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The effect of education and skills on
volunteering, trust and political
efficacy:
Evidence from PIAAC on the EU
Patricia Costa, Margarida Rodrigues,
Esperanza Vera-Toscano and Anke Weber
http://crell.jrc.ec.europa.eu/
Motivation
• Social benefits from education
• Understanding the social outcomes of learning (Behrman and Stacey, 1997; McMahon, 1998, 2000; OECD, 2001; Schuller et al., 2004; Desjardin and Schuller, 2006)
Education
Civic and social
engagement outcomes
Well-being
• personal • social • economic
Political efficacy
Social trust
Volunteering
Motivation
• The analyses so far has concentrated on schooling, primarily because this is where data are most readily available.
Education
Civic and social
engagement outcomes
Well-being
• Schooling • Skills • Adult lifelong learning
• personal • social • economic
Political efficacy
Social trust
Volunteering
Motivation Survey of Adult Skills 2013 (PIAAC)
- OECD - European Commission - International
Consortium led by Educational Testing Service (ETS)
- Participating countries
First survey including data on skills and social outcomes
Purpose of paper Improve our understanding of the relationship between
education, skills, adult lifelong learning and civic and social engagement outcomes, i.e. volunteering, social trust, political efficacy
Programme for the International Assessment of Adult
Competencies (PIAAC) is an international survey that measures
key cognitive and workplace skills needed for individuals to
participate in society and for economies to prosper.
PIAAC survey
Conducted in 24 countries (about 5000 individuals were
involved in each participating country).
Implemented in adults aged 16 to 65, interviewed in their
homes.
The survey assessed:
- literacy skills
- numeracy skills
- the ability to solve problems
in technology-rich environments
PIAAC survey
Measured on a scale
from 0 to 500 points
divided into skills
levels
from below 1 to 5 for literacy and numeracy
from below 1 to 3 for problem solving
The skills are “key information-processing competencies” and
are relevant to adults in many social contexts and work
situations, and necessary for fully integrating and
participating in the labour market, education and training, and
social and civic life.
PIAAC survey
Contextual questionnaires
EU participating countries
Country Frequency Country Frequency
Austria 5130 United Kingdom 8892
Belgium 5463 Ireland 5983
Cyprus 5053 Italy 4621
Czech Republic 6102 Netherlands 5170
Germany 5465 Norway 5128
Denmark 7328 Poland 9366
Spain 6055 Slovak Republic 5723
Estonia 7632 Sweden 4469
Finland 5464
PIAAC EU participating countries
Among EU countries, roughly three groups can be
identified:
countries with high shares of top performing
adults and low levels of low performers like the
Netherlands, Finland and Sweden;
countries with varying patterns but whose results are
not significantly different;
countries with few top performers and very high
shares of low performers such as Spain and Italy.
Civic and Social Engagement in PIAAC
Political efficacy Volunteering Social Trust
Civic and Social Engagement in PIAAC
Political efficacy
Civic and Social Engagement in PIAAC
Political efficacy
Variable in PIAAC relates to internal political efficacy Internal efficacy refers to “beliefs about one’s own competence to understand and to participate effectively in politics” (Craig et al., 1990, p.290). Internal efficacy measures the extent to which citizens feel sovereign to influence the political system. This does not necessarily depend on the quality of those institutions but rather refers to the abilities of the citizen.
Civic and Social Engagement in PIAAC
Volunteering
Civic and Social Engagement in PIAAC
Social Trust
Civic and Social Engagement in PIAAC
Social Trust
Variable in PIAAC relates to Trust in other people or interpersonal trust Trust in other people is central to the concept of social capital, as it serves as the driver for reciprocity and growth (Fukuyama, 1995; Hardin, 2002; Inglehart, 1990, 1997; Putnam, 1993, 2000; Uslaner, 2002). It is an indispensable asset for the economic activity, due to its ability to promote cooperation and to improve the efficiency of markets (Arrow, 1974).
Civic and Social Engagement in PIAAC
Social Trust The bedrock of democracy
• Education has been proven to have a universally positive effect on all forms of engagement (Converse, 1972; Almond and Verba, 1989; Marsh and Kaase, 1979; Putnam, 2000...).
• Individual skills
-> Skills enable people to better understand the motives and aspirations of others. -> Skills forge trust by fostering lasting relationships with the aim of accomplishing mutually rewarding outcomes.
Civic and Social Engagement in PIAAC
Volunteering
highly educated or skilled individuals have, on average, higher opportunity cost of time, as they are more likely to be employed and to have higher hourly wages. This would translate into less volunteer work.
highly educated or skilled individuals may face higher probability of being invited to do this type of work and may do it with less effort with respect to lower educated counterparts (Wilson, 2000), which would translate into more volunteer work.
Highly skilled individuals more likely to volunteer (OECD and HRDC, 1997 using IALS)
Not a clear pattern
Civic and Social Engagement in PIAAC
Political efficacy
On the one hand, highly educated or skilled individuals have, on average, higher opportunity cost of time, as they are more likely to be employed and to have higher hourly wages. This would translate into less volunteer work. On the other hand, highly educated or skilled individuals may face higher probability of being invited to do this type of work and may do it with less effort with respect to lower educated counterparts (Wilson, 2000), which would translate into more volunteer work. Therefore, from a theoretical point of view, there is no clear relation between education, skills and volunteer work. Which of these two mechanisms wins may depend on the volunteer tasks, individual preferences and other contextualizing factors. It some instances, education may have a curvilinear relation to volunteering (Thompson, 1993).
Highly educated individuals seem to exhibit higher levels of political efficacy (cf. Hayes and Bean, 1993; and Baker, 1973).
Only education, i.e. number of years of education or highest education level attained, and not skills are measured
Education is strongly related to political participation, i.e. educated individuals are more aware of the importance of becoming politically involved and have also the financial means to participate actively to politics (Brady et al., 1995). Political efficacy Political participation: higher political efficacy increases political participation and in turn higher political participation enhances the level of political efficacy (Brady et al., 1995; Clarke and Acock, 1989; Finkel, 1987; Powell, 1986; Pollock, 1983; and Baker, 1973).
Adult skills vs Political efficacy
Same relationship in:
- Numeracy
- Problem Solving
Adult skills vs Voluntary work
Same relationship in:
- Numeracy
- Problem Solving
Adult skills vs Trust – other people take advantage
Same relationship in:
- Numeracy
- Problem Solving
Adult skills vs Educational level
Same relationship in:
- Numeracy
- Problem Solving
Methodology
Estimate a series of reduced form (ordered) probit models
Education Skills: Literacy Numeracy Problem Solving
Adult Lifelong learning Socio-economic,
demographic and regional dummies
Complex survey design accounted for by using replicate weights and plausible values
Methodology: Educational related variables
Varname Definition
Formal
Education
Educlow Education Level – Low
Educmedium Education Level – Medium
Educhigh Education Level - High
Skills level
Pvlit11/Pvnum1
/Pvsl1
Literacy/Numeracy/Problem Solving Scale Score – Plausible value 1
(<225)
Pvlit12/Pvnum2
/Pvsl2
Literacy/Numeracy/Problem Scale Score – Plausible value 1
(225-275)
Pvlit13/
Pvnum3/Pvsl3
Literacy/Numeracy/Problem Scale Score – Plausible value 1
(275-325)
Pvlit14/
Pvnum4/Pvsl4
Literacy/Numeracy/Problem Scale Score – Plausible value 1
(>325)
Adult
Education
ALL If participated in formal or non-formal AET in 12 months preceding
the survey
Methodology: Other socioeconomic and demographic vars. Varname Definition
Age
Age 1624 Individuals aged 16-24
Age 2534 Individuals aged 25-34
Age 3544 Individuals aged 35-44
Age 4554 Individuals aged 45-54
Age 5564 Individuals aged 55-64
Gender Female Yes if female
Marital status Married Yes if married or cohabiting
Family status Children Yes if young children in the household
Socioeconomic
status
Parentseducated Highest level of education of any of the parents/guardians
Migrants If not born in the country
Occ_skill If employed in Professional occupation
Occ_white If employed in Semi-professional, white collar occupation
Occ_blue If employed in Semi-professional, blue collar occupation
Occ_elem If employed in Unskilled occupation
Unemployed If unemployed
Inactive If inactive
Civic
participation
readnewspapers If read newspaper at least once a week or every day
27 10 December 2013
Pooled EU dataset
DV: Social trust
Literacy skills Numeracy Problem
solving
(1) (2) (3) (4) (5)
Education Education
+ Skills
Education
+ Skills +
ALL
Education +
Skills +
ALL
Education
+ Skills +
ALL1)
Education
level Medium 1.232
(10.45)
1.153
(6.762)
1.147
(6.524)
1.135
(6.048)
1.149
(5.792)
High 2.034
(26.3)
1.738
(20.48)
1.694
(19.52)
1.679
(19.19)
1.777
(18.55)
Skills level:
literacy,
numeracy or
problem
solving
Skills level 2
1.122
(4.6)
1.11
(4.16)
1.203
(8.043)
1.162
(5.769)
Skills level 3
1.528
(16.31)
1.495
(15.46)
1.565
(18.67)
1.474
(14.92)
Skills level
4+5
2.004
(21.06)
1.948
(20.21)
1.946
(21.48)
1.898
(18.85)
Adult lifelong
learning ALL
1.23
(12.18)
1.232
(12.29)
1.242
(11.42)
Common pattern:
Having educated parents, being non-migrant, reading newspaper, and
having a high-skilled job increases likelihood of volunteering, trusting
others and believing to have an influence on the government
Individual characteristics, i.e. gender, married, having children, age
different effects for the three social outcomes
next explore if any country-specific effects
Results
29 10 December 2013
Fra
nce
Es
tonia
Slo
vak
iaP
ola
nd
Irela
nd
Fin
land
Sp
ain
Fra
nce
Sp
ain
Italy
Ne
therl
an
ds
De
nm
ark
UK
Slo
vak
iaB
elg
ium
Cz
ec
h-R
ep
ubli
cIr
ela
nd
Po
land
Sw
ed
en
Fin
land
Au
str
iaF
ran
ce
Es
tonia
Cz
ec
h-R
ep
ubli
cF
inla
nd
Cy
pru
sP
ola
nd
Germ
an
yIt
aly
De
nm
ark
Be
lgiu
mIr
ela
nd
De
nm
ark
Sp
ain
UK
Ne
therl
an
ds
Cz
ec
h-R
ep
ubli
c
Sw
ed
en
Slo
vak
ia
Cy
pru
sIt
aly
Au
str
iaB
elg
ium
Sw
ed
en
Es
tonia
Cy
pru
sU
KN
eth
erl
an
ds
Au
str
ia
Germ
an
y
Germ
an
y
ba
sic
me
diu
mh
igh
Sk
ills le
ve
l
.5 1 1.5 2 2.5Odds-ratio of skills for political efficacy
R-squared=0.495
Effect of skills on political efficacy
Po
land
Cy
pru
sP
ola
nd
Cy
pru
sF
inla
nd
Cy
pru
sU
KP
ola
nd
Germ
an
yN
eth
erl
an
ds
Sw
ed
en
Es
tonia
Es
tonia
Irela
nd
Be
lgiu
mC
zec
h-R
ep
ubli
cF
inla
nd
Sw
ed
en
Fra
nce
Irela
nd
Au
str
iaIt
aly
Au
str
iaS
lov
ak
iaS
pain
Be
lgiu
mD
enm
ark
Au
str
iaIt
aly
Sp
ain
Ne
therl
an
ds
Slo
vak
iaIt
aly
Ne
therl
an
ds
Slo
vak
iaU
KF
inla
nd
Es
tonia
Cz
ec
h-R
ep
ubli
c
Sp
ain
De
nm
ark
Be
lgiu
mIr
ela
nd
De
nm
ark
Fra
nce
Germ
an
yG
erm
an
y
Cz
ec
h-R
ep
ubli
cU
K
Sw
ed
en
Fra
nce
ba
sic
me
diu
mh
igh
Sk
ills le
ve
l
.5 1 1.5 2 2.5Odds-ratio of skills for volunteering
R-squared=0.322
Effect of skills on volunteering
Slo
vak
iaS
lov
ak
iaS
lov
ak
ia
Po
land
Sp
ain
Fin
land
Fra
nce
Fin
land
Cy
pru
sE
sto
nia
Po
land
Irela
nd
Be
lgiu
mU
KC
ypru
sC
zec
h-R
ep
ubli
cS
pain
Fin
land
Cy
pru
sC
zec
h-R
ep
ubli
cIt
aly
Sw
ed
en
De
nm
ark
Germ
an
yN
eth
erl
an
ds
Au
str
iaF
ran
ce
Po
land
Sp
ain
Irela
nd
Es
tonia
UK
Be
lgiu
mS
we
den
Fra
nce
Italy
Irela
nd
Italy
Sw
ed
en
De
nm
ark
Ne
therl
an
ds
Cz
ec
h-R
ep
ubli
cB
elg
ium
Es
tonia
Germ
an
y
Au
str
iaU
K
De
nm
ark
Ne
therl
an
ds
Au
str
ia
Germ
an
y
ba
sic
me
diu
mh
igh
Sk
ills le
ve
l
0 1 2 3 4Odds-ratio of skills for trust
R-squared=0.342
Effect of skills on trust
- Only significant odds-ratios are shown -
30 10 December 2013
01
23
45
dis
sim
ila
rity
measure
Be
lgiu
m
Esto
nia
Ne
the
rla
nd
s
De
nm
ark
Ire
lan
d
Sp
ain
Fin
lan
d
Cze
ch-R
ep
ub
lic
Fra
nce
Sw
ed
en
UK
Ge
rma
ny
Cluster of countries for high skilled individuals
After controlling for a wide range of covariates, we find that
education, skills levels and ALL are significantly related to social
outcomes
There is substantial variation by country for skills levels 4+5, so
far not explained by other covariates Future work needed
Common patterns for all three social outcomes Future work to
see if there is a latent concept behind three social outcomes
Conclusions
APPENDIX
32 10 December 2013
33 10 December 2013
DV: Volunteering
Literacy Numeracy
Problem
Solving
(1) (2) (3) (4) (5)
Education Education
+ Skills
Education
+ Skills +
ALL
Education +
Skills + ALL
Education
+ Skills +
ALL1)
Education
level
Medium 1.305 1.228 1.212 1.201 1.191
(10.136) (7.698) (7.107) (6.702) (6.029)
High 1.745 1.549 1.444 1.438 1.465
(18.097) (13.894) (11.557) (11.344) (10.990)
Skills level:
literacy,
numeracy or
problem
solving
Skills level 2 1.187 1.166 1.195 1.177
(5.580) (4.992) (5.917) ( 5.501)
Skills level 3 1.443 1.385 1.421 1.341
(11.409) (10.030) (11.197) (9.651)
Skills level
4-5
1.683 1.591 1.623 1.662
(12.752) (11.310) (12.482) (12.791)
Adult Lifelong
Learning
ALL 1.698 1.703 1.665
(25.872) (26.034) (22.347)
34 10 December 2013
DV: Volunteering
Literacy
Numeracy Problem Solving
(3) (4) (5)
Education + Skills + ALL Education + Skills + ALL Education + Skills + ALL1)
Basic
characteristics
age1624 0.904 0.906 0.950
(2.767) (2.703) (1.265)
age2534 0.734 0.738 0.713
(10.793) (10.575) (10.309)
age4554 1.112 1.105 1.145
(3.915) (3.685) (4.300)
age5564 1.142 1.128 1.149
(4.576) (4.175) (4.221)
female 0.909 0.930 0.909
(4.951) (3.749) (4.449)
married 1.032 1.028 1.045
(1.418) (1.240) (1.800)
children 1.094 1.091 1.107
(3.544) (3.425) (3.573)
SES
parentseducated 1.122 1.120 1.104
(4.806) (4.693) (3.546)
migrant 0.780 0.782 0.784
(5.264) (5.181) (4.189)
occ_skill 1.179 1.170 1.176
(5.882) (5.568) (5.179)
occ_white 0.970 0.967 0.996
(1.076) (1.167) (0.135)
occ_blue 0.971 0.961 0.982
(0.883) (1.210) (0.501)
occ_elem 0.831 0.834 0.876
(3.769) (3.697) (2.396)
unempl 0.953 0.958 0.933
(1.086) (0.987) (1.325)
Civic
participation
readnewspaper 1.381 1.382 1.387
(12.785) (12.837) (11.019)
35 10 December 2013
DV: Political efficacy Literacy skills Numerac
y
Problem
solving
(1) (2) (3) (4) (5)
Education Education
+ Skills
Education
+ Skills +
ALL
Education
+ Skills +
ALL
Education
+ Skills +
ALL1)
Education
level
Medium 1.309
(13.543)
1.238
(10.577)
1.238
(10.542)
1.234
(10.345)
1.271
(10.593)
High 1.926
(26.500)
1.693
(20.643)
1.653
(19.651)
1.664
(19.826)
1.736
(19.104)
Skills level:
literacy,
numeracy or
problem
solving
Skills level 2
1.092
(3.683)
1.082
(3.268)
1.139
(5.809)
1.186
(6.843)
Skills level 3
1.423
(13.684)
1.392
(12.813)
1.389
(13.420)
1.451
(14.848)
Skills level 4-
5
1.811
(18.504)
1.757
(17.569)
1.619
(15.892)
1.882
(18.884)
Adult
Lifelong
Learning
ALL
1.235
(12.628)
1.242
(12.919)
1.243
(11.586)
36 10 December 2013
DV: Political efficacy Literacy skills Numeracy Problem solving
(3) (4) (5)
Education + Skills +
ALL
Education + Skills +
ALL
Education + Skills +
ALL1)
Basic characteristics
Age1624 1.178
(5.819)
1.189
(6.180)
1.104
(3.123)
Age2534 0.997
(-0.119)
1.005
(0.215)
0.963
(-1.476)
Age4554 1.020
(0.938)
1.011
(0.503)
1.036
(1.450)
Age5564 1.009
(0.386)
0.992
(-0.369)
1.030
(1.115)
Female 1.004
(0.265)
1.027
(1.772)
1.026
(1.506)
Married 1.007
(0.409)
1.006
(0.310)
1.020
(1.018)
Children 0.947
(-2.712)
0.942
(-2.999)
0.935
(-3.002)
SES
Parentseducated 1.094
(4.829)
1.095
(4.824)
1.111
(4.859)
Migrant 0.935
(-1.743)
0.922
(-2.090)
0.945
(-1.167)
Occ_skilled 1.108
(4.478)
1.110
(4.517)
1.121
(4.366)
Occ_white 0.920
(-3.595)
0.920
(-3.586)
0.916
(-3.330)
Occ_blue 0.814
(-7.986)
0.804
(-8.467)
0.777
(-8.539)
Occ_elem 0.797
(-6.325)
0.796
(-6.383)
0.791
(-5.740)
unemployed 0.894
(-3.143)
0.898
(-3.004)
0.896
(-2.594)
Civic participation Readnewspaper 1.274
(13.027)
1.279
(13.347)
1.322
(12.968)
37 10 December 2013
DV: Social trust Literacy skills Numeracy Problem solving
(3) (4) (5)
Education + Skills + ALL Education + Skills +
ALL
Education + Skills +
ALL
Basic characteristics Age1624 0.999
(-0.03)
1.009
(0.281)
0.964
(-1.03)
Age2534 0.888
(-4.96)
0.892
(-4.56)
0.84
(-6.21)
Age4554 1.068
(3)
1.058
(2.545)
1.047
(1.769)
Age5564 1.137
(5.333)
1.114
(4.5)
1.146
(4.857)
Female 1.166
(10.27)
1.207
(12.53)
1.229
(12.12)
Married 1.074
(3.737)
1.068
(3.474)
1.103
(4.667)
Children 0.925
(-3.71)
0.919
(-4.05)
0.918
(-3.58)
Parentseducated 1.124
(6.158)
1.121
(6)
1.119
(5.091)
Migrant 0.952
(-1.26)
0.946
(-1.34)
0.894
(-2.29)
SES Readnewspaper 1.094
(4.5)
1.096
(4.6)
1.164
(6.609)
Skilled job 1.259
(9.586)
1.252
(9.375)
1.262
(8.321)
Semi-skilled white 0.966
(-1.52)
0.965
(-1.5)
0.973
(-0.96)
Semi-skilled blue 0.918
(-3.44)
0.904
(-3.88)
0.931
(-2.45)
Unskilled 0.858
(-4.37)
0.863
(-4.2)
0.873
(-3.32)
Unemployed 0.811
(-5.86)
0.814
(-5.89)
0.82
(-4.74)
38 10 December 2013
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Clus ter of countries for high skilled individuals , averagelinkage
05
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15
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Clus ter of countries for high skilled individuals , wardslinkage0
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Clus ter of countries for high skilled individuals , centroidlinkage
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Clus ter of countries for high skilled individuals , waveragelinkage
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