al.,2013[35], Behera et al
2013[36],National Wetland Atlas[5], 2010
Change in Climate:
The coasts enjoy savanna tropical climate vulnerable to BoB cyclones, floods,
droughts, heatwaves and coastal erosion. The mean normal optimal temperatures of
the coastal district are 26.80C and 13.90C, highest maximum reached 37.80C. Climate
allied extreme events are becoming increasingly severe in frequency and intense after
1990 onwards along Odisha coast, (Sahoo et al., 2020[37], UNISDR Report 1998–
2017[38] and IPCC 5th AR[39]). There is 100C difference in maximum temperatures
between western and coastal Odisha. The exotic mangrove species migrate to low
temperate zone in north even under 20C rise in temperature, Bennett, et al, 2020[40].
54 Siba Prasad Mishra, Kamal Kumar Barik, Sanjeeb Kumar Pattanaik
Fig 7: Coastal Changes: (a) The erosion of tidal inlet in Chilika (b) Sand ridge at
Sankreswar 5km from BoB near Puri (c) The join of Kharasrota & Brahmani R (d)
The submergence of mangroves during full tide.
Fresh water forests along Chilika coast was identified during pre-Holocene (13.5-
9.5KYBP) (Khandelwal et al., 2008[41]). Mangrove forests started along the
anastomosed drainage channels of Southern coast with transgression of the BoB,
(Ramasubramanian, et al., 2006[42]). The mangrove forestation along Chilika coast
was established from Pollen analysis, Radio carbon dating and soil core analysis
(9500YBP to 6500YBP) with partial loss during 3100-2250BP due to optimal
minimum RSLR (Farooqui et al., 200[431], Barui et al., 2011[44] and Gawali et al.,
2019[45]). (Fig 7a-d),
Rainfall Changes along coast:
The coastal Odisha receives 80% of SW monsoon rainfall (JJASO months). The
Odisha coast catches high rainfall w.r.t. interior Odisha due to positioning of ITCZ
and low pressure areas, trough lines, and cyclones. The Isohyet map of Odisha reports
that there is spatial variability of rainfall from south to north.
The Vulnerability and Management to the Blue Carbon Ecosystem: Coastal Odisha 55
Fig 8 District wise normal rainfall in Coastal Odisha
The average rainfall of the coastal districts are Ganjam (1306.3mm), Puri
(1535.7mm), Jagatsinghpur (1513.9mm), Khurdha (1455.2mm), Kendrapara
(1529.1mm), Bhadrak (1493.4mm), and Balasore (1748.3mm), which is gradually
increasing from south to north in 21st century (Fig 8).The trend in heavy rainfall days
are increasing in Balasore, Puri, and Khordha districts and decreasing trend in
Ganjam, J-Pur, and Bhadrak districts s (Mohapatra et al., 2003[46], Guhathakurta et al.,
2020[47]).
The slamming storms:
Present 549.50 km coastal stretch of Odisha (17% of India) had landfall by 97 CS
(1891-2020) out of 279 and 20 from (1970-2020) with increased frequency, and
intensity formed in BoB (Mishra. et al, 2020[24]). All storms have not identical
devastation but some major cyclones along Odisha from 1980-2020 are: (Table 4)
Table 4: Recorded major Severe Cyclonic storms that hit Odisha coast from 1980 to
2020
Year Date Place of fall Type Wind
speed
Deaths/damages Impact
Odisha
20th century major severe storms affected Odisha coast
1982 1-4th June PDP-CBL >SCS >109kmph 245died, heavy
loss
North
Odisha
56 Siba Prasad Mishra, Kamal Kumar Barik, Sanjeeb Kumar Pattanaik
1985 16th Oct Balasore >SCS >109kmph 84died, heavy loss North
Odisha
1989 23-27 May Balasore >VSCS >119kmph 24died, heavy loss North
Odisha
1995 7-10 Nov Gopalpur >SCS 111kmph 96died, heavy loss South
Odisha
1999 17 to 21Oct Gopalpur >VSCS 180kmph 147died, heavy
loss
South
Odisha
1999 29-30 Oct Paradip SC 300kmph 9885died, coast
lost
Central
Odisha
21st Century cyclonic storms
2013 12th Oct, Phailin Gopalpur ESCS 240kmph 44died, Heavy
loss
South
Odisha
2014 12th Oct Hudhud VSK ESCS 185kmph 02died, heavy loss South
Odisha
2018 21st Sept (Daye) Gopalpur CS 65-75kmph Heavy rain South
Odisha
2018 9th Oct (Titili) GPL -Palasa VSCS 150kmph 85died, landslide South
Odisha,
2019 3rd May (Fani) Puri ESCS 215kmph 89died, heavy loss EC & BD
2020 18th May,
Amphan
Bakkhal,
WB
VSCS 155kmph 128died; heavy
loss
Coastal
Odisha
Abbreviation: Depression(<49Kmph) Deep Depression <61Kmph), Cyclonic Storm (CS),
<88Kmph), Severe (SCS) ( <118Kmph) Very severe (VSCS) ( <167Kmph) Extremely Severe
(ESCS) ( 221Kmph),GPL: Gopalpur, BLS: Balasore, PRI, Puri, PDP: Paradip, CBL:
Chandabali, BDK: Bhadrak,,EC: East coast, WB: West Bengal, BD: Bangladesh
Source modified: wikipedia.org/wiki/, Chhitebabu et al, 2004[48], Mishra 2014[49],
2020[24]
Mangroves of Odisha had acted as natural blockade not only during super cyclone
(1999) but also saved the beach buffer zone during Amphan in 2020 but the mangrove
associates were shattered during the cyclones Phailin, Hudhud, Titili, & Fani etc..
X-Ray spectroscopic study
XRF spectroscopy is the technique of detecting major elemental particles having
wavelengths (λ) within the X-ray electromagnetic spectral range. It quantifies the
elements and compounds present in the solid or liquid study samples. The difference
in type of elements obtained within the buffer zone and peripheries of the
Bhitarkanika and the Chilika lagoon, it is expected that there must be some elemental
The Vulnerability and Management to the Blue Carbon Ecosystem: Coastal Odisha 57
concentration difference in the water qualities of the tidal water during high tides
Table 3.
Table 3: The elements found of the Chilika and Bhitarkanika tidal water from outskirt
of brackish waterbody.
Element Unit Sample
Chilika
Sample
B-knika
excess
/less(%)
Impact of various elementson
mangrove plants
Phosphorus(P) ppm 600.5 607.9
1.22
If P‐deficient: low leaf water potential,
stomatal conductance, photosynthetic
C-assimilation rates, & less conductive
xylem,
Sulphur (S) ppm 229.1 409.7 44.08 S- oxidizing bacteria in Bhitarkanika
Chlorine ion (Cl-) % 0.210 0.838 74.94 Essential for mangrove growth;
Salinity better ranges 3-27ppt, Fellor
C., Smithsonian Bromine (Br-) ppm 5.3 24.5 78.37
Calcium(Ca) ppm 249.1 363.0 31.38 K+, Ca++ and Mg++ are the primary
productivity Potassium (K) ppm trace 170.2
Iron (Fe) ppm 21.0 9.8 -114.29
Less FeS2 in B-kanika & high in
Chilika
Stannum (Sn) ppm 55.3 54.6 -1.28 The role of heavy metals on mangrove
growth are scanty in literature and
need further research Europium (Eu) ppm 00.7 27.5 97.45
Erbium (Er) ppm 64.0 Nil
Silicon (Si) ppm 420.9 208.3
Gadolinium (Gd) ppm Nil 30.9
Terbium (Tb) ppm Nil 34.0
Source: Lovelock et al., 2006[50] and 2009[51]; Jian et al., 2017[52], Cohen et al, 1999[53],
Nitrates and Phosphates are essential for mangrove growth. P and Fe are limiting
whereas S is important element for the biogeochemical cycle. Sediments in mangrove
areas are ordinarily anaerobic, with organic matter (OM), iron sulphides (FeS2), and
sulphate ions, are common. Iron dissolved in water. They limit initial growth of
mangroves in estuarine environment (Hinokidani et al., 2019[54]). Sulphur oxidising
bacteria’s like photoautotrophs, heterotrophs and chemolithotrophs are the key driving
dynamism of the mangrove biome to oxidize the sulphides (toxic) formed by sulphur
reducing bacteria for Sulphur transformations (Behera et al., 2013[55]). Mangroves
cannot grow, as freshwater is the physiographic need for mangroves whereas salinity
(Cl-), is an ecological requirement (Wang et al., 2011[56])
58 Siba Prasad Mishra, Kamal Kumar Barik, Sanjeeb Kumar Pattanaik
RSLR fluctuations
Fig 6: Holocene sea level changes along east coast India. (Modified after: Loveson et
al 2015 [57]).
The Odisha coast is affected by Indian summer monsoon (ISM) due to positioning of
Inter Tropical convergence zone (ITCZ), El-Niño southerly Oscillation (ENSO),
Indian Ocean dipole (IOD). Speleothem records and proxies from nearby Gupteswar
caves, Koraput, reveal about variation in rainfall events in last 2000KYBP (Yadav et
al., 2006[58]). From 1950-1550YBP there was excess rainfall under favourable ISM
and were weak from 1550-1300YBP with less rainfall. Later 1300 to 800YBP, Odisha
coast witnessed strong monsoon and very high rainfall. Later during Little Ice Age
(LIA) (700-200YBP), the rainfall was scanty. There was regression of coast seawards
with loss of coastal vegetation. For last 150 years (1850-1920AD) there was weak
rainfall when Odisha faced two spells of major famines. From 1920 to 1990 the ISM
was steady, but from 1990 to 1996AD, the ISM was very weak. The SW monsoon has
been active after and revival of ISM in 21st century, (Guhathakurta et al 2008[47],
Naidu et al, 2020[30], Banerjee et al., 2020[17]) (Fig 6).
Arid episodes have been established during 1500YBP, 1100 YBP, 850YBP, 500YBP,
and 130YBP. The ISM is projected to repeat to be strong in future consequent upon
global warming. Later there was increase of Indian Summer Monsoon (ISM), during
≈ 6400 to 5300YBP and 3300-3000 YBP (IPCC AR-4[59], Gawali et al.,2019[45],
Loveson et al 2020[57], Baneerji et al 2020[17], Achyutan et al., 2014[60]).
The Vulnerability and Management to the Blue Carbon Ecosystem: Coastal Odisha 59
The Proxies of retreating coast:
The Chilika lagoon was a vast estuarine low land till early Holocene. The pollen
records/carbon dating of the soil cores along coastal creeks (Buxi Kania, East Kania,
Bali jore, Puhani jore, Mishra Bagicha, Musa nai and Sunamunhi R.) was with
mangrove forests but since last 300 to 500YBP were converted to mix inland forests.
(Khandelwal, et al 2008[41]). The 2nd barrier spit is parallel to present OC coast (at
≈3-5km) connected by Dahikhia channel, are 500yrs old found from radio carbon
dating of core sample data at Satapada the penultimate strandline. The delineation of
ancient shoreline at Chandbali in Brahmani-Baitarni delta was found to be formed
during the last global rise of MSL during 6.0KYBP. (Mallick el al., 1972[61], Niyogi
(1971)[62].
The east coast of north Odisha has protruded ≈30–35 km seawards during Holocene.
The present Balasore town was within sea then, (Kunte et al., 2006[63], Barman et al,
2015[64]). The monuments like Bhabakundaleswar temple (Chilika), Harachandi
temple (Brahmagiri), Jagannath temple (Puri), Ramachandi temple, Konark temple
along south Odisha coast were of 1000YBP old and legend say, they were on the
shore line over sand dunes. But within last millennium the shore line has retreated by
2 to 3km from those temples which indicate transgression of BoB seawards.
Prediction coastal inundation:
Climate central has predicted sea level rise (SLR) and prepared future coastal
inundation maps using Coastal DEM model. The Regional SLR shall be about 0.6m
to 2.1m along Odisha coast as per their prediction (Fig 7).The central and the north
Odisha shall be worst affected to 21st century in long stretches of low lying buffer
zone. The present ecosystems shall be partly or permanently inundated like Chandipur
beach, Bhitarkanika, Gahiramatha, coastal Islands (Kanika, and APJA Kalam ),
Ekakula spit, Hukitala area, Balukhand Biota, Ramchandi beach, and NW swamps of
the Chilika lagoon.
Fig 7: Coastal Inundation map of coastal Odisha till 2050 (Modified after: Climate
modified: central, USA)
60 Siba Prasad Mishra, Kamal Kumar Barik, Sanjeeb Kumar Pattanaik
The coastline of Puri, Bhadrak and Balasore district is under accretion where coastline
/beach is developing and face less inundation if present natural processes continue.
The northern coast of Puri and coast line of Jagatsinghpur from the Kushabhadra to
the Dhamara estuaries shall be under high erosion. There shall have mixed effects
along Ganjam, and southern Puri coast https://www.climatecentral.org/news/report-
flooded-future-global-vulnerability-to-sea-level-rise-worse-than-previously-
understood (Fig 7)
Coastal features
The pollen grains and radio carbon dating data from Solari hills and soil cores from
Chilika reveals about presence of dense mangrove forests till little Ice age. There was
radical waning in those mangrove forests during 750 to 600YBP and concurrent surge
in fresh water taxa due to recession in RSLR along Chilika coast Khandelwal et al.,
2008[41], Kohli et. al., 2018[65] (Fig 8a-c).
(a)
(b)
(c)
Fig 8: North odisha: (a) Talasari Udayapur, (b) Chandipur sea beach, (c) Bhitarkanika
mangroves
The Vulnerability and Management to the Blue Carbon Ecosystem: Coastal Odisha 61
Dynamism and evolution of Ekakula spit (Hukitala bay)
Hukitala Bay is back of Jambu Island in Kendrapara and Ekakula spit is land stretch
used as connectivity during low tides that shifts the Maipura river mouth. The barrier
spit had increased by 2710m from 1970-2008 whereas washed out by 2431m during
2009 with variation of tidal height ranging from 1.098 (2000) to 1.9m (2005) Murali
et al., 2013[27]. A small restricted lagoon is under formation near the Devi R. mouth of
depth 1 to 10m between Bandar and Boruan (Ravisankar et al. 2004[8]) as immediate
impact of loss of barrier spit of Hukitala.
Fig 9: The changes in the Ekakula barrier spit of the Hukitala Bay of the Mahanadi
Estuary (Google)
Discussion:
The losses to the coast and salinity ingress are the major threat to the coastal buffer
zone. The sea is transgressing land ward during high tides and intensified storms
passing. The influx of saline water has made the fresh water aquifers vulnerable and
makes it unfit portability.
MAPs (Management Action Plans) is initiated from 2000-01 to conserve the coastal
forests at seven locations, like the Chilika, Balukhand, Hukitala area, Bhitarkanika,
Devi-Kadua mixed mangroves, Dhamara and Subarnarekha estuaries under ICZM
projects (CRZ-I -1991).
Some coastal forest areas were encroached illegally for unsustainable use like prawn
gherries, aquaculture ponds, new un-surveyed islands/mudflats etc. The areas after
eviction must be retrieved with flora and faunal biodiversity and preserve the coastal
resources. Invoking of alternate livelihood for coast users and rising proper
awareness, among the coast dwellers is needed.
From 6000YBP, the mangrove forests continued up to 1400YBP but started declining
during LIA period and substituted by inland and bordering vegetation as confirmed
from pollen grain analysis of Solari hill of Eastern Ghats belt (EGB) area, (Kohali D
62 Siba Prasad Mishra, Kamal Kumar Barik, Sanjeeb Kumar Pattanaik
et al., 2019[65], Khanedelwal et al 2008[41]).Gradually the aridity, human activities and
agriculture substituted the mangrove associates by local vegetation.
The SWOT analysis
Fig 10: The SWOT analysis of the vulnerability and loss of mangroves along
Odisha coast
SWOT Analysis, a simple tool to analyze organizational strength, weakness/flaws,
opportunities, and the threats. On compilation and analysis of the facts and figures
responsible for sustainability alternations in the coastal buffer zone, the
meteorological, sun-earth geometry and anthropogenic stresses are the major grounds
are in (Fig 10).
The strategic planning:
The natural forcing along with anthropogenic developments like ports, Jetties, and sea
SWOT Analysis
Strength:
Mangrove Plantation
• Fishing & Aquaculture
Time tested adaptations
Mass livelyhood
• Eco-Tourism
• PlantationsWeakness
Storm Surges
Shore advanced inland
• Flood & Tidal Inundations
Salinity ingress, Regional Sea Level R, Public awarenessise
• Coastal erosion, • Migration of Sand dunes. • Popln. Pres. & LU change, • Coastal encroachments
• Loss of Mangroves
• Loss of Habitat &
Bio-DiversityOppertunities
Coastal afforestation
Climate Change, Drinking water facilities
More saline embankments
Hazard warning, Public awareness, More Cyclone centers,
Sea walls (Geo tubes, gabions, Geofilters)
Threats
Climate anomalies
RSLR,Floods
Over expection of stakeholders
Unstable coast
Coastline loss
Vegetation loss
Salinity intrusion
Lateral channel formation
The Vulnerability and Management to the Blue Carbon Ecosystem: Coastal Odisha 63
walls along the coast, and development of tourism are major responsible attributes to
demolish the mangrove flora and fauna. Development of townships (Berhampur to
Balasore) also causes huge vegetation loss along the coastal buffer zone. CRZ
regulations are the only priorities for future prospect.
The MAP should assess impact of vulnerability and to impart the appropriate
ameliorating measures by prioritizing the short term, infrastructural and long term soft
SOP’s. Acceptable economic action plans are to be implemented by PPP (public–
private partnership) mode for the coastal sustenance. GIS/RS based LU/LC maps are
to be reserved for future. Exact identification and valuation of vulnerability of
disasters (floods, droughts and high waves, storm surges) well in advance and create
awareness among the affected community is to be planned. It is essential to identify
the key persons, preparedness, prevention and mobilization of resources to have
proper rehabilitation, renovation and developmental reconstruction.
Some salt tolerant specific plants are to be encouraged. The casuarina, Babul (Acacia
nilotica) and coconut trees are proved less resisting to gusty wind during cyclone.
Location with prop roots like Kia-Ketaki, Karanja, Neem, Baula, Korila,
Jamu,Chatian, Arjun, Khaira, Mahyoni, , Harida, Bahada, Ashok, Shisu, and Dimiri
(Local names) are to be planted in buffer zone (distance wise) from the coast line,
topography, existence of creeks and mud flats (Das et al., 2014[66], The Hindu, 19th
may 2019).
The wise use of wetlands for future policy decisions, capacity networks, and
technology transfer can be maintained as per Ramsar Convention. The sustainable
coastal ecosystem can be possible by avoiding tidal inlet or creek dredging, sand
mining, anthropogenic exploitation, its flora, and fauna. The hard measures are geo-
synthetic and concrete sea walls, groins. Allow the nature to protect its own resources.
The coastal mangroves can be saved by recouping its lost vegetation by sorting
coastal features like beach, sand dunes, islands, spits, barrier islands by planting salt
and storm resistant local plantations, The mud flats, back water inundated areas,
slushy soil, mangrove swamps, and estuaries, to be afforested by mangroves or its
associates. The salt pans in the Dhamra R., Bhadrak mouth and Huma in Ganjam are
to be suitably planted, along with the northern coast and west banks of Chilika, Bhatt
et al., 2011[67].
The projected sea level rise can enhance and accumulate carbon gains ranging from
0.16-0.46 Tg C and have prospect for upcoming refurbishment to augment blue
carbon (Duarte et al 2021).
Regular data mining and analysis are also essential. The field survey, strategic
planning has become pertinent to build records. GIS database approaches are best for
the integrated coastal management with effectual governance. Safeguard of the
coastal resources and creating awareness among local villagers for conserving
biodiversity of the wetland ecosystems is obligatory. The afforestation of casuarina
and acacia needs to be disheartened but salt tolerant mixed vegetation needs
prioritization.
64 Siba Prasad Mishra, Kamal Kumar Barik, Sanjeeb Kumar Pattanaik
Conclusion:
The loss of coasts, forests, wetlands, and the genetic pool is leading to environmental
and ecological teething troubles. The causes are shore line vicissitudes, sand
bar/barrier spits creation, littoral drift, sand mining. Less sediment influx from inland
drainages have impact on the socio-economic paybacks to its stake holders. Loss of
coastal fabric due to natural/ anthropogenic stresses have bearings on agriculture,
salinity ingress, aqua culture, vegetation and stake holder’s revenue source.
Wetland ecosystems are fragile but interactive, confined within the coastal buffer
zone. The unplanned sprawls of towns and rising settlements have occupied the
wetlands. Well planned management of wetlands in coastal areas, flourishing of the
coastal forest are to be encouraged confirming the provisions of CRZ plan of 1991of
GOI. There is necessity to have management plans by creating data base, capacity
building, weed control, upgrading eco-tourism, defense to marine species along the
coast.
Abbreviations:
MoEF&CC: Ministry of Environment, Forest & Climate Change Government of
India; YBP: Years before present; BoB: Bay of Bengal; EC: East coast; GoI:
Government of India; GoO: Government of Odisha, IMD: India Meteorological
Department; NCSCM: National Centre for Sustainable Coastal Management; NRSA:
The National Remote Sensing Agency NCCR: National Centre for Coastal Research,
Chennai; CPDAC: Coastal Protection and Development. Advisory Committee;
NRSA: National Remote Sensing Agency; RSLR: Regional sea level rise; NASC:
National Assessment of Shoreline changes; JS-Pur: Jagatsinghpur Dist.; K-Bhadra:
Kushabhadra River, S-rekha: Subarnarekha River; EGB: Eastern Ghats Belt. XRF:
X-Ray fluorescent spectrometer
Acknowledgement:
My sincere gratitude to the W.R. Department of Odisha, Mr K C Sethi and Dr. Siba
Prasad Parida, other allied Departments and persons for use of their publications for
the study.
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