rezumat spector job satisfaction
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Job satisfaction is :
the extent to which people like or dislike their job
an attitudinal variable - until the 1970’s it was researched mainly as a perspective
of inherent need fulfillment but researchers today focus on the cognitive process
of satisfaction
the most frequently studied variable in organizational behavior research
Importance of job satisfaction:
Humanitarian perspective – people deserve to be treated fairly and with respect
Utilitarian perspective – job satisfaction can lead to behavior that affects
orginzational functioning
Job satisfaction can be analyzed globally or on various aspects of the job.
Common aspects of job satisfaction :
Appreciation
Communication
Coworkers
Fringe benefits
Job conditions
Nature of the work itself
Organization itself
Organization’s policies and procedures
Pay
Personal growth
Promotion opportunities
Recognition
Security
Supervision
Correlations between some aspects lead to the distinction of 4 areas :
Rewards
Other people
Nature of the work
Organizational context
Job satisfaction is usually measured with :
Questionnaires/surveys
Cheap
easy to standarize and quantify responses
Interviews
more expensive
answers offer extensive information
less constrained format allows unexpected aspects to come to light
used primarily as an initial step in designing a questionnaire
Different approaches have shown that other individuals can be, to some extent, aware of
another person’s job satisfaction (supervisor->employee, husband->wife, child-
>parent,observer->subject) but their opinions are never as reliable as asking the subject
itself.
The more reliable way of assessing job satisfaction is to use an existing scale.
Advantages:
Their reliability and validity was established in previous studies
They cover the major facets of satisfaction
They have been used a sufficients number of times to provide norms for
evaluation and comparisons within a given population (ex : private sector
managers in the United States)
They save the cost and time to develop a new scale from scratch
Disadvantages:
Limited to the facets that the developers chose to place in their instrument
They are applicable to most organizations but they are not very reliable for
very specific organizations and situations (a manufacturing company is
likely to have different satisfaction facets as opposed to a hospital)
Most scales are copyrighted and come with a cost for surveying
employees : the current price for copies of the Job Descriptive Index is
47$ per hundred.
Job satisfaction scales described in the book :
Scales which analyze facets of job satisfaction
1. JSS – Job Satisfaction Survey
2. JDI - Job Descriptive Index
3. MSQ - Minnesota Satisfaction Questionnaire
4. JDS – Job Diagnostic Survey
Scales which analyze global job satisfaction (reminder aici )
1. JIG – Job in General Scale
2. Michigan Organizational Assessment Questionnaire
JSS – The Job Satisfaction Survey
Assesses 9 facets of job satisfaction as well as overall satisfaction (by combining
all of the items)
The 9 facets are :
1. Pay – satisfaction with pay and pay rises
2. Promotion – satisfaction with promotion opportunities
3. Supervision – Satisfaction with the person’s immediate supervisor
4. Fringe benefits – Satisfaction with fringe benefits
Fringe or employment benefits, also known as benefits in kind, are compensations made to an
employee beyond regular wages or salaries. Some types such as paid vacation are fairly standard,
but others such as the use of a company jet are more rare. Different offers a company groups
together for an employee are collectively known as a fringe benefits package.
5. Contingent rewards – Satisfaction with rewards ( not necessarily
monetary) given for good performance
6. Operating conditions – Satisfaction with rules and procedures
7. Coworkers – satisfaction with coworkers
8. Nature of Work – satisfaction with the type of work done
9. Communication – Satisfaction with communication within the
organization
SCORING :
The JSS can yield 10 scores – 9 facets and 1 total score
Each of the 9 subscales has 4 items(questiones) belonging to them.
Each item is scored by the subject from 1 to 6.
Items are generally scored in a positive direction if they are positively worded or
in a negative direction(reversed) if they are negatively worded.
Examples :
Item “ I feel I am being paid a fair amount for the work I do” is positively worded =>
1 = Disagree very much
6 = Agree very much
If the subject ticks 6 – Agree very much than the item is scored 6 points
Item “ Raises are too few and far between” is negatively worded =>
1 = Disagree very much
6 = Agree very much
If the subject ticks 6 – Agree very much than the item is scored 1 point, rather than 6 to be
relevant in accordance to the negativity.
The scoring table will list negatively worded items with an “r” so that their score is reversed
using the following formula “ITEM X = 7 – ITEM X”
Item scores for each facet are to be summed so that they range from 4 to 24 (1 is the lowest
possible score for an item and 6 is the highest and there are 4 items for each facet)
The total score ranges from 36 to 216 – there are 36 items in total with a minimum score of 1 and
a maximum score of 6.
Reliability
There are 2 types of reliability estimates which are important for evaluating a scale :
1. Internal consistency reflects the assessment of the same underlying variable. It is also
called coefficient alpha. The table below shows the coefficient alphas from a large
sample of individuals who completed the JSS. The lowest coefficient alpha is 0.60 for the
coworker subscale and the highest is 0.91 for the total scale. The widely accepted
minimum standard is 0.70.
2. Test-retest reliability reflects the stability of the scale over time. Reliability data for the
JSS are available from only one small sample of 43 employees. These reliabilities ranged
from 0.37 to 0.74. The relative stability of satisfaction is remarkable in a timespan of 18
months during which several major changes occurred(reorganization, layoffs, change of
administration)
Validity
Validity evidence for job satisfaction scales is provided by studies that compared different scales
with one another on the same employees. Five of the JSS subscales (pay, promotion, supervision,
coworkers and nature of work) correlate well with corresponding subscales of the JDI which is
probably the most carefully validated scale of job satisfaction. These correlations range from
0.61 for coworkers to 0.80 for supervision.
Norms
Norms for the JSS are shown in the table below. The table shows the mean subscale and total job
satisfaction scores across many employees and many samples. Most samples represent a single
organization altough several represent two or more organizations.
How people feel about work
A Gallup Poll in 1991 showed that 83% of Americans are satisfied with their job.
A Gallup Poll in 1995 showed that, of 18 countries around the world, 46% of people are
satisfied with their jobs.
The typical American pattern is to be with the nature of the work itself, coworkers and
supervision but not very satisfied with rewards
Americans tend to expect to advance at work and experience an increase in standard of
living as a result of hard work -> they are often dissatisfied with their career and salary
progress.
Cultural and demographic differences in job satisfaction
o Age:
Research shows that age and job satisfaction are related
In general job satisfaction increases with age, especially after the age of
45.
Potential reasons:
1. expectations and values of Americans have changed over time so
older workers are more accepting of authority and expect less from
their jobs.
2. older workers have better jobs and more skill than their younger
counterparts due to more experience.
3. People adapt to the job b adjusting their expectations to be realistic
so they are happier with less as they get older
o Country differences
Studies show that there are differences in job satisfaction and in patterns
of facet satisfaction across countries but they do not provide much
insinght into the reasons for this.
Potential reasons :
1. Different work conditions
2. Differente expectations of people
3. Bias -> people are afraid to express dissatisfaction
o Gender
Relations between gender and job satisfaction have been extremely
inconsistent across studies
The very low correlations between job satisfaction and gender tend to
show that men and women would have the same levels of job satisfaction
despite having different jobs.
Potential reasons:
1. Women may expect less from work and thus are satisfied with less
due to historic background
2. Men and women may have different values
o Racial differences in the United States
Studies are largely inconsistent about correlations between race and job
satisfaction
There is no clear evidence to support any distinguishable differences
between blacks and whites for job satisfaction
Antecedents of Job Satisfaction
Antecedents of job satisfaction can be classified into 2 major categories:
1. Job environment and factors associated with the job
2. Individual factors that the person brings to the job such as personality and prior
experience
Environmental antecedents of job satisfaction
Job characteristics theory
The monst influential theory of how job characteristics affect people is Hackman and
Oldham’s job characteristics theory
It states that people can be motivated by the intrinsic satisfaction they find in
doing job tasks.If work is enjoyable and meaningful, people will like their jobs
and be motivated to perform well.
The theory lists 5 core characteristics which can be applied to any job
1. Skill variety
2. Task identity
3. Task significance
4. Autonomy
5. Job feedback
Skill variety, task identity and task significance indue experienced meaninfulnes
of work
Autonomy leads to feelings of responsibility
Feedback results in knowledge of results about the products of work
These 5 characteristics determine how motivating a job is.
A Motivation Potential Score or MPS can be calculated for a job :
MPS = [(SV + TI + TS)/3] * Auton. * Feed.
The theory also includes a personality variable : Growth need strength or GNS.
GNS reflects an individual’s need for fulfillment and it moderates the MPS.
The authors of the theory developed the JDS – Job Diagnostic Survey
The most popular alternative to the JDS is the JCI – Job Characteristics Index -> it is
considered more reliable because it has a greater number of items per subscale
Another alternative is the MJDQ – Multimethod Job Design Questionnaire which has the
main distinction of also including physical features of the job
The JDS is generally well correlated to job satisfaction levels across studies
The relevance of the JDS and other measurements of job characteristics for levels of job
satisfaction has been criticised as being somewhat inconclusive. Critical arguments:
The correlation between job characteristics and job satisfaction does not
necessarily prove that the first determines the second. Critics have argued that it
may be the job satisfaction which influences the subject’s perception of the job
characteristics
An study made in 1991 by Griffin showed that a major job redesign improved job
satisfaction levels immediately after the change but then it dropped back to the
same levels prior to the change within 2 years despite no more alterations of the
job characteristics. However the JDS score improved after the redesign and
remained constantly high for the 2 years showing that the impact of the job
characteristics was transitory
Organizational constraints
Conditions of the job environment that interfere with employee job performance are
called organizational constraints.
Organizational constraints have been shown to affect both job performance and job
satisfaction
Rolve variables
A role is the required pattern of behavior for an individual in the organization.
Roles can be associated with positions and titles but they are not identical as each
individual can have several roles and different people with the same job can have
different roles.
A person develops a role by taking on a task that others assume will become that person’s
responsibility(managing the cofee pot)
Role conflict exists when people experience incompatbile demands
o Intra-role conflict involves different people at work or different functions(a
supervisor tells you to run an errand while another asks you to take a phonecall)
o Extra-role conflicts involves conflicts between work and non-work(family vs
work)
Role ambiguity occurs when the expectations of supervisors are not clear
Both role ambiguity and role conflict affect job satisfaction and are mainly associated
with supervisor satisfaction.
Work-family conflict
This conflict is especially troublesome for two-career couples with children and single
parents.
34% of Americans experience a considerable amount of work-family conflict.
14% of men and women felt that both parents should work outside of the home
39% said that one parent should work while the other stayed home to take care of the
children
Work-family conflict correlates with job satisfaction more for men than for women
Studies have shown that work-family conflict affects job satisfaction which in turn affects
parental practices which in turn affect children’s performance in school
Organizational procedures to reduce the conflict such as a flexible schedule have been
shown to improve job satisfaction
Pay
The correlation between level of pay and job satisfaction tens to be surprisingly small
While pay level is not an important issue, pay fairness is very important
People are often concerned that other people with the same job earn more and as a result
become dissatisfied.
Job stress
Studies show that job stress can have a detrimental impact on both physical health and
emotional well-being, both short-term and long-term.
It correlates well with job satisfaction
Workload
Studies have been inconsistent regarding the correlation between workload(either
qualitative workload or quantitative workload) and job satisfaction
Control
Control is the freedom that employees are given to make decisions about their work
Control has a significant impact on job stress and job strains, especially psychological
ones however it has not been determined to have a direct impact on job satisfaction
An exception are employees whose work pace is determined by a machine or computer
where current studies show that the job satisfaction of such employees is lower due to a
lack of control.
The demand/control model
The demand/control model hypothesizes that control and job stressors interact in their
effects, including job dissatisfaction.
Research support for the demand/control model has been inconsistent
While it is potentially important because of its implications for employee health and well-
being, the current lack of empirical support suggests that the model may be an
oversimplification of an issue
Work schedules
The standard work shift is 8 daylight hours per day for 5 weekdays each week.
Nonstandard work schedules are spreading : flexible work schedule, long work shifts,
night shifts and part-time work.
1. Flexible schedules
It is generally believed that flexible schedules have a positive impact on
job satisfaction but studies have been inconclusive regarding the extent of
the importance
2. Long shifts
The most commonly notes problem with long shifts is fatigue
Studies report that some employees who work 12 hours shifts have a
perceived notion of less fatigue due to having more free time – se vede ca
asta e gandire de americani unde daca ai tura de 12 ore automat nu mai
lucrezi 5 zile pe saptamana….riiiight
Long shifts have a general positive effect on job satisfaction as employees
will prefer working longer shifts to have more free time.
3. Night shifts
Both night shifts and rotating shifts have detrimental effects on employees
Employees working permanent night shifts eventually don’t suffer from
the same problems as those working rotating shifts(sleep disturbance,
digestive problems)
Temporary night shifts lead to lower job satisfaction than permanent night
shifts and permanent night shifts do not seem to affect job satisfaction
4. Part-time work
Despite being given less benefits(ex medical insurance) part-timers seem
to have a higher job satisfaction than full timers.
This can be due to the fact that most part-timers will perceive their job as
temporary
Current research is not very conclusive on how and why reactions of part-
timers differ from full-timers.
Personal antecedents of job satisfaction
Studies have shown that some people are predisposed to like their jobs despite changing
jobs/employers while others are predisposed not to like their jobs.
The main criticism of this concept is that job satisfaction can be stable across multiple jobs for
individuals because they tend to choose good jobs whereas others do not.
A 50-year lifespan longitudinal study showed that job satisfaction measured in adolescence
significantly correlates to job satisfaction measured up to 50 years later for the same individuals.
A different study showed that there is a genetic component of job satisfaction by studying a
group of identical twins and finding correlated job satisfaction levels. It is estimated that about
30% of the variance in job satisfaction is attributable to genetic factors.
Personality traits and job satisfaction
Locus of control
o Is a cognitive variable that represents and individual’s generalized belief in his or
her ability to control positive and negative reinforcements in life
o Many studies have shown a significant correlation between locus of control and
many work variables such as job performance, leadership behavior, perceptions of
the jobs, work motivation and job satisfaction
o It is generally believed that the connection between locus of control and job
satisfaction is job performance as people who perform better at their job are more
likely to be satisfied with their work
Negative affectivity
o Also calles NA is a personality variable that reflects a person’s tendency to
experience negative emotions, such as anxiety or depression.
o Studies have shown that high NA results in lower job satisfaction
Person-job fit
Research on this matter looks at the interaction between job and person factors to see if
certain types of people respond differently to certain types of jobs.
Correlations were made such as people with high GNS(reminder aici) are more likely to
respond favorably to high-scope jobs but overall the aspect of person-job fit is elusive.
Potential effects of job satisfaction
Job performance
Studies show that the correlation between job satisfaction and job performance is
surpisingly low
It is currently believed that this is due to problematic job performance
measurements
Studies have also shown that it is more likely for job performance to cause job
satisfaction rather than the opposite
Organizational Citizenship Behavior (OCB)
OCB is behavior by an employee intended to help coworkers or the organization.
OCB goes beyond the formal requirements of a job
OCB was categoriez into two types:
1. Altruism – behavior that helps other people
2. Compliance - doing what is required of the job without being closely monitored
and reminded.
Studies show a tendency for job satisfaction to lead to OCB but are inconclusive
regarding the actual reason behind it.
Withdrawal behavior
Theories hypothesize that employees who dislike their job will try to avoid them either by
quitting or by coming in late, skipping,etc.
Absence
o organizations are concerned about absence due to its high costs
o common sense would dictate that job satisfaction plays a critical role in an
employee’s decision to be absent
o however research has shown that correlations between job satisfaction and
absence have been inconsistent.
o The reason for absence should be considered when evaluation correlations
between job satisfaction and absence(being ill or fatigued for example).
o It has been shown that absence factors just as important or even more important
than job satisfaction are the organization’s policy for absence and family.
o A less restrictive policy as well as having primary child care responsibilities will
lead to more absence more consistently than low job satisfaction
Turnover
o Studies have been consistent about a correlation between job dissatisfaction and
tendency to find alternative employment.
o Alternative employment opportunities are important as a person is less likely to
quit without another job offer
o Labor market factors interact with job satisfaction in predicting quitting.
Burnout
o Burnout is a distressed emotional/psychological state experienced on the job
o Job satisfaction is an attitudinal response whereas burnout is more of an emotional
response
o There are 3 components of burnout
1. Depersonalization – the emotional distancing from direct care clients that
results in an uncaring attitudie toward others.
2. Emotional exhaustion is the feeling of fatigue and lack of entushiasm
3. Reduced personal accomplishment is the sense that nothing of value is
being done at work by the person
o Burnout correlates highly with low job satisfaction
Physical health and psychological well-being
o Attempts to link job satisfaction to direct physiological measures of health have
not been successful
o Research has well established that job satisfaction does however relate to
psychological and psychosomatic symptoms such as : headaches, upset stomach,
anxiety and depression
Counterproductive behavior
o It is the opposite of OCB and it consists of either intentional or unintentional acts
committed by an employee which hurt the organization
o Aggression against coworkers,employers,sabotage,theft,etc.
o While this behavior has many causes it is often associated with job dissatisfaction
and reasearch has shown that a strong correlation exists
Life satisfaction
o life satisfaction refers to a person’s feeling about life in general
o it can assessed on the facet level as satisfaction with specific areas of life such as
family or recreation or it can be assessen globally as overall satisfaction with life.
o There are 3 major theories regarding how job satisfaction is related to life
satisfaction:
1. Spillover hypothesis suggests that feelings in one area of life affect feeling
in the other areas
2. Compensation hypothesis states that people will compensate for
dissatisfaction in one area of life by cultivating satisfaction in another
3. Segmentation hypothesis posits that people compartmentalize their lives,
making work and nonwork separate
o Research clearly favors the spillover hypothesis, with a moderate and positive
correlation between job satisfaction and life satisfaction.
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