the conquests
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MUHAMMAD’S MISSION AND CAMPAIGNS
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G u l f Gu l f o f O m a n
A r a b i a n S e a
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M e d i t e r r a n e a nS e a
Nile
EuphratesTigris
R u ba l
K h a l i
t h ee m
p t yq u a r t e r
A n a t o l i a
B Y Z A N T
I NE
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PI
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Cyprus
S A S A N I A N
E M P I R E
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A r a b i aNOBATIA
AXUM
ALWA
MAKKURA
Qadisiya 636
624 632
630
633
633
625
Mecca
Sana
Muscat
Siraf
Shiraz
al-Yamama
Isfahan
Kerman
Aswan
Basra
Antioch
Caesarea
Kufa
Qazvin
Jafula
Rayy
Nihavand
Hamadan
Damietta
Aleppo
Raqqa
Gaza
Marash Samosata
Mosul
EdessaHarran
Dabiq
Damascus
HomsTripoli
Jerusalem
Medina
Ctesiphon
Wasit
Alexandria
al-Fustat(Cairo)
Heliopolis
Dumat al-Jandal
Muhammad’s Missions and Campaigns to 632
Muhammad moves to Medina
Conquered by Muhammad to 632
Battle site with date
Campaigns
Conquered by Abu Bakr 632–34
H A of Islam Spreads 01–07 21/5/04 9:06 AM Page 27
The Death of Muḥammad (632 CE)
• Crisis of succession
• Rebellion of Arab tribes
• Sustainability of the Arab state
The Conquerors Arrive
• 636: Battles of Yarmuk (Syria) and Qādisiyya (Iraq)
• 639–42: Conquest of Egypt
• 642: Battle of Nahāvand.
• 650: Merv in Central Asia captured. Last Sasanian king Yazdgird III (r. 632–651) killed.
• 711: Sind and Andalusia invaded
• 751: Muslims meet the armies of the Tang Chinese at Talas in Central Asia.
EXPANSION OF ISLAM TO 750
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ARMENIA
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P E R S I A
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KINGDOM OF AXUM
ALODIA
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Black Sea
AralSea
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I N D I A N O C E A N
Caspian
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P e r s i a n G u l f
Re d
S e a
Me d i t e r r a n e a n S e a
Euphrates
Nile
Amu Darya
Syr Darya
Indu
s
rthage 698rouan 670
Tripoli 647
Alexandria646
Rhodes654 Cyprus649
Constantinople673–77, 717–18
Damascus 635capital from 658
Antioch
Tarsus Edessa
Tiflis Derbend
Rome
Ardabil
Erzurum
Ramla
al-Fustat 670 Heliopolis 640
Mecca 622
Soba
Badr 624
Ajnadain 634
Jerusalem 638Qadisiya 636
Najran
Aden
Dongola
Nehavend642
Isfahan
Mery
Nishapur 651
Bukhara 710
Talas 751
Samarkand 710
Balkh 664
Istahar 648Basra656
Kabul 664
Multan 711
Herat
Susa
Rayy
Yarmuk 636
Kerbela680
Suhar
Muscat
Mosul 641
Tabriz
Ctesiphon
Kufa
Jalula
Fihl
Tabuk
Medina
Faiyum
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B U L G A R S
H U N G A R I A N S
Expansion to 750
Under Muhammad
Expansion of Islam:
Arab advance
Battle site
Under Abu Bakr (632–634)
Under Umar (634–644)
Under Uthman (644–656) and Ali (656–661)
Under the Umayyads (661–750)
K H A Z A RE M P I R E
SL A V S
TU
RK
I CP E O P L E S
H A of Islam Spreads 01–07 21/5/04 9:06 AM Page 29
HISTORICAL ATLAS OF THE ISLAMIC WORLD
The Dome of the Rock in
Jerusalem, built by the Caliph
Abd al-Malik in 691–92, is the
first great building to have been
constructed after the Arab
conquest. Embellished with
Koranic quotations proclaiming
the unity of God, the building
surrounds the rock from where
Muhammad is believed to have
embarked on his miraculous
“night journey” to heaven.
Muhammad’s death left the Muslim communi-ty without an obvious leader. One of his oldestcompanions, Abu Bakr (r. 632–634), wasacknowledged by several leaders as the firstcaliph, or successor. Under Abu Bakr and hissuccessor Umar (634–644), the tribes, who hadbegun to fall away on the death of Muhammad,were reunited under the banner of Islam andconverted into a formidable military and ideo-logical force. The Arabs broke out of the penin-sula, conquering half the Byzantine provincesas well as defeating the armies of SasanianPersia. Ctesiphon, the Persian capital, fell in637, Jerusalem in 638. By 646, under Umar’ssuccessor Uthman (r. 644–656), the whole ofEgypt had come under Arab Muslim control.Acquiring ships from Egypt and Syria, theArabs conducted seaborne raids, conqueringCyprus in 649 and pillaging Rhodes in 654.Religious differences between the Byzantinerulers and their subjects in Egypt and Syriaensured that the Muslims were met with indif-ference, or even welcomed by fellow monothe-ists embittered by decades of alien Byzantinerule. But secular factors were also important.The Arabs were motivated by desire for plun-der, as well as religious faith. In previous eras
nomadic preda-tors would havetaken the plunder orheld onto land, dispersingas landlords or peasantsamong the conquered peoples.In a farsighted decision CaliphUmar encouraged the tribes to settlewith a system of stipends paid from thecommon treasury, which took control ofthe conquered lands. The Arabs were keptapart from the population in armed camps thatevolved into garrison cities such as Basra andKufa in Iraq. Although the tensions over thedistribution of booty would erupt into opencivil war the overall control exercised by thefledgling Islamic government remained underdynastic rule. Though individual dynastieswould often be challenged as ruling contrary toIslamic principles of equality and justice, thedynastic system of governance fitted the pre-vailing form of social organization, the patriar-chal kinship group, and remained the normuntil modern times. Under the Umayyads theremarkable expansion of Islam continued, withthe Arab raiders reaching as far as centralFrance and the Indus Valley.
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Expansion of Islam to 750 10° 0°
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H A of Islam Spreads 01–07 21/5/04 9:06 AM Page 28
What Drove the Conquests?
• Ecological Thesis: The Byzantine-Sasanian Wars (602–628), along with the outbreak of disease (plague of 619) and climate change severely depleted the region’s resources.
• Nationalist Thesis: Concentrated effort of united tribes could be directed to conquest outside the borders of Arabia.
• Accidental Thesis
• Money:
– Spoils of War: ‘Umar establishes the dīwān, a list that divides the spoils of conquest up among the armies according to seniority in conversion
– Question of Centralization: centralized on a strategic but not tactical level
Islam and Taxes
• Muslim Isolation: – Miṣr (amṣār): garrison cities – Laws for non-Muslims (dhimmī): religious freedom, separate
dress, no weapons
• Non-Muslims & Taxes: – The jizya (poll tax) as ‘compensation’ for religious freedom taken
from non-Muslim adult males; exempted from zakāt (alms tax)
• Result: Conversion is Slow – In Iraq in 800 CE, only 18% Muslim – Majority of Egypt is not Muslim until the 11th century
Leadership and Authority
• Succession to Muhammad: religious and/or political authority?
• Caliph: ‘khalīfat allāh’ or ‘khalīfat rasūl allāh’ – Deputy of God or Deputy of the Messenger of God?
• The Partisans of ‘Ali
• First Civil War 656-660 – ‘Āʼisha (defeated at Battle of the Camel by ʻAlī in 656) – Muʻāwiya, a relative of the third caliph ʻUthmān and governor of Syria since 639 – Ali and his partisans (face-off with Muʻāwiya at Battle of Ṣiffin in 657) – The Khārijites: the first radicals, secede from ʻAlī’s party after arbitration with
Muʻāwiya (defeated by ʻAlī in 658, assassinate him in 661)
Qurʼān as a Book
• Types of material: – Hortatory/didactic: believe, do good deeds, fear God, beware the Day
of Judgment, obey God and his Prophet – Narrative: tales of Moses, Abraham, Noah, Yusuf, Zulaykha – Predictive/Eschatological: fate of believers and unbelievers, creation
and end of the world – Polemical: claims of Muhammad’s opponents, the failings of the
‘People of the Book’ – Doctrinal: the nature of God – Legal: less than 500 verses deal with law and ritual
• Structure of Quran: • Not a continuous narrative • Contextual: asbāb al-nuzūl = occasions of revelation’ • Ellipticalism: assumes audience knowledge • Person: God as beyond language… ‘He’, ‘I’ ‘We’ and ‘God’
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