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The political Arctic
The Canadian Arctic
Canadian interests in the ArcticSecurity “nothing comes before that”
(Harper) SovereigntyNatural resources – oil, gas, diamonds, goldEnvironmental managementSocial issues
Arctic SovereigntyNorthwest passageBeaufort SeaHans IslandContinental shelf claims
Northwest PassageLegal claims
Internal waters by historic title No one exercised possession once claims made Belated claim 1973 Reaction of foreign governments Inability to control navigation (other uses)
Internal waters included within straight baselines
Stronger claims but … right of ‘innocent passage’
Northwest PassageThe NW Passage route cuts about 5 days off
alternative routes between China and Europe/Eastern North America
Oil, gas and other resources would also likely transit through NW Passage to get to eastern US
US and others maintain that the Passage is an international strait allowing for unfettered access
One option for resolving the dispute with the US might be “joint seaway management” – infrastructure and policing
Northwest Passage
Climate Change and the Passage
Climate Change in the Arctichttp://www.youtube.com/watch?
v=Jak1pExql0U
The Economist on Arctic issueshttp://www.youtube.com/watch?
v=VTHsd9wiyio&feature=related
Arctic sea ice
Beaufort Sea claim
400 onshore oil and gas fields have been discovered to date in Canada, Russia and US
US geological Survey estimates 90 billion barrels of undiscovered oil and 1,670 trillion cubic feet of natural gas (about 13% of world’s reserves)
Drilling activity in the Beaufort Sea
http://www.aadnc-aandc.gc.ca/DAM/DAM-INTER-HQ/STAGING/texte-text/nog_mp_bsmd_pg_1317059161670_eng.pdf
Continental Shelf Claims
UNCLOS ratified in 2003Canadian government has until 2013 to
present its claim to the UN Commission on the Continental Shelf
This is not about sovereignty but about rights to exploitation of resources and management regimes
Harper’s Arctic Policy
Five icebreakers, 14 long-range helicopters, radar satellite for tracking ships and mapping sea ice
Lack the capacity to operate year round
2009 Northern Strategy
exercising our Arctic Sovereignty promoting social and economic development protecting our environmental heritage improving and devolving northern
governance
Defence Measures I Building six to eight armed Polar Class 5 Arctic Offshore
Patrol Ships(AOPS); The establishment of a multi-purpose Arctic training
centre in Resolute Bay, Nunavut; The creation of a berthing and refuelling facility at the
existing deepwater port of Nanisivik, in Nunavut, to serve as a staging area for naval vessels in the High Arctic and for use by Canadian Coast Guard vessels as well;
The establishment of a permanent army reserve unit based in Yellowknife;
Expanding the size and capabilities of the Canadian Rangers and the Junior Canadian Rangers Program.
Defence Measures II
Plans to enhance the ability of the CF to conduct surveillance through the modernization and replacement of the Aurora patrol aircraft;
The Polar Epsilon Project, which will provide space-based surveillance using information from Canada’s RADARSAT-2 satellite to produce imagery for military commanders during the conduct of operations;
The use of unmanned aerial vehicle technology;
The budget and the ArcticUncertainty around commitment to Arctic
research station, and to other Arctic research projects
support for developing some port facilities, but Nanisivik looks questionable
Arctic offshore patrol ships delayed until 2018; cost increase of $40 million
Trying to multi-task, or in this case identify a clear task
spending cuts at the Canadian Space Agency will result in delays or cancellation of satellites for the Arctic.
Arctic Cooperation I
Arctic Council (1996) institutionalized cooperation on nonmilitary matters among the eight Arctic countries: Russia, the United States (Alaska), Canada, Denmark (Greenland), Norway, Iceland, Sweden, and Finland
Arctic Cooperation II
Ilulissat Declaration (2008) Russia, the United States, Canada, Denmark, and Norway reaffirmed their commitment to working within an existing framework of international law to delimit their respective areas of jurisdiction over the seabed. (UN LOS Treaty)
US-Russia notification agreement
Environment and foreign policy
Environmental issues have gained increased prominence – compare 1972 Stockholm meeting with 1992 Rio conference
Canadian (government and societal) interest and support for environmental issues has been uneven at best
Acid rain, Great Lakes, coastal oil spills, and Arctic have been major concerns
Ozone protection, Montreal protocol of 1987
Rio Earth Summit 1992
172 countries; 108 heads of state
2400+ representatives of nongovernmental organizations (NGOs)
Numerous conventions and action plans adopted
Rio Conference and Climate ChangeJune 1992 summit strongly supported by Mulroney
government
Signed and ratified UN Framework Conventions on Climate Change and Biodiversity
Kyoto 1997, 3rd Conference of the Parties (CoP) to the UNFCCC agrees on Kyoto Protocol; Chretien took lead; Canada must cut average annual greenhouse gas emissions to six per cent below 1990 levels over the period from 2008-2012; ratified in December 2002
Climate change and Canadian policyKyoto Protocol ratified in 2002 (as Bush
administration was rejecting it)Greenhouse gas emissions increase significantly since
signing on to KyotoMartin government complains about US policy in
2005, but does nothing to change Canadian policyHarper government rhetorically abandons Kyoto in
2006; withdraws officially in December 2011Harper government ties its emissions policy to US
policy at Copenhagen in 2009 and Cancun in 2010
Greenhouse Gas Emissions
Reporting required by UN conventionPrincipal sources of emissions on energy
related, both production and transportation; waste and agriculture make minor contributions
Significant growth since 1990s fueled by expanding oil, gas and forestry sectors – most designed for export markets
Conference Board of Canada report card
Accounting for Canada’s Climate Change Policy
Economic interests; energy exports; US policy coordinationMultilateralism – declining importance,
influenceFederalism – lack of coordinationReduced influence of environmental lobby;
scientific communityGovernment is leaning heavily to shutting
down dissent
Foster Immigration The Public Policy Framework
Canada’s Immigration Policy “When I speak of
quality, I have in mind something that is quite different from what is in the mind of the average writer or speaker upon the question of immigration. I think of a stalwart peasant in a sheep-skin coat, born on the soil, whose forefathers have been farmers for generations, with a stout wife and half-a-dozen children, is good quality.”
Sir Clifford Sifton, 1922
The data and tables for this section and related information can be found here:
Citizenship and Immigration Canada (http://www.cic.gc.ca/english/resources/statistics/facts2010/index.asp)
Foster Immigration The Public Policy Framework
Establishing categories
1976: New Immigration Act defines the 3 main priorities of immigration policy:. Priority 1: family reunification. Priority 2: humanitarian concerns. Priority 3: promotion of Canada’s economic, social, demographic, and cultural goals
These priorities have varied in emphasis, but still form the core of our immigration policy
Foster Immigration The Public Policy Framework
Demographic and Labour Concerns
mid 1980s increasing concern over future immigration levels in response to fertility patterns in Canada which had fallen and remain below replacement levels
Early 1990s family class was reduced by limiting range of family members included;
government commits to stable inflows of about 1% of the current population
The switch to long term goals and the desire to increase the numbers of skilled workers continued through the 1990s (the birth of “designer immigration”)
Immigration and Refugee Protection Act, 2002
To streamline several areas of the immigration process, including those for selecting applicants and ruling on refugee claims;
To broaden criteria for selecting immigrants, both to make it easier to bring in skilled workers and to promote the reunification of families; and,
In the wake of September 11, 2001, to implement measures that would remove or keep out persons who were inadmissible on grounds of security, violating human rights, or involvement in criminal activity or organized crime.
2012 Budget and Immigration
Close domestic offices and lay off more than 100 people
Close visa offices in Japan, Malaysia, Bangladesh, Iran and Germany
Admissions by category
On the following slide the top chart represents the absolute number of individuals admitted under the categories (from top to bottom) family class, economic class, refugee, other
The bottom chart represents the percentage of total individuals admitted under each of the categories in the same sequence from top to bottom
Foster Immigration The Public Policy Framework
Immigration in Canada Today:Components of Immigration IntakeFamily Reunification Members of the Family Class
Humanitarian Convention Refugees; Members of Designated Classes; Persons eligible under special humanitarian measures
Economic Assisted Relatives*Business Immigrants: EntrepreneursSelf-employed persons InvestorsRetirees Other Independent Immigrants*
Foster Immigration The Public Policy Framework
Selection Grid for Economic Immigrants (Point System)Factor One: Education Maximum 25
Factor Two: Official Languages Maximum 24
1st Official Language Maximum 16
2nd Official Language Maximum 8
Factor Three: Experience Maximum 21
Factor Four: Age Maximum 10
Factor Five: Arranged Employment in Canada
Maximum 10
Factor Six: Adaptability Maximum 10
Total Maximum 100
Passing Mark 67
Foster Immigration The Public Policy Framework
Selection Factor: AdaptabilityFactor Six: Adaptability Maximum 10
points
Spouse’s or common-law partner’s education 3 - 5
Minimum one year full-time authorized work in Canada
5
Minimum two years full-time authorized post-secondary study in Canada
5
Have received points under the Arranged Employment in Canada factor
5
Family relationship in Canada 5
Foster Immigration The Public Policy Framework
Immigrants’ Skills Are Underutilized
Principal Cause: the non-recognition of foreign education and foreign experience
Professional associations are often accused of placing too many barriers in front of otherwise qualified immigrants
Even with a work authorization given by a professional association, there is still an earnings gap between newcomers and the Canadian-born as well as higher rates of unemployment
Responding to this problem
The wage and employment gap has been identified by Jason Kenney as one of the principal restraints to raising immigration levels
Some proposals suggest increasing levels from the current 250,000 to 400,000 annually
Provincial governments and business are pushing for higher levels
Foster Immigration The Public Policy Framework
Provinces and immigration
Provincial Nominee Program (PNPs) are in place with 10 jurisdictions (the Yukon and all provinces except Ontario and Quebec), through which provinces and territories nominate individuals as permanent residents to address specific labour market and economic development needs.
Provinces also put demands on the government to increase national immigration quotas
Quebec has its own agreement with the federal government
Has become an area of increase conflict in light of federal efforts to restrict immigration
Temporary foreign workers programthe selection of economic immigrants is not based on
chronological order (first come, first serve basis), but on an occupational demand basis in response to industry requests – most evident in the temporary workers program
Government has expedited the application program for temporary workers with online applications
Government has also allowed industry to pay up to 15% less to these workers (not clear how this helps address Kenney’s concerns over wage gap)
Immigration policy and ethical issues
Should Canada have more open immigration policies?
Who regulates immigration practices – government (federal/provincial) or business?
How to address unfair labour practices?
What is the proper response to uneven labour markets?
Should Canada be concerned with the brain drain?
Canada’s refugee policy
Refugees are defined by international law
As a signatory to international conventions, Canada is bound to offer a home to those who qualify as a refugee
Issues arise in the determination process; in the level of support; in the return to ‘safe countries’
Canadian refugee supportCanada has the one of the largest resettlement
programs in the world, this program brings refugees from camps and elsewhere to Canada many under sponsorship activities
Current numbers allowed to come to Canada are
about 14,000 of the approximately 100,000 who are resettled annually of the 16 million refugees worldwide
Last year Canada was the eighth largest supporter of the UNHCR’s budget, contributing about $59 million.
Canadian policy concernsNumber of refugees allowed to remain has been declining;
Safe Third Country Agreement with US; Mexico, Czech visas 2009
Determination of qualification seems arbitrary
Proposed policy changes that arose from Sun Sea incident in 2010 through Bill C-31:
Proposed extended detention period for ‘irregular arrivals’
Concerns also raised about limited time to prepare for appeals
Increase in the discretionary authority of the minister, for example in identifying safe countries
Source country refers to the principal country of alleged persecution
Diaspora communitiesForeign born and immigrant communities
have always been an important political consideration in foreign policy
So-called ‘ethnic lobby’ has had influence on specific decisions
Politicians will also use foreign policy to win the ‘ethnic vote’
Personal connections/interestExpertise, information, familiarity
Global Migration Flows
Top emigration countries in the world are: Mexico, India, China, Ukraine, Bangladesh, Pakistan, UK, Philippines, Turkey
Top immigration destinations are: US, Russia, Germany, Saudi Arabia, Canada
Diaspora communities
Foreign policy officials are looking to these communities in a more systematic manner
Diaspora communities send more money back in remittances than the government provides in foreign aid
Canada and other governments also looking more closely at non-traditional diplomacy – citizens through both diaspora communities and Canadians abroad
Diaspora communities
These communities can be problematic – internal divisions
There are also concerns that they have too much influence in shaping foreign policy interests
Yet if national interests are determined by the interests of citizens at what point do the interests of diaspora communities become Canadian national interests
At the same time, foreign policy might benefit from their involvement, eg. no Afghani on the Manley Panel
Governments will pick and choose, though this might have political costs
The Canadian Diaspora
2.8 million Canadians live abroad (about 8% of the Canadian population)
‘Canadians Abroad’ a number of groups already exist in New York, Florida, Silicon Valley, Hong Kong, Philippines
“Global Citizens” initiative being considered by DFAIT
2012 budget cuts result in the withdrawal of $5m support for Canadian Studies programs abroad (39 countries) that reportedly generate $70m annually
Human rights and religious freedom: is this diaspora politics?
Political parties in Canada have always played to the ethnic vote, is this government different
Harper government has dismantled Rights and Democracy as an independent agency and brought it into DFAIT; also cut support to groups critical of Israeli human rights practices
Discussion of a centre for promoting democracy has been shelved
Developing an Office of Religious Freedom to champion religious rights (inspired by Shabaz Bhatti, assassinated Pakistani Minister)
Policy statements on Holodomor, Armenian genocide, Japanese use of ‘comfort women; but critical towards Tamils
Canada’s rank among 194 countries (rank may vary slightly depending on year consulted)
1st in percentage foreign born population2nd largest in size; 35th in population2nd in advanced education2nd in energy production among OECD4th human development index5th per capita income7th in trade9th in competitiveness9th in FDI recipient; 10th in FDI abroad13th in military spending
Given Canada’s position in the global community, is the country -
pulling its weightpunching above its weight, or (and changing the
metaphor)shirking its responsibilities
tom.keating@ualberta.ca
http://www.ualberta.ca/~tkeating/ELLA.ppt
http://www.ualberta.ca/~tkeating/ELLA2.ppt
http://www.ualberta.ca/~tkeating/ELLA3.ppt
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