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MediaTHESEVENGREATMONARCHIES
OFTHE
ANCIENTEASTERNWORLD;
OR,
THEHISTORY,
GEOGRAPHY,
AND
ANTIQUITIES
OF
CHALDAEA,
ASSYRIA
BABYLON,MEDIA,PERSIA,PARTHIA,ANDSASSANIAN,
ORNEWPERSIANEMPIRE.
BYGEORGERAWLINSON,M.A.,
CAMDENPROFESSOROFANCIENTHISTORYINTHEUNIVERSITYOFOXFORD
INTHREEVOLUMES.
VOLUMEII.
WITHMAPSANDILLUSTRATIONS
CONTENTSCHAPTERI. DESCRIPTIONOFTHECOUNTRY.CHAPTERII. CLIMATEANDPRODUCTIONS.CHAPTERIII. CHARACTER,MANNERSANDCUSTOMS.CHAPTERIV. RELIGION.CHAPTERV. LANGUAGEANDWRITING.CHAPTERVI. CHRONOLOGYANDHISTORY.
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ListofIllustrationsMap
PlateI.
PlateII.
PlateIII.
PlateIV.
PlateV.
PlateVI.
PlateVII.
THETHIRDMONARCHY.
MEDIA.
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CHAPTERI.DESCRIPTIONOFTHECOUNTRY.Along
the
eastern
flank
of
the
great
Mesopotamian
lowland,
curving
round
it
on
the
northand stretching beyond it to the south and the southeast, lies a vast elevated region, o
highland,noportionofwhichappears tobe less than3000 feetabove the sealevel.Th
regionmaybedivided,broadly,intotwotracts,oneconsistingofloftymountainousridges
which form itsoutskirtson thenorthandon thewest; theother, in themainahigh fla
tableland,extendingfromthefootofthemountainchains,southwardtotheIndianOcean
andeastwardtothecountryoftheAfghans.Thewesternmountaincountryconsists,asha
been alreadyobserved,of sixor sevenparallel ridges,having adirectionnearly from th
northwest to the southeast, enclosingbetween them, valleysof great fertility, andwe
wateredby
alarge
number
of
plentiful
and
refreshing
streams.
This
district
was
known
t
the ancients as Zagros,while inmodern geography it bears the names of Kurdistan an
Luristan.Ithasalwaysbeeninhabitedbyamultitudeofwarliketribes,andhasrarelyforme
forany longperiodaportionofanysettledmonarchy.Fulloftorrents,ofdeepravines,o
rockysummits,abruptandalmostinaccessible;containingbutfewpasses,andthosenarrow
and easily defensible; secure, moreover, owing to the rigor of its climate, from hostil
invasionduringmore thanhalf theyear; ithasdefiedallattempts toeffect itspermanen
subjugation,whethermadebyAssyrians,Persians,Greeks,Parthians,orTurks,andremain
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Mediato this day as independent of the great powers in its neighborhood as itwaswhen th
Assyrianarmies firstpenetrated its recesses.Natureseems tohaveconstructed it tobe
nurseryofhardyandvigorousmen,astumblingblocktoconquerors,athorn inthesideo
everypowerfulempirewhicharisesinthispartofthegreateasterncontinent.
Thenorthernmountaincountryknown tomoderngeographersasEiburzisa tracto
far less importance. It is not composed, like Zagros, of a number of parallel chains, bu
consistsofasingleloftyridge,furrowedbyravinesandvalleys,fromwhichspursarethrow
out,runningingeneralatrightanglestoitsaxis.Itswidthiscomparativelyslight;andinstea
ofgivingbirthtonumerouslargerivers,itformsonlyasmallnumberofinsignificantstreams
oftendry insummer,whichhaveshortcourses,beingsoonabsorbedeitherbytheCaspia
ortheDesert.ItsmoststrikingfeatureisthesnowypeakofDemavend,whichimpendsove
Teheran,andappearstobethehighestsummitinthepartofAsiawestoftheHimalayas.
Theelevatedplateauwhichstretchesfromthefootofthosetwomountainregionstoth
southandeastis,forthemostpart,aflatsandydesert,incapableofsustainingmorethan
sparse and scantypopulation. Thenorthern andwesternportions are,however, less ari
thantheeastandsouth,beingwateredtosomedistancebythestreamsthatdescendfrom
ZagrosandElburz,andderivingfertilityalsofromthespringrains.Someoftheriverswhic
flowfromZagrosonthissidearelargeandstrong.One,theKizilUzen,reachestheCaspian
Another,theZenderud,fertilizesalargedistrictnearIsfahan.Athird,theBendamir,flowsb
Persepolis and terminates in a sheetofwaterof some sizelake Bakhtigan.A tract thu
intervenesbetweenthemountainregionsandthedesertwhich,thoughitcannotbecalle
fertile, isfairlyproductive,andcansupporta largesettledpopulation.Thisformsthechie
portionof
the
region
which
the
ancients
called
Media,
as
being
the
country
inhabited
by
th
raceonwhosehistoryweareabouttoenter.
Media,however,included,besidesthis,anothertractofconsiderablesizeandimportance
At thenorthwesternangleof the regionabovedescribed, in the cornerwhence the tw
greatchainsbranchouttothesouthandtotheeast,isatractcomposedalmostentirelyo
mountains,whichtheGreekscalledAtropatene,andwhichisnowknownasAzerbijan.Th
districtliesfurthertothenorththantherestofMedia,beinginthesameparallelswithth
lowerpartoftheCaspianSea.ItcomprisestheentirebasinofLakeUrumiyeh,togetherwit
thecountry
intervening
between
that
basin
and
the
high
mountain
chain
which
curves
roun
the southwestern corner of the Caspian, It is a region generally somewhat sterile, bu
containing a certain quantity of very, fertile territory,more particularly in theUrumiye
basin,andtowardsthemouthoftheriverAraxes.
The boundaries ofMedia are given somewhat differently by different writers, and n
doubt theyactuallyvariedatdifferentperiods;but thevariationswerenotgreat,and th
naturallimits,onthreesidesatanyrate,maybelaiddownwithtolerableprecision.Toward
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MediathenorththeboundarywasatfirstthemountainchainclosinginonthatsidetheUrumiye
basin, afterwhich it seems to have been held that the true limitwas the Araxes, to it
entranceonthe lowcountry,andthenthemountainchainwestandsouthoftheCaspian
Westward, the lineofdemarcationmaybebest regarded as, towards the south, runnin
alongthecentreoftheZagrosregion;and,abovethis,asformedbythatcontinuationofth
ZagroschainwhichseparatestheUrumiyehfromtheVanbasin.Eastward,theboundarywa
markedby
the
spur
from
the
Elburz,
across
which
lay
the
pass
known
as
the
Pylse
Caspise
andbelowthisbythegreatsaltdesert,whosewesternlimitisnearlyinthesamelongitude
Towards thesouththerewasnomarked lineornaturalboundary;and it isdifficulttosa
with anyexactnesshowmuchof thegreatplateaubelonged toMedia andhowmuch t
Persia.Havingregard,however,tothesituationofHamadan,which,asthecapital,shoul
havebeen tolerablycentral,and to thegeneralaccountwhichhistoriansandgeographer
giveofthesizeofMedia,wemayplacethesouthernlimitwithmuchprobabilityaboutth
lineof the thirtysecondparallel,which isnearly thepresentboundarybetween Irak an
Fars.
TheshapeofMediahasbeencalledasquare;butitisratheralongparallelogram,whos
twoprincipalsides face respectively thenortheastand thesouthwest,while theendso
shortersidesfronttothesoutheastandtothenorthwest.Itslengthinitsgreaterdirectio
isabout600miles,anditswidthabout250miles.Itmustthuscontainnearly150,000squar
miles,anareaconsiderablylargerthanthatofAssyriaandChaldaeaputtogether,andquit
sufficient to constitute a state of the first class, even according to the ideas ofmoder
Europe.ItisnearlyonefifthmorethantheareaoftheBritishIslands,andhalfasmuchagai
asthatofPrussia,orofpeninsularItaly. ItequalsthreefourthsofFrance,orthreefifthso
Germany.It
has,
moreover,
the
great
advantage
of
compactness,
forming
asingle
solid
mass
withnostragglingoroutlyingportions;and it isstronglydefendedonalmosteverysideb
naturalbarriersofferinggreatdifficultiestoaninvader.
Incomparisonwiththecountrieswhichformedtheseatsofthetwomonarchiesalread
described,thegeneralcharacteroftheMedianterritoryisundoubtedlyoneofsterility.Th
hightablelandiseverywhereintersectedbyrockyranges,spursfromZagros,whichhave
general direction fromwest to east, and separate the country into a number of paralle
broadvalleys,orlongplains,openingoutintothedesert.Theappearanceoftheserangesi
almosteverywhere
bare,
arid,
and
forbidding.
Above,
they
present
to
the
eye
huge
masse
ofgrayrockpiledoneuponanother;below,aslopeofdetritus,destituteoftreesorshrubs
andonlyoccasionallynourishingadryandscantyherbage.Theappearanceoftheplains i
littlesuperior;theyareflatandwithoutundulations,composedingeneralofgravelorhar
clay,andrarelyenlivenedbyanyshowofwater;exceptfortwomonths inthespring,the
exhibittotheeyeauniformbrownexpanse,almosttreeless,which impressesthetravelle
with a feelingof sadnessandweariness.Even inAzerbijan,which isoneof the leastari
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Mediaportionsoftheterritory,vasttracksconsistofopenundulatingdowns,desolateandsterile
bearingonlyacoarsewitheredgrassandafewstuntedbushes.
Still thereareconsiderableexceptions to thisgeneralaspectofdesolation. In thewors
partsoftheregionthereisatimeafterthespringrainswhennatureputsonaholidaydress
andthecountrybecomesgayandcheerful.Theslopesatthebaseoftherockyrangesar
tingedwith an emerald green: a richer vegetation springs up over the plains,which ar
coveredwitha fineherbageorwithavarietyofcrops; the fruit treeswhichsurround th
villagesburstout into themost luxuriantblossom; the roses come intobloom, and the
perfumeeverywherefillstheair.ForthetwomonthsofAprilandMaythewholefaceofth
countryischanged,andalovelyverdurereplacestheordinarydullsterility.
Inacertainnumberofmorefavoredspotsbeautyandfertilityarefoundduringnearlyth
wholeoftheyear.AllroundtheshoresofLakeUrumiyeh,moreespeciallyintherichplaino
Miyandab at its southernextremity, along the valleysof theAras, theKiziluzen, and th
Jaghetu,inthegreatvalleyofLinjan,fertilizedbyirrigationfromtheZenderud,intheZagro
valleys, and in variousotherplaces, there is anexcellent soilwhichproduces abundantl
withveryslightcultivation.
ThegeneralsterilityofMediaarisesfromthescantinessofthewatersupply.Ithasbutfew
rivers,andthestreamsthat itpossessesrun forthemostpart indeepandnarrowvalley
sunkbelowthegeneral levelofthecountry,sothattheycannotbeappliedatallwidelyt
purposesofirrigation.Moreover,someofthemare,unfortunately,impregnatedwithsaltt
such an extent that they are altogether useless for this purpose; and indeed, instead o
fertilizing,spreadaroundthemdesolationandbarrenness.TheonlyMedianstreamswhic
areofsufficientimportancetorequiredescriptionaretheAras,theKizilUzen,theJaghetu
theAjiSuandtheZenderud,orriverofIsfahan.
The Aras is only very partially a Median stream. It rises from several sources in th
mountain tract between Kars and Erzeroum, and runswith a generally eastern directio
throughArmeniatothelongitudeofMountArarat,whereitcrossesthefortiethparallelan
begins to trend southward, flowing along the eastern side of Ararat in a southeasterl
direction,nearlytotheJulfaferryonthehighroadfromErivantoTabriz.Fromthispoint
runsonlya littlesouthofeastto long.4630'E.fromGreenwich,when itmakesalmost
rightangleandrunsdirectlynortheasttoitsjunctionwiththeKuratDjavat.Soonafterth
itcurvestothesouth,andenterstheCaspianbyseveralmouths in lat.3910'nearly.Th
Arasisaconsiderablestreamalmostfromitssource.AtHassanKaleh,lessthantwentymile
from Erzeroum,where the river is forded in several branches, thewater reaches to th
saddlegirths.AtKeupriKieui,notmuch lower, thestream iscrossedbyabridgeofseve
arches.At the Julfa ferry it is fiftyyardswide,and runswithastrongcurrent.AtMegree
thirtymilesfurtherdown, itswidth iseightyyards. Inspringandearlysummerthestream
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Mediato deserve any special notice. One of these is Ehagiana, or the tract skirting the Elbur
MountainsfromthevicinityoftheKizilUzen(orSefidEud)totheCaspianGates,alongan
narrowslip,fairlyproductive,butexcessivelyhotinsummer,whichtookitsnamefromth
importantcityofRhages.AnotherisNissea,anamewhichtheMedesseemtohavecarrie
withthemfromtheirearlyeasternabodes,andtohaveappliedtosomehighuplandplain
westofthemainchainofZagros,whichwerepeculiarlyfavorabletothebreedingofhorses
AsAlexander
visited
these
pastures
on
his
way
from
Susa
to
Ecbatana,
they
must
necessaril
have lain to the southof the lattercity.Mostprobably theyare tobe identifiedwith th
modernplainsofKbawahandAlishtar,betweenBehistunandKhorramabad,whichareeve
nowconsideredtoaffordthebestsummerpasturageinPersia.
ItisuncertainwhetheranyofthesedivisionswereknowninthetimeofthegreatMedia
Empire.Theyarenot constituted inany casebymarkednatural linesor features.On th
wholeitisperhapsmostprobablethatthemaindivisionthatintoMediaMagnaandMedi
Atropatenewasancient,AstropatenebeingtheoldhomeoftheMedes,andMediaMagn
alater
conquest;
but
the
early
political
geography
of
the
country
is
too
obscure
to
justify
u
inlayingdowneventhisascertain.Theminorpoliticaldivisionsarestilllessdistinguishabl
inthedarknessofthoseancienttimes.
From the consideration of the districtswhich composed theMedian territory,wema
pass to that of their principal cities, some of which deservedly obtained a very grea
celebrity. Tho most important of all were the two Ecbatanasthe northern and th
southernwhich seem to have stood respectively in the position of metropolis to th
northern and the southern province. Next to these may be named Rhages, which wa
probablyfrom
early
times
avery
considerable
place;
while
in
the
third
rank
may
b
mentionedBagistanratherperhapsapalace thana townConcobar,Adrapan,Aspadan
Charax,Kudrus,Hyspaostes,Urakagabarna,etc.
ThesouthernEcbatanaorAgbatanawhichtheMedesandPersiansthemselvesknewa
Hagmatanwassituated,aswe learnfromPolybiusandDiodorus,onaplanatthefooto
Mont Orontes, a little to the east of the Zagros range. The notices of these authors
combinedwiththoseofEratosthenes, Isidore,Pliny,Arrian,andothers,render itasnearl
certain aspossible that the sitewas thatof themodern townofHamadan, thenameo
whichis
clearly
but
aslight
corruption
of
the
true
ancient
appellation.
[PLATE
I.,
Fig.
2
MountOrontesistoberecognizedinthemodernElwendorErwendawordetymologicall
identicalwithOronteswhich is a long and loftymountains standing out like a buttres
from theZagros range,withwhich it isconnected towards thenorthwest,whileonever
othersideitstandsisolated,sweepingboldlydownupontheflatcountryatitsbase.Copiou
streams descend from the mountain on every side, more particularly to the northeast
wheretheplainiscoveredwithacarpetofthemostluxuriantverdure,diversifiedwithrills
andornamentedwithnumerousgrovesof largeandhandsome forest trees. It ishere,o
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groundslopingslightlyawayfromtherootsofthemountain,thatthemoderntown,whic
liesdirectlyatitsfoot,isbuilt.Theancientcity,ifwemaybelieveDiodorus,didnotapproac
themountainwithinamileoramileandahalf.Atanyrate,ifitbeganwhereHamadannow
stands, itmostcertainlyextendedverymuch further into theplain.Weneednotsuppos
indeed that it had the circumference, or even half the circumference,which the Sicilia
romancerassignstoit,sincehistwohundredandfiftystadeswouldgiveaprobableareao
fiftysquare
miles,
more
than
double
that
of
London!
Ecbatana
is
not
likely
to
have
been
at
it
mostflourishingperioda largercitythanNineveh;andwehavealreadyseenthatNineve
coveredaspace,withinthewalls,ofnotmorethan1800Englishacres.
Thecharacterofthecityandofitschiefedificeshas,unfortunately,tobegatheredalmos
entirelyfromunsatisfactoryauthorities.Hithertoithasbeenfoundpossibleinthesevolume
to check and correct the statements of ancient writers, which are almost alway
exaggerated,by
an
appeal
to
the
incontrovertible
evidence
of
modern
surveys
an
explorations. But theMedian capital has never yet attracted a scientific expedition. Th
travellersbywhomithasbeenvisitedhavereportedsounfavorablyofitscharacterasafiel
ofantiquarianresearchthatscarcelyaspadefulofsoilhasbeendug,eitherinthecityori
itsvicinity,withaview to recover tracesof theancientbuildings.Scarcelyany remainso
antiquityareapparent.As the sitehasneverbeendeserted,and the townhas thusbee
subjectedfornearlytwentytwocenturiestothedestructiveravagesofforeignconquerors
and the stillmore injuriousplunderingsofnativebuilders,anxious toobtainmaterials fo
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Medianewedificesatthe leastpossiblecostandtrouble,theancientstructureshaveeverywher
disappearedfromsight,andarenotevenindicatedbymoundsofasufficientsizetoattrac
theattentionofcommonobservers.Scientificexplorershave consequentlybeendeterre
fromturningtheirenergiesinthisdirection;morepromisingsiteshaveofferedandstilloffe
themselves;anditisasyetuncertainwhethertheplanoftheoldtownmightnotbetrace
andthepositionof itschiefedificesfixedbythemeansofcarefulresearchesconductedb
fullycompetent
persons.
In
this
dearth
of
modern
materials
we
have
to
depend
entirel
upontheclassicalwriters,whoarerarelytrustworthyintheirdescriptionsormeasurements
andwho,inthisinstance,laborunderthepeculiardisadvantageofbeingmerereporterso
theaccountsgivenbyothers.
Ecbatanawaschieflycelebratedforthemagnificenceofitspalace,astructureascribedb
DiodorustoSemiramis,butmostprobablyconstructedoriginallybyCyaxares,andimproved
enlarged,andembellishedby theAchaemenianmonarchs.According to thejudiciousan
moderatePolybius,whoprefaceshisaccountbyaprotestagainstexaggerationandover
coloring,the
circumference
of
the
building
was
seven
stades,
or
1420
yards,
somewhat
mor
thanfourfifthsofanEnglishmile.Thissize,whichalittleexceedsthatofthepalacemoun
atSusa,whileitisinitsturnalittleexceededbythepalatialplatformatPersepolis,maywe
beacceptedasprobablyclosetothetruth.Judging,however,fromtheanalogyoftheabove
mentionedpalaces,wemustconcludethattheareathusassignedtotheroyalresidencewa
farfrombeingentirelycoveredwithbuildings.Onehalfofthespace,perhapsmore,woul
be occupied by large open courts, paved probablywithmarble, surrounding the variou
blocksofbuildingsandseparatingthemfromoneanother.Thebuildingsthemselvesmayb
conjecturedtohaveresembledthoseoftheAchaemenianmonarchsatSusaandPersepolis
withthe
exception,
apparently,
that
the
pillars,
which
formed
their
most
strikin
characteristic,wereforthemostpartofwoodratherthanostone.Polybiusdistinguishe
thepillarsintotwoclasses,thoseofthemainbuildings,andthosewhichskirtedthecourts
fromwhichitwouldappearthatatEcbatanathecourtsweresurroundedbycolonnades,a
theywerecommonlyinGreekandRomanhouses.Thesewoodenpillars,alleitherofceda
or of cypress, supported beams of a similarmaterial,which crossed each other at righ
angles,leavingsquarespacesbetween,whichwerethenfilledinwithwoodwork.Aboveth
wholearoofwasplaced,slopingatanangle,andcomposed(aswearetold)ofsilverplate
inthe
shape
of
tiles.
The
pillars,
beams,
and
the
rest
of
the
woodwork
were
likewise
coate
withthinlaminseofthepreciousmetals,evengoldbeingusedforthispurposetoacertai
extent.
SuchseemstohavebeenthecharacterofthetrueancientMedianpalace,whichserve
probablyasamodeltoDariusandXerxeswhentheydesignedtheirgreatpalatialedificesa
the more southern capitals. In the additions which the palace received under th
Achaemeniankings,stonepillarsmayhavebeenintroduced;andhenceprobablythebroke
shaftsandbases,sonearlyresemblingthePersepolitan,oneofwhichSirE.KerPortersawi
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2
theimmediateneighborhoodofHamadanonhisvisittothatplacein1818.[PLATEI.,Fig.1
But tojudge from the description of Polybius, an older and ruder style of architectur
prevailed in the main building, which depended for its effect not on the beauty o
architecturalforms,butontherichnessandcostlinessofthematerial.Apillararchitecture
sofarasappears,beganinthispartofAsiawiththeMedes,who,however,werecontentt
usethemorereadilyobtainedandmoreeasilyworkedmaterialofwood;whilethePersian
afterwardsconceived
the
idea
of
substituting
for
these
inartificial
props
the
slender
an
elegantstoneshaftswhichformedthegloryoftheirgrandedifices.
Atashortdistancefromthepalacewasthe"Acra,"orcitadel,anartificialstructure,ifw
may believe Polybius, and a place of very remarkable strength. Here probably was th
treasury, from which Darius Codomanus carried off 7000 talents of silver, when he fle
towardsBactria for fearofAlexander.Andhere,too,mayhavebeentheRecordOffice, i
which were deposited the royal decrees and other public documents under the earlie
Persian kings. Some travellers are of opinion that a portion of the ancient structure sti
exists;and
there
is
certainly
aruin
on
the
outskirts
of
the
modern
town
towards
the
south
whichisknowntothenativesas"theinnerfortress,"andwhichmaynotimprobablyoccup
some portion of the sitewhereon the original citadel stood. But the remains of buildin
whichnowexistarecertainlynotofanearlierdatethantheeraofParthiansupremacy,an
theycanthereforethrownolightonthecharacteroftheoldMedianstronghold.Itmayb
thoughtperhaps that thedescriptionwhichHerodotusgivesof thebuildingcalledbyhim
"thepalaceofDeioces"shouldbehereapplied,andthatby itsmeanswemightobtaina
exactnotionof theoriginalstructure.But theaccountof thisauthor iswhollyatvarianc
with the natural features of the neighborhood,where there is no such conical hill as h
describes,but
only
aplain
surrounded
by
mountains.
It
seems,
therefore,
to
be
certain
tha
eitherhisdescription isapuremyth,orthat itappliestoanothercity,theEcbatanaofth
northernprovince. It isdoubtfulwhether theMedian capitalwasatany time surrounde
withwalls.Polybiusexpresslydeclaresthat itwasanunwalledplace inhisdayandthere
somereasontosuspectthat ithadalwaysbeen inthiscondition.TheMedesandPersian
appear to have been in general content to establish in each town a fortified citadel o
stronghold, round which the houses were clustered, without superadding the furthe
defenceofatownwall.Ecbatanaaccordinglyseemsnevertohavestoodasiege.Whenth
nationwhich
held
it
was
defeated
in
the
open
field,
the
city
(unlike
Babylon
and
Nineveh
submittedtotheconquerorwithoutastruggle.Thusthemarvellousdescriptionintheboo
ofJudith,which isinternallyvery improbable,wouldappeartobeentirelydestituteofany
eventheslightest,foundationinfact.
ThechiefcityofnorthernMedia,whichboreinlatertimesthenamesofGaza,Gazaca,o
Canzaca, is thought to have also been called Ecbatana, and to have been occasionall
mistakenbytheGreeksforthesouthernorrealcapital.ThedescriptionofHerodotus,whic
isirreconcilablyatvariancewiththelocalfeaturesoftheHamadansite,accordssufficientl
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Mediawith theexisting remainsofaconsiderablecity in theprovinceofAzerbijan;and itseem
certainly to have been a city in these partswhichwas called byMoses of Chorene "th
secondEcbatana,thesevenwalledtown."Thepeculiarityofthisplacewas itssituationo
andaboutaconicalhillwhichslopedgentlydownfromitssummittoitsbase,andallowedo
theinterpositionofsevencircuitsofwallbetweentheplainandthehill'screst.Atthetopo
the hill, within the innermost circle of the defences, were the Royal Palace and th
treasuries;the
sides
of
the
hill
were
occupied
solely
by
the
fortifications;
and
at
the
base
outside the circuit of the outermost wall, were the domestic and other buildings whic
constitutedthetown.AccordingtotheinformationreceivedbyHerodotus,thebattlement
whichcrownedthewallswerevariouslycolored.Thoseoftheoutercirclewerewhite,ofth
nextblack,ofthethirdscarlet,ofthefourthblue,ofthefifthorange,ofthesixthsilver,an
of the seventh gold. A pleasing or at any rate a striking effectwas thus producedth
citadel,whichtoweredabovethetown,presentingtotheeyesevendistinctrowsofcolors.
If there was really a northern as well as a southern Ecbatana, and if the account o
Herodotus,which
cannot
possibly
apply
to
the
southern
capital,
may
be
regarded
as
trul
describing the great city of the north,wemaywithmuch probability fix the site of th
northerntownatthemodernTakhtiSuleiman,intheuppervalleyoftheSaruk,atributar
of the Jaghetu. [PLATE I.,Fig.3.]Herealone innorthernMediaare there important ruin
occupyingsuchapositionas thatwhichHerodotusdescribes.Near theheadofavalley i
whichrunsthemainbranchoftheSaruk,attheedgeofthehillswhichskirtittothenorth
there stands a conicalmoundprojecting into the vale and rising above its surface to th
heightof150feet.Thegeologicalformationofthemoundiscuriousintheextreme.Itseem
toowe itsoriginentirely toasmall lake, thewatersofwhicharesostrongly impregnate
withcalcareous
matter
that
wherever
they
overflow
they
rapidly
form
adeposit
which
is
a
hardand firmasnaturalrock. Ifthe lakewasoriginallyona levelwiththevalley, itwoul
soonhaveformed incrustationsround itsedge,whicheverycasualorpermanentoverflow
wouldhavetendedtoraise;andthus, inthecourseofages,theentirehillmayhavebee
formedbyamereaccumulationofpetrefactions.Theformationwouldprogressmoreorles
rapidlyaccordingtothetendencyofthe laketooverflow itsbounds;whichtendencymus
havebeenstronguntil thewater reached itspresentnatural levelthe level,probably,o
someothersheetofwaterinthehills,withwhichitisconnectedbyanundergroundsiphon
Thelake,
which
is
of
an
irregular
shape,
is
about
300
paces
in
circumference.
Its
wate
notwithstandingthequantityofmineralmatterheldinsolution,isexquisitelyclear,andno
unpleasing to the taste. Formerly itwasbelievedby thenatives tobeunfathomable;bu
experimentsmadein1837showedthedepthtobenomorethan156feet.
Theruinswhichatpresentoccupythisremarkablesiteconsistofastrongwall,guardedb
numerousbastionsandpiercedbyfourgateways,whichrunsroundthebrowofthehillin
slightly irregularellipse,of some interesting remainsofbuildingswithin thiswalled space
andofafew insignificanttracesof inferioredificesontheslopebetweentheplainandth
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summit.AsitisnotthoughtthatanyoftheseremainsareofadateanteriortotheSassania
kingdom,nodescriptionwillbegivenofthemhere.WeareonlyconcernedwiththeMedia
city,and thathasentirelydisappeared.Of thesevenwalls,onealone is tobe traced;an
evenheretheMedianstructurehasperished,andbeenreplacedbymasonryofafar late
age.Excavationsmayhereafterbring, to light some remnantsof theoriginal town,buta
presentresearchhasdonenomorethanrecoverforusaforgottensite.
TheMediancitynext in importancetothetwoEcbatanaswasRagaorRhages,nearth
CaspianGates,almostattheextremeeasternlimitsoftheterritorypossessedbytheMedes
ThegreatantiquityofthisplaceismarkedbyitsoccurrenceintheZendavestaamongth
primitivesettlementsoftheArians.ItscelebrityduringthetimeoftheEmpireisindicatedb
thepositionwhich itoccupies in the romancesofTobitand Judith. Itmaintained its ran
underthePersians,andismentionedbyDariusHystaspisasthesceneofthestrugglewhic
terminated thegreatMedian revolt.The lastDarius seems tohave sent thitherhisheav
baggageandtheladiesofhiscourt,whenheresolvedtoquitEcbatanaandflyeastward.
has been already noticed that Rhages gave name to a district; and this district mayb
certainly identifiedwith the longnarrow tractof fertile territory interveningbetween th
Elburzmountainrangeandthedesert,fromaboutKasvintoKhaar,orfromlong.30to52
30'. The exact site of the city of Rhages within this territory is somewhat doubtful. A
accountsplace itnear theeasternextremity;andas there are in thisdirection ruinsof
towncalledRheiorRhey,ithasbeenusualtoassumethattheypositivelyfixthelocality.Bu
similarity,or even identity,ofname is an insufficientproofof a site; and, in thepresen
instance,therearegroundsforplacingRhagesverymuchnearertotheCaspianGatestha
theposition
of
Rhei.
Arrian,
whose
accuracy
is
notorious,
distinctly
states
that
from
th
Gates to Rhages was only a single day's march, and that Alexander accomplished th
distance in that time.Now from Rhei to theGirduni Surdurrah pass,which undoubtedl
representsthePylaeCacpiseofArrian,isatleastfiftymiles,adistancewhichnoarmycoul
accomplishinlesstimethantwodays.Rhagesconsequentlymusthavebeenconsiderablyt
theeastofRhei,abouthalfwaybetweenitandthecelebratedpasswhichitwasconsidere
toguard.ItsprobablepositionisthemodernKalehErij,nearVeramin,about23milesfrom
the commencement of the Surdurrah pass,where there are considerable remains of a
ancienttown.
InthesameneighborhoodwithRhages,butclosertotheStraits,perhapsonthesitenow
occupiedbytheruinsknownasUewanukif,orpossiblyevennearertothefootofthepass
wastheMediancityofCharax,aplacenottobeconfoundedwiththemorecelebratedcit
calledGharaxSpasini,thebirthplaceofDionysiusthegeographer,whichwasonthePersia
Gulf,atthemouthoftheTigris.
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MediaTheotherMediancities,whosepositioncanbedeterminedwithanapproachtocertainty
were in thewesternportionof the country, in the rangeof Zagros,or in the fertile trac
between that range and the desert. Themost importantof these are Bagistan,Adrapan
Concobar,andAspadan.
BagistanisdescribedbyIsidoreasa"citysituatedonahill,wheretherewasapillarand
statueofSemiramis."DiodorushasanaccountofthearrivalofSemiramisattheplace,ofhe
establishingaroyalparkorparadiseintheplainbelowthemountain,whichwaswateredb
anabundantspring,ofhersmoothingthefaceoftherockwhereitdescendedprecipitousl
uponthe lowground,andofhercarvingonthesurfacethusobtainedherowneffigy,wit
an inscriptioninAssyriancharacters.ThepositionassignedtoBagistanbybothwriters,an
the description of Diodorus, identify the place beyond a doubt with the now famou
Behistun,where theplain, the fountain, theprecipitous rock,and thescarpedsurfacear
still tobe seen, through the supposed figureof Semiramis,herpillar, andher inscriptio
havedisappeared.[PLATEII.,Fig.1.]Thisremarkablespot,lyingonthedirectroutebetwee
Babylonand
Ecbatana,
and
presenting
the
unusual
combination
of
acopious
fountain,
aric
plain,andarocksuitableforsculptures,musthaveearlyattractedtheattentionofthegrea
monarchswhomarchedtheirarmiesthroughtheZagrosrange,asaplacewheretheymigh
conveniently set up memorials of their exploits. The works of this kind ascribed by th
ancientwriters toSemiramiswereprobablyeitherAssyrianorBabylonian,and (it ismos
likely)resembledtheordinarymonumentswhichthekingsofBabylonandNinevehdelighte
toerectincountriesnewlyconquered.TheexamplesetbytheMesopotamianswasfollowe
by their Arian neighbors, when the supremacy passed into their hands; and the famou
mountain,investedbythemwithasacredcharacter,wasmadetosubserveandperpetuat
theirglory
by
receiving
sculptures
and
inscriptions
which
showed
them
to
have
become
th
lords of Asia. The practice did not even stop here. When the Parthian kingdom of th
ArsacideehadestablisheditselfinthesepartsattheexpenseoftheSeleucidse,therockwa
oncemorecalledupontocommemoratethewarliketriumphsofanewrace.Gotarzes,th
contemporary of the Emperor Claudius, after defeating his rivalMeherdates in the plai
betweenBehistunandKermanshah, inscribedupon themountain,whichalreadybore th
impressofthegreatmonarchsofAssyriaandPersia,arecordofhisrecentvictory.
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MediaThenameofAdrapanoccursonlyinIsidore,whoplacesitbetweenBagistanandEcbatana
atthedistanceoftwelveschoeni36Romanor34Britishmilesfromthe latter. Itwas,h
says,thesiteofanancientpalacebelongingtoEcbatana,whichTigranestheArmenianha
destroyed.Thenameandsituationsufficiently identifyAdrapanwiththemodernvillageo
Arteman,whichliesonthesouthernfaceofElwendnearitsbase,andiswelladaptedfor
royal residence. Here, during the severest winter, when Hamadan and the surroundin
countryare
buried
in
snow,
awarm
and
sunny
climate
is
to
be
found;
whilst
in
the
summer
thousandrillsdescendingfromElwenddiffusearoundfertilityandfragrance.Grovesoftree
growupinrichluxuriancefromthewellirrigatedsoil,whosethickfoliageaffordsawelcom
shelter from the heat of the noonday sun. The climate, the gardens, and the manifol
blessingsoftheplaceareproverbialthroughoutPersia;andnaturallycausedthechoiceo
thesiteforaretiredpalace,towhichthecourtofEcbatanamightadjournwheneitherth
summerheatanddustorthewintercoldmaderesidenceinthecapitalirksome.
IntheneighborhoodofAdrapan,ontheroadleadingtoBagistan,stoodConcobar,whic
isundoubtedly
the
modern
Kungawar,
and
perhaps
the
Chavon
of
Diodorus.
Here,
accordin
to theSicilianhistorian,Semiramisbuiltapalaceand laidoutaparadise;andhere, in th
timeof Isidore,wasa famous templeofArtemis.Colossal ruins crown the summitof th
acclivityonwhich the townofKungawar stands,whichmaybe the remainsof this latte
building;butnotracehasbeenfoundthatcanberegardedaseitherMedianorAssyrian.
The Median town of Aspadan, which is mentioned by no writer but Ptolemy, woul
scarcelydeservenoticehere,ifitwerenotforitsmoderncelebrity.Aspadan,corruptedint
Isfahan,becamethecapitalofPersia,undertheSenkings,whorendereditoneofthemos
magnificentcities
of
Asia.
It
is
uncertain
whether
it
existed
at
all
in
the
time
of
the
grea
Medianempire.Ifso,itwas,atbest,anoutlyingtownoflittleconsequenceontheextrem
southernconfinesoftheterritory,whereitabutteduponPersiaproper.Thedistrictwherei
itlaywasinhabitedbytheMediantribeoftheParastaceni.
Upon thewhole itmustbeallowed that the townsofMediawere fewandofnogrea
account. The Medes did not love to congregate in large cities, but preferred to scatte
themselves in villages over their broad and varied territory. The protection of walls
necessary for the inhabitants of the low Mesopotamian regions, was not required by
peoplewhose
country
was
full
of
natural
fastnesses
to
which
they
could
readily
remove
o
theapproachofdanger.Excepting thecapitaland the two importantcitiesofGazacaan
Rhages,theMediantownswereinsignificant.Eventhosecitiesthemselveswereprobablyo
moderatedimensions,andhadlittleofthearchitecturalsplendorwhichgivessopeculiara
interesttothetownsofMesopotamia.Theirprincipalbuildingswereinafrailandperishabl
material, unsuited to bear the ravages of time; they have consequently altogethe
disappeared,and in thewholeofMediamodern researcheshave failed tobring to light
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single edifice which can be assigned with any show of probability to the period of th
Empire.
Theplanadopted in formerportionsofthisworkmakes itnecessary,beforeconcludin
thischapter,toglancebrieflyatthecharacterofthevariouscountriesanddistrictsbywhic
MediawasborderedtheCaspiandistrictupon thenorth,Armeniaupon thenorthwest
theZagros regionandAssyriauponthewest,Persiaproperupon thesouth,anduponth
eastSagartiaandParthia.
North and northeast of the mountain range which under different names skirts th
southernshoresoftheCaspianSeaandcurvesrounditssouthwesterncorner,liesanarrow
butimportantstripofterritorythemodernGhilanandMazanderan.[PLATEII.,Fig.2.]Thi
isamostfertileregion,wellwateredandrichlywooded,andformsoneofthemostvaluabl
portionsofthemodernkingdomofPersia.Atfirst it isa lowflattractofdeepalluvialsoi
but littleraisedabovethe leveloftheCaspian;graduallyhowever itrises intoswellinghil
which formthesupportsofthehighmountainsthatshut inthisshelteredregion,aregio
onlytobereachedbyaveryfewpassesoverorthroughthem.Themountainsareclothedo
thissidenearlytotheirsummitwithdwarfoaks,orwithshrubsandbrushwood;while,lowe
down,theirflanksarecoveredwithforestsofelms,cedars,chestnuts,beeches,andcypres
trees. The gardens and orchards of the natives are of the most superb character; th
vegetation is luxuriant; lemons, oranges, peaches, pomegranates, besides other fruits
abound; rice,hemp, sugarcanes,mulberries are cultivatedwith success; vines growwild
andthevalleysarestrewnwith flowersof rare fragrance,amongwhichmaybenotedth
rose, the honeysuckle, and the sweetbrier. Nature, however, with her usualjustice, ha
balancedthese
extraordinary
advantages
with
peculiar
drawbacks;
the
tiger,
unknown
in
an
otherpartofWesternAsia,herelurksinthethickets,readytospringatanymomentonth
unwary traveller; inundationsare frequent,andcarrydesolation farandwide; thewaters
which thusescape from the riverbeds, stagnate inmarshes,andduring the summeran
autumnheatspestilentialexhalationsarise,whichdestroythestranger,andbringeventh
acclimatizednative to thebrinkof the grave.ThePersianmonarch chooses the souther
ratherthanthenorthernsideofthemountainsforthesiteofhiscapital,preferringthekee
wintercoldanddrysummerheatofthehighandalmostwaterlessplateautothedampan
stiflingairofthelowCaspianregion.
The narrow tract of which this is a description can at no time have sheltered a ver
numerousorpowerfulpeople.DuringtheMedianperiod,andformanyagesafterwards,
seemstohavebeeninhabitedbyvariouspettytribesofpredatoryhabitsCadusians,Mard
Tapyri,etc.,whopassedtheirtimeinpettyquarrelsamongthemselves,andinplunderin
raidsupontheirgreatsouthernneighbor.OfthesetribestheCadusiansaloneenjoyedan
considerable reputation. They were celebrated for their skill with the javelina ski
probablyrepresentedbythemodernPersianuseofthedjereed.AccordingtoDiodorus,the
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MediawereengagedinfrequentwarswiththeMediankings,andwereabletobringintothefield
forceof200,000men!UnderthePersianstheyseemtohavebeenconsideredgoodsoldiers
and tohave sometimesmadea struggle for independence.But there isno real reason t
believe that theywere of such strength as to have formed at any time a danger to th
Mediankingdom,towhichitismoreprobablethattheygenerallyacknowledgedaqualifie
subjection.
ThegreatcountryofArmenia,which laynorthwestandpartlynorthofMedia,hasbee
generallydescribed inthefirstvolume;butafewwordswillbehereaddedwithrespectt
the more eastern portion, which immediately bordered upon the Median territory. Thi
consistedof twooutlyingdistricts, separated from the restof the country, the triangula
basinofLakeVan,andthetractbetweentheKurandArasriversthemodernKarabaghan
Erivan.ThebasinofLakeVan,surroundedbyhighranges,andformingtheveryheartofth
mountainsystemofthispartofAsia,isanisolatedregion,asortofnaturalcitadel,where
strongmilitarypowerwouldbelikelytoestablishitself.Accordinglyitishere,andherealon
inall
Armenia,
that
we
find
signs
of
the
existence,
during
the
Assyrian
and
Median
periods
ofagreatorganizedmonarchy.
TheVaninscriptionsindicatetousalineofkingswhoboreswayintheeasternArmenia
thetrueAraratandwhowerebothincivilizationandinmilitarystrengthfarinadvanceo
anyoftheotherprinceswhodividedamongthemtheArmenianterritory.TheVanmonarch
mayhavebeenat times formidableenemiesof theMedes.Theyhave left tracesof the
dominion,notonlyon the topsof themountainpasseswhich lead into thebasinof Lak
Urumiyeh,buteven in thecomparatively lowplainofMiyandabon thesouthernshoreo
thatinland
sea.
It
is
probable
from
this
that
they
were
at
one
time
masters
of
alarge
portio
ofMediaAtropatene,andtheverynameofUrumiyeh,whichstillattachestothelake,ma
havebeengiventoitfromoneoftheirtribes.InthetractbetweentheKurandAras,onth
other hand, there is no sign of the early existence of any formidable power. Here th
mountains are comparatively low, the soil is fertile, and the climate temperate. Th
characteroftheregionwould lead its inhabitantstocultivatetheartsofpeacerathertha
thoseofwar,andwouldthustendtopreventthemfrombeingformidableortroublesomet
theirneighbors.
TheZagros
region,
which
in
the
more
ancient
times
separated
between
Media
and
Assyria
beinginhabitedbyanumberofindependenttribes,butwhichwasultimatelyabsorbedint
the more powerful country, requires no notice here, having been sufficiently describe
among the tractsbywhichAssyriawasbordered.At firstaserviceableshield to thewea
Arian tribes which were establishing themselves along its eastern base upon the hig
plateau, it gradually passed into their possession as they increased in strength, an
ultimatelybecameamainnurseryof theirpower, furnishing to theirarmiesvastnumber
both ofmen and horses. The great horse pastures, fromwhich theMedes first and th
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Persiansafterwards,suppliedtheirnumerousandexcellentcavalry,wereinthisquarter;an
the troopswhich it furnishedhardymountaineersaccustomed tobrave theseverityof
mostrigorousclimatemusthavebeenamongthemosteffectiveoftheMedianforces.
On thesouthMediawasboundedbyPersiapropera tractwhichcorrespondednearl
withthemodernprovinceofFarsistan.Thecompletedescriptionofthisterritory,theorigina
seatof thePersiannation,belongs toa futurevolumeof thiswork,whichwillcontaina
accountofthe"FifthMonarchy."Forthepresent it issufficienttoobservethatthePersia
territorywasforthemostpartahighland,verysimilartoMedia,fromwhichitwasdivide
bynostronglymarkedlineornaturalboundary.ThePersianmountainsareacontinuationo
theZagroschain,andNorthernPersiaisaportionthesouthernportionofthesamegrea
plateau, whose western and northwestern skirts formed the great mass of the Media
territory.ThusuponthissideMediawasplacedintheclosestconnectionwithanimportan
country,acountrysimilarincharactertoherown,whereahardyracewaslikelytogrowup
withwhichshemightexpecttohavedifficultcontests.
Finally, towards theeast lay thegreat saltdesert, sparsely inhabitedby variousnomadic race
among which the most important were the Cossseans and the Sagartians. To the latter peopl
Herodotus seems to assign almost thewholeof the sandy region, since he unites themwith th
SarangiansandThamanseansontheonehand,withtheUtiansandMyciansupon theother.The
wereawildrace,probablyofArianorigin,whohuntedwiththelassooverthegreatdesertmounte
onhorses,andcouldbringintothefieldaforceofeightortenthousandmen.Theircountry,awast
of sandandgravel, inparts thicklyencrustedwith salt,was impassable toanarmy,and formed
barrierwhicheffectivelyprotectedMediaalongthegreaterportionofhereasternfrontier.Toward
theextremenortheasttheSagartianswerereplacedbytheCossseansandtheParthians,theforme
probablythe
people
of
the
Siah
Koh
mountain,
the
latter
the
inhabitants
of
the
tract
known
now
a
theAtak,or "skirt,"whichextendsalong the southern flankof theElburz range from theCaspia
Gatesnearly toHerat,and is capableof sustaininga very considerablepopulation.TheCosssean
wereplunderers,fromwhoseraidsMediasufferedconstantannoyance;buttheywereatnotimeo
sufficientstrengthtocauseanyseriousfear.TheParthians,aswe learnfromthecourseofevent
hadinthemthematerialsofamightypeople;butthehourfortheirelevationandexpansionwasno
yet come, and the keenest observer ofMedian times could scarcely have perceived in them th
future lordsofWesternAsia.FromParthia,moreover,Mediawasdividedbythestrongrockyspu
whichrunsoutfromtheElburzintothedesertinlong.5210'nearly,overwhichisthenarrowpas
alreadymentioned
as
the
Caspian
Gates.
Thus
Media
on
most
sides
was
guarded
by
the
stron
naturalbarriersofseas,mountains,anddeserts lyingopenonlyon thesouth,where sheadjoine
upon a kindred people.Her neighborswere for themost partweak in numbers, thoughwarlike
Armenia,however,tothenorthwest,Assyriatothewest,andPersiatothesouth,wereallmoreo
lessformidable.AprescienteyemighthaveforeseenthatthegreatstrugglesofMediawouldbewit
these powers, and that if she attained imperial proportions it must be by their subjugation o
absorption.
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Media
CHAPTERII.CLIMATEANDPRODUCTIONS.Media,likeAssyria,isacountryofsuchextentandvarietythat,inordertogiveacorrec
descriptionofitsclimate,wemustdivideitintoregions.Azerbijan,orAtropatene,themos
northernportion,
has
aclimate
altogether
cooler
than
the
rest
of
Media;
while
in
the
mor
southerndivisionof thecountry there isamarkeddifferencebetween the climateof th
east and of thewest, of the tracts lying on the high plateau and skirting theGreat Sa
Desert,andofthosecontainedwithinorcloselyabuttingupontheZagrosmountainrange
Thedifferencehere isduetothedifferenceofphysicalconformation,which isasgreata
possible,thebroadmountainousplainsaboutKasvin,Koum,andKashan,dividedfromeac
other by low rocky ridges, offering the strongest conceivable contrast to the perpetua
alternations of mountain and valley, precipitous height and deep wooded glen, whic
compose
the
greater
part
of
the
Zagros
region.
TheclimateofAzerbijanistemperateandpleasant,thoughperhapssomewhatoverwarm
insummer;whileinwinteritisbitterlysevere,colderthanthatofalmostanyotherregioni
thesamelatitude.Thisextremerigorseemstobemainlyowingtoelevation,theveryvalley
andvalleyplainsofthetractbeingataheightoffrom4000to5000feetabovethesealeve
FrostcommonlysetsintowardstheendofNovemberoratlatestearlyinDecember;snow
sooncoversthegroundtothedepthofseveralfeet;thethermometerfallsbelowzero;th
sunshinesbrightlyexceptwhenfromtimetotimefreshdepositsofsnowoccur;butakee
andstrong
wind
usually
prevails,
which
is
represented
as
"cutting
like
asword,"
and
being
very"assassinoflife."Deathsfromcoldareofdailyoccurrence;anditisimpossibletotrave
without the greatest risk.Whole companies or caravans occasionally perish beneath th
drift,whenthewind isviolent,especially ifaheavyfallhappentocoincidewithoneofth
frequenteasterlygales.ThesevereweathercommonlycontinuestillMarch,whentravellin
becomes possible, but the snow remains on much of the ground till May, and on th
mountains still longer. The spring, which begins in April, is temperate and delightful;
suddenburstofvegetationsucceedstothelongwinterlethargy;theairisfreshandbalmy
the sun pleasantly warm, the sky generally cloudless. In the month of May the hea
increasesthunderhangs
in
the
airand
the
valleys
are
often
close
and
sultry.
Frequen
showersoccur,andthehailstormsaresometimessoviolentastokillthecattleinthefields
Asthesummeradvancestheheatsincrease,butthethermometerrarelyreaches90inth
shade,andexceptinthenarrowvalleystheairisneveroppressive.Theautumnisgenerall
very fine. Foggymornings are common; but they are succeeded by bright pleasant days
withoutwindor rain.On thewhole theclimate ispronouncedhealthy, thoughsomewha
tryingtoEuropeans,whodonotreadilyadaptthemselvestoacountrywheretherangeo
the thermometer is asmuch as 90 or 100. In the part ofMedia situated on the grea
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plateauthemodern IrakAjemiinwhich are the important towns of Teheran, Isfahan
Hamadan,Kashan,Kasvin,andKoum.theclimateisaltogetherwarmerthaninAzerbijan,th
summersbeinghotter,andthewintersshorterandmuchlesscold.Snowindeedcoversth
ground for about threemonths, fromearly inDecember tillMarch;but the thermomete
rarelyshowsmorethantenortwelvedegreesoffrost,anddeathfromcold isuncommon
ThespringsetsinaboutthebeginningofMarch,andisatfirstsomewhatcool,owingtoth
prevalenceof
the
baude
caucasan
or
north
wind,a
which
blows
from
districts
where
th
snowstilllies.Butafteralittletimetheweatherbecomesdelicious;theorchardsareamas
of blossom; the rose gardens come into bloom; the cultivated lands are covered wit
springingcrops; thedesert itselfwearsa light liveryofgreen.Everysense isgratified; th
nightingaleburstsoutwithafullgushofsong;theairplayssoftlyuponthecheek,andcome
loadedwithfragrance.Toosoon,however,thischarmingtimepassesaway,andthesumme
heatsbegin, insomeplacesasearlyas June18Thethermometeratmiddayrisesto90o
100 degrees. Hot gusts blow from the desert, sometimes with great violence. Th
atmosphereisdescribedaschoking;andinpartsoftheplateauitisusualfortheinhabitant
toquit
their
towns
almost
in
abody,
and
retire
for
several
months
into
the
mountains.
Thi
extremeheat is,however,exceptional; inmostpartsoftheplateauthesummerwarmth
temperedbycoolbreezesfromthesurroundingmountains,onwhichthereisalwaysagoo
deal of snow. At Hamadan, which, though on the plain, is close to the mountains, th
thermometerseemsscarcelyevertoriseabove90,andthatdegreeofheatisattainedonl
for a few hours in the day. The mornings and evenings are cool and refreshing; an
altogether the climate quitejustifies the choice of the Persian monarchs, who selecte
Ecbatanafortheirplaceofresidenceduringthehottestportionoftheyear.EvenatIsfahan
which
is
on
the
edge
of
the
desert,
the
heat
is
neither
extreme
nor
prolonged.
The
hot
gustwhichblow from theeastand from the south raise the temperature at timesnearly to
hundreddegrees;buttheseoppressivewindsalternatewithcoolerbreezesfromthewest
often accompanied by rain; and the average highest temperature during the day in th
hottestmonth,whichisAugust,doesnotexceed90.
Apeculiarity in theclimateof theplateauwhichdeserves tobenoticed is theextrem
dryness of the atmosphere. In summer the rainswhich fall are slight, and they are soo
absorbedbythethirstysoil.Thereisalittledewatnights,especiallyinthevicinityofthefew
streams;but
it
disappears
with
the
first
hour
of
sunshine,
and
the
air
is
left
without
aparticl
ofmoisture. Inwinterthedryness isequallygreat; frost taking theplaceofheat,with th
sameeffectupontheatmosphere.Unhealthyexhalationsarethusavoided,andthesalubrit
oftheclimateisincreased;buttheEuropeanwillsometimessighforthesoft,balmyairso
hisownland,whichhavecomeflyingoverthesea,andseemtobringtheirwingsstilldan
withtheoceanspray.
Anotherpeculiarityofthisregion,producedbytheunequalrarefactionoftheairoverit
differentportions, istheoccurrence,especially inspringandsummer,ofsuddengusts,ho
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Mediaor cold, which blow with great violence. These gusts are sometimes accompanied with
whirlwinds,whichsweepthecountryindifferentdirections,carryingawaywiththemleaves
branches, stubble, sand, and other light substances, and causing great annoyance to th
traveller. They occur chiefly in connection with a change of wind, and are no doub
consequentonthemeetingoftwooppositecurrents.Theirviolence,however,ismoderate
comparedwiththatoftropicaltornadoes,and it isnotoftenthattheydoanyconsiderabl
damageto
the
crops
over
which
they
sweep.
One further characteristic of the flat region may be noticed. The intense heat of th
summersunstrikingonthedrysandorthesalineefflorescenceofthedesertthrowsthea
over them into sucha stateofquiveringundulationasproduces themostwonderfulan
varyingeffects,distortingtheformsofobjects,andrenderingthemostfamiliarstrangean
hard tobe recognized.Amudbank furrowedby the rainwillexhibit theappearanceof
magnificentcity,withcolumns,domes,minarets,andpyramids;afewstuntedbusheswillb
transformedintoaforestofstatelytrees;adistantmountainwill,inthespaceofaminute
assumefirst
the
appearance
of
alofty
peak,
then
swell
out
at
the
top,
and
resemble
amight
mushroom, next split into several parts, and finally settle down into a flat tableland
Occasionally,thoughnotveryoftenthatsemblanceofwater isproducedwhichEuropean
areareapttosupposetheusualeffectofmirage.Theimagesofobjectsarereflectedatthe
base inan invertedposition; thedesert seems converted intoavast lake;and the thirst
traveller,advancingtowardsit,findshimselfthevictimofanillusion,whichisnonetheles
successfulbecausehehasbeenathousandtimesforewarnedofitsdeceptivepower.
InthemountainrangeorZagrosandthetractsadjacentto it,theclimate,owingtoth
greatdifferences
of
elevation,
is
more
varied
than
in
the
other
parts
of
the
ancient
Media
Severe coldprevails in thehighermountain regions for sevenmonths out of the twelve
whileduringtheremainingfivetheheatisnevermorethanmoderate.Inthelowvalleys,o
the contrary, and in other favored situations, the winters are often milder than on th
plateau;while inthesummers, iftheheat isnotgreater,atanyrate it ismoreoppressive
Owingtotheabundanceofthestreamsandproximityofthemeltingsnows,theairismoist
andthedampheat,whichstagnates inthevalleys,broods feverandague.Betweenthes
extremesofclimateandelevation,everyvarietyistobefound;and,exceptinwinter,afew
hours'journeywillalmostalwaysbringthetravellerintoatemperateregion.
In respectofnaturalproductiveness,Media (asalreadyobserved)differsexceedingly i
different,andeven inadjacent,districts.Therockyridgesofthegreatplateau,destituteo
all vegetable mold, are wholly bare and arid, admitting not the slightest degree o
cultivation.ManyofthemountainsofAzerbijan,naked,rigid,and furrowed,maycompar
even with these desert ranges for sterility. The higher parts of Zagros and Elburz ar
sometimes of the same character; butmore often they are thickly clothedwith forests
affording excellent timber andother valuable commodities. In theElburzpines are foun
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near thesummit,while lowerdown thereoccur, first thewildalmondand thedwarfoak
andthentheusualtimbertreesof thecountry,theOrientalplane, thewillow, thepopla
andthewalnut.ThewalnutgrowstoalargesizebothhereandinAzerbijan,butthepoplari
thewoodmostcommonlyusedforbuildingpurposes.InZagros,besidesmostofthesetrees
theashandtheterebinthorturpentinetreearecommon;theoakbearsgallnutsofalarg
size;andthegumtragacanthplantfrequentlyclothesthemountainsides.Thevalleysofth
regionare
full
of
magnificent
orchards,
as
are
the
low
grounds
and
more
sheltered
nooks
o
Azerbijan.The fruittreescomprise,besidesvinesandmulberries, theapple, thepear, th
quince, theplum, thecherry, thealmond, thenut, thechestnut, theolive, thepeach, th
nectarine,andtheapricot.
Ontheplainsofthehighplateauthere isagreatscarcityofvegetation.Treesofa larg
size grow only in the few places which are well watered, as in the neighborhood o
Hamadan, Isfahan,and ina lessdegreeofKashan.Theprincipaltree istheOrientalplane
whichflourishestogetherwithpoplarsandwillowsalongthewatercourses;cypressesals
growfreely;
elms
and
cedars
are
found,
and
the
orchards
and
gardens
contain
not
only
th
fruittreesmentioned above, but also thejujube, the cornel, the filbert, themedlar, th
pistachionut,thepomegranate,andthefig.Awayfromtheimmediatevicinityoftheriver
and the towns, not a tree, scarcely a bush, is to be seen. The common thorn is indee
tolerably abundant in a few places; but elsewhere the tamarisk and a few other saples
shrubsaretheonlynaturalproductsofthisbareandaridregion.
Inremarkablecontrastwiththenaturalbarrennessofthiswidetractarecertainfavore
districtsinZagrosandAzerbijan,wheretheherbageisconstantthroughoutthesummer,an
sometimesonly
too
luxuriant.
Such
are
the
rich
and
extensive
grazing
grounds
of
Khawa
and Alishtar, near Kermanshah, the pastures nearOjan andMarand, and the celebrate
ChowalMoghanorplainofMoghan,onthelowercourseoftheAraxesriver,wherethegras
is said to grow sufficiently high to cover aman on horseback. These, however, are rar
exceptions to the general characterof the country,which isbynatureunproductive, an
scarcelydeservingevenofthequalifiedencomiumofStrabo.
StillMedia, though deficient in natural products, is not ill adapted for cultivation. Th
Zagros valleys andhillsidesproduceunder a very rude systemof agriculture,besides th
fruitsalready
noticed,
rice,
wheat,
barley,
millet,
sesame,
Indian
corn,
cotton,
tobacco
mulberries, cucumbers,melons,pumpkins,and the castoroilplant. InAzerbijan the soil i
almostallcultivable,andifploughedandsownwillbringgoodcropsoftheordinarykindso
grain.Evenonthesideofthedesert,whereNaturehasshownherselfmostniggardly,an
mayseemperhapstodeservethereproachofCicero,thatshebehavesasastepmotherto
man rather than as amother, a certain amount of care and scientific labormay rende
considerabletractsfairlyproductive.Theonlywantofthisregioniswater;andifthenatura
deficiencyofthisnecessaryfluidcanbeanyhowsupplied,allpartsoftheplateauwillbea
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Mediacrops,exceptthosewhichformtheactualSaltDesert.Inmodern,andstillmore inancien
times, this facthasbeen clearlyperceived, andanelaborate systemofartifical irrigation
suitabletothepeculiarcircumstancesofthecountry,hasbeenverywidelyestablished.Th
systemofkanats,astheyarecalledatthepresentday,aimsatutilizingtotheuttermosta
the small streams and rills which descend towards the desert from the surroundin
mountains,andatconveyingasfaraspossible intotheplainthespringwater,which isth
indispensablecondition
of
cultivation
in
acountry
whereexcept
for
afew
days
in
th
spring and autumnrain scarcely ever falls. As the precious element would rapidl
evaporate if exposed to the raysof the summer sun, the Iranianhusbandman carriesh
conduitunderground,laboriouslytunnellingthroughthestiffargillaceoussoil,atadeptho
manyfeetbelowthesurface.Themodeinwhichheproceedsisasfollows.Atintervalsalon
the line of his intended conduit he first sinks shafts, which he then connects with on
anotherbygalleries,sevenoreightfeetinheight,givinghisgalleriesaslightincline,sotha
thewatermayrundownthemfreely,andcontinuingthemtillhereachesapointwhereh
wishestobringthewateroutuponthesurfaceoftheplain.Hereandthere,atthefootofh
shafts,he
digs
wells,
from
which
the
fluid
can
readily
be
raised
by
means
of
abucket
and
windlass;andhethusbringsundercultivationaconsiderablebeltof landalong thewhol
lineof thekanat,aswellasa large tractat its termination.Theseconduits,onwhich th
cultivationof theplateaudepends,were established at so remote adate that theywer
popularlyascribedtothemythicSemiramis,thesupposedwifeofNinus.Itisthoughtthati
ancienttimestheywere longerandmorenumerousthanatpresent,whentheyoccuronl
occasionally,andseldomextendmorethanafewmilesfromthebaseofthehills.
Byhelpoftheirrigationthuscontrived,thegreatplateauofIranwillproducegoodcrop
ofgrain,
rice,
wheat,
barley,
Indian
corn,
doura,
millet,
and
sesame.
It
will
also
bear
cotton
tobacco, saffron, rhubarb, madder, poppies which give a good opium, senna, an
assafoetida. Its garden vegetables are excellent, and include potatoes, cabbages, lentils
kidneybeans, peas, turnips, carrots, spinach, beetroot, and cucumbers. The variety of it
fruittreeshasbeenalreadynoticed.The flavoroftheirproduce is ingeneralgood,and i
somecasessurpassinglyexcellent.NoquincesaresofineasthoseofIsfahan,andnomelon
haveamoredelicate flavor.ThegrapesofKasvinare celebrated,andmakea remarkabl
goodwine.
Amongthe
flowers
of
the
country
must
be
noted,
first
of
all,
its
roses,
which
flourish
in
th
most luxuriantabundance,andareofeveryvarietyofhue.Thesizetowhich the treewi
growisextraordinary,standardssometimesexceedingtheheightoffourteenorfifteenfee
Lilacs,jasmines,andmanyotherfloweringshrubsarecommoninthegardens,whileamon
wildflowersmaybenoticedhollyhocks,lilies,tulips,crocuses,anemones,liliesofthevalley
fritillaries, gentians,primroses, convolvuluses, chrysanthemums,heliotropes,pinks,water
lilies, ranunculuses, jonquils, narcissuses, hyacinths, mallows, stocks, violets, a fin
campanula (Michauxia levigata), a mint (Nepeta longiflora), several sages, salsolas, an
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6
fagonias. In many places the wild flowers during the spring months cover the ground
paintingitwithathousanddazzlingordelicatehues.
ThemineralproductsofMediaarenumerousandvaluable.Excellentstoneofmanykind
abounds in almost everypartof the country, themost important and valuablebeing th
famousTabrizmarble.Thiscurioussubstanceappearstobeapetrifactionformedbynatura
springs,whichdepositcarbonateoflimeinlargequantities.Itisfoundonlyinoneplace,o
theflanksofthehills,notfarfromtheUrumiyehlake.Theslabsareusedfortombstones,fo
theskirtingofrooms,andforthepavementsofbathsandpalaces;whencutthintheyofte
take theplaceofglass inwindows,being semitransparent.Themarble is commonlyof
paleyellowcolor,butoccasionallyitisstreakedwithred,green,orcoppercoloredveins.
Inmetalsthecountryisthoughttoberich,butnosatisfactoryexaminationofithasbee
asyetmade. Iron,copper,andnativesteelarederived fromminesactuallyatwork;whil
Europeans have observed indications of lead, arsenic, and antimony in Azerbijan, i
Kurdistan, and in the rocky ridgeswhich intersect the desert. Tradition speaks of a tim
when gold and silverwere procured frommountains near TakhtiSuleman, and it is no
unlikely that theymay exist both there and in the Zagros range.Quartz, thewellknow
matrixofthepreciousmetal,aboundsinKurdistan.
Ofallthemineralproducts,none ismoreabundantthansalt.Onthesideofthedeser
and again near Tabriz at themouth of theAji Su, are vast plainswhich glistenwith th
substance,andyielditreadilytoallwhocaretogatheritup.Salinespringsandstreamsar
alsonumerous,fromwhichsaltcanbeobtainedbyevaporation.But,besidesthesesource
ofsupply, rock salt is found inplaces,and this is largelyquarried,and ispreferredby th
natives.
Other importantproductsoftheeartharesaltpetre,which isfound intheElburz,and i
Azerbijan; sulphur,whichabounds in the same regions,and likewiseon thehighplateau
alum,whichisquarriednearTabriz;naphthaandgypsum,whicharefoundinKurdistan;an
talc,whichexistsinthemountainsnearKoum,inthevicinityofTabriz,andprobablyinothe
places.
Thechiefwildanimalswhichhavebeenobservedwithinthe limitsoftheancientMedi
arethe
lion,
the
tiger,
the
leopard,
the
bear,
the
beaver,
the
jackal,
the
wolf,
the
wild
ass,
th
ibexorwildgoat,thewildsheep,thestag,theantelope,thewildboar,thefox,thehare,th
rabbit,theferret,therat,thejerboa,theporcupine,themole,andthemarmot.Thelionan
tigerareexceedingly rare; they seem tobe foundonly inAzerbijan,andwemayperhap
bestaccountfortheirpresencetherebyconsideringthatafewoftheseanimalsoccasionall
strayoutofMazanderan,which is theironlyproper locality in thispartofAsia.Ofall th
beasts,themostabundantarethestagandthewildgoat,whicharenumerousintheElburz
andinpartsofAzerbijan,thewildboar,whichaboundsbothinAzerbijan,andinthecountr
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Mediaabout Hamadan, and the jackal, which is found everywhere. Bears flourish in Zagros
antelopesinAzerbijan,intheElburz,andontheplainsnearSultaniyeh.Thewildassisfoun
only in the desert parts of the high plateau; the beaver only in Lake Zeribar, nea
Sulefmaniyeh.
TheIranianwildassdiffersinsomerespectsfromtheMesopotamian.Hisskinissmooth
likethatofadeer,andofareddishcolor,thebellyandhinderpartspartakingofasilver
gray;hisheadandearsarelargeandsomewhatclumsy;buthisneckisfine,andhislegsar
beautifullyslender.Hismaneisshortandblack,andhehasablacktuftattheendofhistai
butnodark linerunsalonghisbackorcrosseshisshoulders.ThePersianscallhimthegur
khur, and chase himwith occasional success, regarding his flesh as a great delicacy. H
appearstobetheAsinusonagerofnaturalists,adistinctspeciesfromtheAsinushemippu
ofMesopotamia,andtheAsinushemionusofThibetandTartary.
It isdoubtfulwhether some kind ofwild cattledoes not still inhabit themore remot
tractsofKurdistan.Thenativesmentionamongtheanimalsoftheircountry"themountai
ox;"and though ithasbeen suggested that thebeast intended is theelk, it isperhapsa
likelytobetheAurochs,whichseemscertainlytohavebeenanativeoftheadjacentcountr
ofMesopotamiainancienttimes.Atanyrate,untilZagroshasbeenthoroughlyexploredb
Europeans,itmustremainuncertainwhatanimalismeant.Meanwhilewemaybetolerabl
sure that, besides the species enumerated,Mount Zagros containswithin its folds som
largeandrareruminant.
Amongthebirdsthemostremarkablearetheeagle,thebustard,thepelican,thestork
the pheasant, several kinds of partridges, the quail, thewoodpecker, the beeeater, th
hoopoe, and thenightingale. Besides these, doves and pigeons, bothwild and tame, ar
common; as are swallows, goldfinches, sparrows, larks, blackbirds, thrushes, linnets
magpies,crows,hawks,falcons,teal,snipe,wildducks,andmanyotherkindsofwaterfow
Themostcommonpartridgeisaredleggedspecies(Caccabischukarofnaturalists),whichi
unabletoflyfar,andishunteduntilitdrops.Anotherkind,commonbothinAzerbijanandi
the Elburz, is the blackbreasted partridge (Perdix nigra)a bird not known in man
countries.Besidesthese,thereisasmallgraypartridgeintheZagrosrange,whichtheKurd
call seslca.Thebeeeater (MeropsPersicus) is rare. It is abirdofpassage, andonly visit
Mediain
the
autumn,
preparatory
to
retreating
into
the
warm
district
of
Mazandoran
for
th
wintermonths.Thehoopoe(Upupa)isprobablystillrarer,sinceveryfewtravellersmentio
it.ThewoodpeckerisfoundinZagros,andisabeautifulbird,redandgrayincolor.
Mediais,onthewhole,butscantilyprovidedwithfish.LakeUrumiyehproducesnone,a
itswatersaresosaltthattheyevendestroyalltheriverfishwhichenterthem.Saltstreams
liketheAjiSu,areequallyunproductive,andthefreshwaterriversoftheplateaufallsolow
insummerthatfishcannotbecomenumerousinthem.ThusitisonlyinZagros,inAzerbijan
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and in the Elburz, that the streams furnish any considerable quantity. The kinds mos
commonarebarbel,carp,dace,bleak,andgudgeon. Inacomparativelyfewstreams,mor
especiallythoseofZagros,troutarefound,whicharehandsomeandofexcellentquality.Th
riverofIsfahanproducesakindofcrayfish,whichistakeninthebushesalongitsbanks,an
isverydelicateeating.
ItisremarkablethatfisharecaughtnotonlyintheopenstreamsofMedia,butalsointh
kanatsorundergroundconduits, fromwhichthe lightofday isverynearlyexcluded.The
appear to be of one sort only, viz., barbel, but are abundant, and often grow to
considerablesize.Chardinsupposedthemtobeunfitforfood;butalaterobserverdeclare
that,thoughofnogreatdelicacy,theyare"perfectlysweetandwholesome."
Ofreptiles,themostcommonaresnakes, lizards,andtortoises. Inthe longgrassofth
Moghan district, on the lower course of the Araxes, the snakes are so numerous an
venomous thatmanypartsof theplain are thereby rendered impassable in the summer
time.A similarabundanceof this reptilenear thewesternentranceof theGirduniSiyalu
passinducesthenativestoabstainfromusingitexceptinwinter.Lizardsofmanyformsan
huesdisport themselvesabout the rocksandstones,somequitesmall,others two feeto
more in length. They are quite harmless, and appear to be in general very tame. Lan
tortoisesarealsocommoninthesandyregions.InKurdistanthereisaremarkablefrog,wit
asmoothskinandofanapplegreencolor,which liveschiefly intrees,roosting inthema
night,andduringthedayemploying itself incatchingfliesand locusts,which itstrikeswit
itsforepaw,asacatstrikesabirdoramouse.
Among insects, travellers chiefly notice themosquito,which is inmany places a crue
torment;thecentipede,whichgrowstoanunusualsize;the locust,ofwhichthere ismor
thanonevariety;andthescorpion,whosestingissometimesfatal.
Thedestructivelocust(theAcridiumperegrinum,probably)comessuddenlyintoKurdista
andsouthernMediaincloudsthatobscuretheair,movingwithaslowandsteadyflightan
withasound likethatofheavyrain,andsettling inmyriadsonthefields,thegardens,th
trees, the terraces of the houses, and even the streets, which they sometimes cove
completely.Wheretheyfall,vegetationpresentlydisappears;theleaves,andeventhestem
of theplants,aredevoured; the laborsof thehusbandman throughmanyawearymont
perishinaday;andthecurseoffamineisbroughtuponthelandwhichbutnowenjoyedth
prospectofanabundantharvest. It istruethatthedevourersarethemselvesdevouredt
someextentbythepoorersortofpeople;butthecompensationisslightandtemporary;in
fewdays,whenallverdureisgone,eithertheswarmsmovetofreshpastures,ortheyperis
andcover the fieldswith theirdeadbodies,while thedesolationwhich theyhavecreate
continues.[PLATEIII.,Fig.2.]
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Anotherkindof locust,observedbyMr.Rich inKurdistan, iscalledbythenativesshira
kulla,anameseemingly identicalwith thechargolof the Jews,andperhaps thebestclu
whichwepossesstotheidentificationofthatspecies.Mr.Richdescribesitas"alargeinsec
aboutfourincheslong,withnowings,butakindofswordprojectingfromthetail.Itbites,
he says, "pretty severely,butdoesnoharm to the cultivation."Wemay recognize in th
descriptionavarietyof thegreatgreengrasshopper (Locustaviridissima),manyspecieso
whichare
destitute
of
wings,
or
have
wing
covers
only,
and
those
of
avery
small
size.
The scorpion of the country (Scorpio crassicauda) has been represented as peculiarl
venomous,moreespeciallythatwhichaboundsinthecityandneighborhoodofKashan;bu
themostjudiciousobserversdenythatthereisanydifferencebetweentheKashanscorpio
andthatofotherpartsoftheplateau,whileatthesametimetheymaintainthatifthestin
beproperlytreated,nodangerneedbeapprehendedfrom it.Thescorpion infestshouses
hiding itselfundercushionsandcoverlets,andstingsthemoment it ispressedupon;som
caution is thus requisite in avoiding it; but it hurts no one unless molested, and man
Europeanshave
resided
for
years
in
the
country
without
having
ever
been
stung
by
it.
[PLAT
III.,Fig.3.]
Thedomesticanimalsexistingatpresentwithin the limitsof theancientMediaare th
camel,thehorse,themule,theass,thecow,thegoat,thesheep,thedog,thecat,andth
buffalo. The camel is the ordinary beast of burden in the flat country, and can carry a
enormousweight.ThreekindsareemployedtheBactrianortwohumpedcamel,which i
coarseandlow;thetallerandlighterArabianbreed;andacrossbetweenthetwo,which
calledner,andisvaluedveryhighly.TheordinaryburdenoftheArabiancamelisfromseve
toeight
hundredweight;
while
the
Bactrian
variety
is
said
to
be
capable
of
bearing
aloa
nearlytwiceasheavy.
Nexttothecamel,asabeastofburden,mustbeplacedthemulethemulesofthecountr
aresmall,butfinelyproportioned,andcarryaconsiderableweight.Theytravelthirtymiles
day with ease, and are preferred for journeys on which it is necessary to cross th
mountains.Theassisveryinferior,andisonlyusedbythepoorerclasses.
TwodistinctbreedsofhorsesarenowfoundinMedia,bothofwhichseemtobeforeign
theTurkomanand theArabian.TheTurkoman isa large,powerful,enduringanimal,wit
long legs,alightbody,andabighead.TheArabismuchsmaller,butperfectlyshaped,an
sometimesnotgreatlyinferiortotheverybestproduceofNejd.Athirdbreedisobtainedb
an intermixtureofthosetwo,which iscalledthebidpai,or"windfooted,"and isthemos
prizedofall.
Thedogs areof various breeds,but themost esteemed is a large kindof grayhound
whichsomesupposetohavebeenintroducedintothispartofAsiabytheMacedonians,an
which ischieflyemployed inthechaseoftheantelope.Theanimal isabouttheheightof
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MediafullsizedEnglishgrayhound,butratherstouter;he isdeepchested,has long,smoothhai
and the tail considerably feathered.Hispace is inferior to thatofour grayhounds,but i
strengthandsagacityhefarsurpassesthem.
We do not find many of the products of Media celebrated by ancient writers. Of it
animals, those which had the highest reputationwere its horses, distinguished into tw
breeds,anordinarykind,ofwhichMediaproducedannuallymanythousands,andakindo
rare sizeandexcellence,knownunder thenameofNisaean.These lastarecelebratedb
Herodotus,Strabo,Arrian,AmmianusMarcellinus,Suidas,andothers.Theyaresaidtohav
been of a peculiar shape; and theywere equally famous for size, speed, and stoutness
Straboremarksthattheyresemblethehorsesknown inhisowntimeasParthian;andth
observationseemsdistinctlytoconnectthemwiththeTurkomanbreedmentionedabove
which is derived exactly from the old Parthian country. In color theywere often, if no
always, white. We have no representation on the monuments which we can regard a
certainly intended for aNissean horse, but perhaps the figure from Persepolismay be
Persiansketch
of
the
animal.
[PLATE
III.,
Fig.
4.]
Themules and small cattle (sheep and goats)were in sufficient repute tobe required
togetherwithhorses,intheannualtributepaidtothePersianking.
OfvegetableproductsassignedtoMediabyancientwriters,themostremarkable isth
"Medianapple,"orcitron.Plinysays itwasthesoletreeforwhichMediawasfamous,an
that itwould only grow there and in Persia. Theophrastus,Dioscorides, Virgil, and othe
writers, celebrate its wonderful qualities, distinctly assigning it to the same region. Th
citron, however, will not grow in the country which has been here termed Media.
flourishes only in the warm tract between Shiraz and the Persian Gulf, and in the low
shelteredregion,southoftheCaspian,themodernGhilanandMazanderan.Nodoubtitwa
theinclusionofthislatterregionwithinthelimitsofMediabymanyofthelatergeographer
thatgavetothisproductoftheCaspiancountryanappellationwhichisreallyamisnomer.
AnotherproductwheretoMediagavename,andprobablywithmorereason,wasakin
ofcloverorlucerne,whichwassaidtohavebeenintroducedintoGreecebythePersiansi
thereignofDarius,andwhichwasafterwardscultivatedlargelyinItaly.Straboconsidersth
planttohavebeenthechieffoodoftheMedianhorses,whileDioscoridesassignsitcertai
medicinalqualities. Clover is still cultivated, in the Elburz region,buthorses arenow fe
almostentirelyonstrawandbarley.
Mediawas also famous for its silphium, or assafoetida, a plantwhich the country sti
produces,thoughnotinanylargequantity.Nodrugwasinhigherreputewiththeancient
formedicinalpurposes;andthoughtheMedianvarietywasacoarsekind,inferiorinrepute
notonly to theCyrenaic,but also to theParthian and the Syrian, it seems tohavebee
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Media
2
exportedboth toGreeceandBorne,and tohavebeen largelyusedbydruggists,howeve
littleesteemedbyphysicians.
TheothervegetableproductswhichMedia furnished,orwasbelievedto furnish, toth
ancientworld,werebdellium,amomum,cardamomum,gum tragacanth,wildvineoil,an
sagaponum,ortheFerulapersica.Ofthese,gumtragacanth isstill largelyproduced,and i
an importantarticleofcommerce.Wildvinesabound inZagrosandElburz,butnooil isa
present made from them. Bdellium, if it is benzoin, amomum, and cardamomum wer
perhapsratherimportedthroughMediathantheactualproduceofthecountry,whichisto
coldinthewintertogrowanygoodspices.
ThemineralproductsofMedianotedby theancientwritersarenitre, salt,and certai
gems, as emeralds, lapis lazuli, and the following obscurer kinds, the zathene, th
gassinades, and the narcissitis. The nitre of Media is noticed by Pliny, who says it wa
procuredinsmallquantities,andwascalled"halmyraga."Itwasfoundincertaindrylookin
glens,where the groundwaswhitewith it, andwas obtained there purer than in othe
places.SaltpetreisstillderivedfromtheElburzrange,andalsofromAzerbijan.
ThesaltofLakeUrumiyehismentionedbyStrabo,whosaysthatitformsnaturallyonth
surface,whichwould imply a farmore complete saturationof thewater than atpresen
exists,eveninthedriestseasons.ThegemsabovementionedareassignedtoMediachiefl
by Pliny. The Median emeralds, according to him, were of the largest size; they varie
considerably,sometimesapproaching to thecharacterof thesapphire, inwhichcase the
were apt to be veiny, and to have flaws in them. Theywere far less esteemed than th
emeraldsofmanyothercountries.TheMedianlapislazuli,ontheotherhand,wasthebes
of its kind. Itwas of three colorslight blue, dark blue, and purple. The golden specks
however,withwhichitwassprinkledreally spotsofyellowpyritesrenderedituselesst
the gemengravers of Pliny's time. The zathene, the gassinades, and the narcissitiswer
gemsofinferiorvalue.Astheyhavenotyetbeenidentifiedwithanyknownspecies,itwillb
unnecessarytoprolongthepresentchapterbyaconsiderationofthem.
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MediaCHAPTERIII.CHARACTER,MANNERSANDCUSTOMS,ARTS
ETC.,OFTHEPEOPLE."Pugnatrixnatioetformidanda."Amm.Marc,xxiii.6.
The ethnic character of theMedian people is at the present day scarcely amatter o
doubt.Thecloseconnectionwhichallhistory,sacredandprofane,establishesbetweenthem
and thePersians, theevidenceof theirpropernamesandof their language,so faras it i
known tous, togetherwith theexpress statementsofHerodotus andStrabo, combine t
provethattheybelongedtothatbranchofthehuman familyknowntousastheAriano
Iranic,aleadingsubdivisionofthegreatIndoEuropeanrace.Thetieofacommonlanguage
commonmannersandcustoms,and toagreatextentacommonbelief,united inancien
timesallthedominanttribesofthegreatplateau,extendingevenbeyondtheplateauinon
direction to the Jaxartes (Syhun)and inanother to theHyphasis (Sutlej).Persians,Medes
Sagartians,Chorasmians,
Bactrians,
Sogdians,
Hyrcanians,
Sarangians,
Gandarians,
an
Sanskritic Indians belonged all to a single stock, differing from one another probably no
muchmore thannowdiffer the various subdivisionsof theTeutonicor theSlavonic race
BetweenthetribesatthetwoextremitiesoftheArianterritorythedivergencewasnodoub
considerable;butbetweenanytwoneighboringtribesthedifferencewasprobably inmos
casesexceedinglyslight.Atanyratethiswasthecasetowardsthewest,wheretheMede
and Persians, the two principal sections of the Arian body in that quarter, are scarcel
distinguishablefromoneanotherinanyofthefeatureswhichconstituteethnictype.
Thegeneral
physical
character
of
the
ancient
Arian
race
is
best
gathered
from
th
sculpturesoftheAchsemeniankings,whichexhibittousaverynoblevarietyofthehuma
speciesa form tall, graceful, and stately; a physiognomy handsome and pleasing, ofte
somewhatresemblingtheGreek;theforeheadhighandstraight,thenosenearlyinthesam
line, long andwell formed, sometimesmarkedly aquiline, the upper lip short, commonl
shadedbyamoustache,thechinroundedandgenerallycoveredwithacurlybeard.Theha
evidentlygrew ingreatplenty,andtheracewasproudof it.Onthetopofthehead itwa
wornsmooth,but itwasdrawnback from the foreheadand twisted intoa rowor twoo
crispcurls,whileatthesame time itwasarranged intoa largemassofsimilarsmallclos
ringletsat
the
back
of
the
head
and
over
the
ears.
[PLATE
IV.,
Fig.
1.]
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Media
4
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MediaOf the Median women we have no representations upon the sculptures; but we ar
informedbyXenophon that theywere remarkable for their statureand theirbeauty.Th
same qualities were observable in the women of Persia, as we learn from Plutarch
Ammianus Marcellinus, and others. The Arian races seem in old times to have treate
womenwithacertainchivalry,whichallowedthefulldevelopmentoftheirphysicalpowers
andrenderedthemspeciallyattractivealiketotheirownhusbandsandtothemenofothe
nations.
ThemodernPersianisaverydegeneraterepresentativeoftheancientArianstock.Sligh
andsupple inperson,withquick,glancingeyes,delicatefeatures,andavivaciousmanne
helacksthedignityandstrength,thecalmreposeandsimplegraceoftheracefromwhic
he issprung,Fourteencenturiesofsubjectiontodespoticswayhave lefttheirstampupo
hiscountenanceandhisframe,which,thoughstillretainingsometracesoftheoriginaltype
havebeensadlyweakenedandloweredbysolongatermofsubservience.Probablythewil
Kurdor Lurof thepresentdaymorenearlycorresponds inphysique to theancientMed
thando
the
softer
inhabitants
of
the
great
plateau.
Among themoral characteristics of theMedes the onemost obvious is their bravery
"Pugnatrixnatio etformidanda," saysAmmianusMarcellinus in the fourth centuryofou
era,summingup inafewwordsthegeneraljudgmentofAntiquity.Originallyequal, ifno
superior, to their close kindred, the Persians, theywere throughout thewhole period o
Persiansupremacyonlysecondtothem incourageandwarlikequalities.Mardonius,whe
allowed to takehischoiceoutof theentirehostofXerxes,selected theMedian troops i
immediatesuccessiontothePersians.Similarly,whenthetimeforbattlecamehekeptth
Medesnear
himself,
giving
them
t
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