surveys. respondents respondents are a representative sample of people

Surveys

Respondents

Respondents are a representative sample of people

Surveys

Surveys ask respondents for information using verbal or written questioning

Gathering Information via Surveys

• Quick

• Inexpensive

• Efficient

• Accurate

• Flexible

Totalerror

Systematicerror (bias)

Random samplingerror

Tree Diagram of Total Survey Error

Random Sampling Error

• A statistical fluctuation that occurs because of change variation in the elements selected for the sample

Totalerror

Systematicerror (bias)

Random samplingerror

Tree Diagram of Total Survey Error

Common Errors in Survey Research

• Systematic Error–Also called Nonsampling Error

–Results from•some imperfect aspect of the research design or

• from a mistake in the execution of the research.

Systematicerror (bias)

Administrativeerror

Respondenterror

Tree Diagram of Total Survey Error

Respondent Error

• A classification of sample bias resulting from some respondent action or inaction

• Nonresponse bias

• Response bias

Nonresponse Error• Statistical difference between

– a survey that includes only those who responded and– a perfect survey that would also include those who

failed to respond

• Nonrespondent– Person who is not contacted or who refuses to

cooperate in the research– No Contact

• Person who is not at home on the 1st or 2nd contact, or who is otherwise inaccessible.

– Refusal• Person who is unwilling to participate in a research

project

Response Bias• Bias that occurs when respondents either consciously

or unconsciously tend to answer questions with a certain slant that misrepresents the truth.

• Can arise from– The question format

– The question content

– Some other stimulus • such as the situation in which the question is asked

• Deliberate falsification may occur when people misrepresent answers to appear intelligent, to conceal personal information, to avoid embarrassment, etc.

Acquiescence bias

Extremity bias

Interviewer bias

Auspices bias

Social desirability bias

Tree Diagram of Total Survey Error

Acquiescence Bias

• A category of response bias that results because some individuals tend to agree with all questions or to concur with a particular position.

Extremity Bias

• A category of response bias that results because response styles vary from person to person; some individuals tend to use extremes when responding to questions.

Interviewer Bias

• A response bias that occurs because the presence of the interviewer influences answers.

Auspices Bias

• Bias in the responses of subjects caused by the respondents being influenced by the organization conducting the study.

Social Desirability Bias

• Bias in responses caused by respondents’ desire, either conscious or unconscious, to gain prestige or appear in a different social role.

Systematicerror (bias)

Administrativeerror

Respondenterror

Tree Diagram of Total Survey Error

Administrative Errors• Error caused by the improper administration or

execution of the research task.

• Caused by– Carelessness– Confusion– Neglect– Omission– Some other blunder

Data processing error

Sample selection error

Interviewer error

Interviewer cheating

Tree Diagram of Total Survey Error

Types of Administrative Errors• Data-Processing Error

– Occurs because of incorrect data entry, incorrect computer programming, or some other procedural errors during the data-processing stage

• Sample Selection Error– Caused by improper sample design or sampling

procedure execution– Hoover vs. Roosevelt, 1932 Presidential Election

Types of Administrative Errors• Interviewer Error

– Mistakes made by interviewers who fail to record survey responses correctly

– Could also occur if selective perception causes interviewers to misrecord data that do not support their own attitudes and opinions

• Interviewer Cheating– Practice by interviewers of filling in fake answers or

falsifying questionnaires.– If suspect this, tell interviewers that a small

percentage of respondents will be called back to confirm whether the initial interview was actually conducted

Survey Methods

Telephone Personal Electronic

TraditionalTelephone

Computer-Assisted Telephone Interviewing

Mall Intercept

In-Home

E-Mail

InternetComputer-Assisted

Personal Interviewing

Mail

Mail Panel

Mail/Fax Interview

Classification of Survey Methods

Personal Interviews

• Form of direct communication in which an interviewer asks respondents questions face-to-face.

Advantages of Personal Interviews

• Opportunity for Feedback

• Probing Complex Answers– Interviewer asks for clarification or expansion of

answers

• Length of Interview

• Completeness of Questionnaires– Minimizes Item Nonresponse: failure by a respondent

to answer a question on a questionnaire

• Props & Visual Aids

• High Participation

Disadvantages of Personal Interviews

• Interviewer Influence

• Lack of Respondent Anonymity

• Cost

Types of Personal Interviews

• Door-to-Door (In-Home) Interviews–Conducted at the respondent’s home

or place of business

• Mall Intercept Interviews–Personal interview conducted in a

shopping mall or other high-traffic area

Aspects of Personal Interview

• Speed of data collection– Slow to Moderate

• Geographical flexibility– Limited to moderate

• Respondent cooperation– Excellent

• Versatility of questioning– Quite versatile

Aspects of Personal Interview

• Questionnaire length– Long

• Item nonresponse– Low

• Possibility of respondent misunderstanding– Lowest

Aspects of Personal Interview

• Degree of interviewer influence of answer– High

• Supervision of interviewers– Low to Moderate

• Anonymity of respondent– Low

Aspects of Personal Interview

• Ease of call back or follow-up– Difficult

• Cost– Highest

• Special features– Visual materials may be shown or

demonstrated; extended probing possible

Telephone Surveys

Telephone Surveys

• Speed of Data Collection– Very fast

• Geographical Flexibility– High

• Respondent Cooperation– Poor

• Versatility of Questioning– Moderate

Telephone Surveys

• Questionnaire Length– SHORT!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!

• Item Nonresponse– Medium

• Possibility of Respondent Misunderstanding– Average

• Degree of Interviewer Influence of Answer– Moderate

Telephone Surveys

• Supervision of interviewers– High, especially with central location WATS

interviewing

• Anonymity of respondent– Moderate

• Ease of call back or follow-up– Easy

Telephone Surveys

• Cost– Low to Moderate to High

• Special features– Fieldwork and supervision of data collection

are simplified; quite adaptable to computer technology

M A IL IN -P E R S O ND R O P -O F F

IN S E R TS F A X

P A P E RQ U E S TIO N N A IR E S

E -M A IL IN TE R N E TW E B S ITE

K IO S K

E L E C TR O N ICQ U E S TIO N N A IR E S

S E L F -A D M IN IS TE R E DQ U E S TIO N N A IR E S

Self-Administered Questionnaires

Mail Surveys

Mail Surveys

• Speed of data collection– Researcher has no control over return of

questionnaire; slow

• Geographical flexibility– High

• Respondent cooperation– Moderate--poorly designed questionnaire will

have low response rate

Mail Surveys

• Versatility of questioning– Highly standardized format

• Questionnaire length– Varies depending on incentive– Varies depending on whether business or

consumer respondents

• Item nonresponse– High

Mail Surveys

• Possibility of respondent misunderstanding– Highest--no interviewer present for clarification

• Degree of interviewer influence of answer– None--interviewer absent

• Supervision of interviewers– Not applicable

Mail Surveys

• Anonymity of respondent– High

• Ease of call back or follow-up– Easy, but takes time

• Cost– Moderate

Methods of Improving Response Rates

Prior Notification

Incentives Follow-upOther

Facilitators

Monetary Nonmonetary

PromisedPrepaid

Improving Response Rates

E-Mail Questionnaire Surveys

• Speed of data collection– Virtually Instantaneous

• Geographic flexibility– worldwide

• Cheaper distribution and processing costs

E-Mail Questionnaire Surveys

• Flexible, but– Extensive differences in the capabilities of

respondents’ computers and e-mail software limit the types of questions and the layout

• E-mails are not secure and “eavesdropping” can possibly occur

• Respondent cooperation– Varies depending if e-mail is seen as “spam”

Internet Surveys• Self-administered questionnaire posted on a site.

• Respondents answer questions displayed online by highlighting a phrase, clicking an icon, or keying in an answer.

• Many of the same advantages & disadvantages as E-Mail Surveys.

• Key differences between Internet & E-Mail surveys:– Must rely on respondents coming to the site (and

deciding to participate)– Data collection can be much slower

Internet & E-Mail SurveysNever forget:

• Not all individuals in the general public have Internet access.

• Many respondents lack powerful computers with high-speed connections to the Internet.

• Many respondents’ computer skills will be relatively unsophisticated.

There is no best form of survey; each has

advantages and disadvantages.