pt adaro’s former mining pit in east kalimantan. · 2020. 4. 23. · contributors: dian yanuardi...
Post on 16-Mar-2021
1 Views
Preview:
TRANSCRIPT
Contributors:Dian Yanuardi (Sajogyo Institute – Indonesia)Ganies Oktaviana (Sajogyo Institute – Indonesia)Syiqqil Arofat (Sajogyo Institute – Indonesia)Ahmad Jaetuloh (Sajogyo Institute – Indonesia)Yhkbai Hijaba (JASIL – Mongolia)Prabindra Sakhya (The Manushya Foundation – Thailand)Pheap Sophea (NGO-F – Cambodia)Lorraine (AFA – Philippines)
PT Adaro’s former mining pit in East Kalimantan.Source: https://www.jatam.org/2019/09/06/ibu-kota-baru-terkepung-tambang/
CONTENTS
/1/REDRAWING THE MAP OF THE WORLD
/3/ASIA IS THE CENTER OF ECONOMIC CORRIDORS
/7/WHAT ARE (ASIAN) ECONOMIC CORRIDORS REALLY ABOUT?
/21/THE EMERGENCE OF ECONOMIC CORRIDOR PROJECTS
IN THE WORLD
/26/BIBLIOGRAPHY
Beyond Asia Economic Corridors
The Emergence of Extreme Dispossession, Exploitation and Extraction in Asia
/ 1 /
REDRAWING THE MAP OF THE WORLD
The map of the world is being redrawn. On a regional level, two neighboring countries or more are put on a drawing board. Then, mega-investments on infrastructure projects, industrial economic zones, extractive economic
activities and new metropolitan areas are planned, located and built. On national level, two or more districts, provinces or even islands are integrated into a new map and are called with a new name: as the center of commodity production, as the distribution hubs, the export and industrial zones, or the transit zones. This is not something new. In 1998, Asia Development Bank introduced a new concept and was then well-known as “Economic Corridor” (Isono 2010). Since then, it has been practically developed around the globe.
http
://al
ert-
cons
erva
tion.
org/
BEYOND ASIA ECONOMIC CORRIDORS
/ 2 /
Economic corridor is an integrated development policy aiming at developing mega infrastructure projects, creating urban areas, industrial zones and other extractive economic activities in order to boost economic growth, to fasten the flow of capital, labour and commodities and to accumulate profit endlessly.
However, the scale and level in which the economic corridors redrawn in the world today are totally different and even unimaginable. There is no continent in the
world excluded in the currently new economic corridors. Trillions of money are poured to invigorate those mega-economic corridors. Now, governments all over the world are busy with debottlenecking regulations, inviting investments as well as constructing mega-infrastructure projects in their new economic corridors. Terribly, the policies on economic corridors, are not only designed, planned and implemented on global or regional level, they are translated and adopted as well into national development policies.
https://philoforchange.files.wordpress.com/2013/12/feud0.jpg
/ 3 /
The Emergence of Extreme Dispossession, Exploitation and Extraction in Asia
Thousands of toll roads, airports, seaports and other infrastructure projects are being built and developed in Asia. Asian Mega cities and metropolis areas are redesigned, slump areas are being redecorated. Industrial and
economic zones are agglomerated and augmented. New infrastructure bank is even formed. The Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD) predict that “dozens of trillions of dollars” will need to be spent on infrastructure over the next 20 years in all over the world. Meanwhile, the forecasted budget for infrastructure investment in Asia are $705,2 billion and other investments for developing economic corridors are still countless.
The development of economic corridors in Asia generally take various forms and aspects, such as: (I) Mega projects of infrastructure that include transportation such as toll road, tunnel, railroad, rapid transit link, seaport and airport; communication assets, including radio and television broadcast towers, wireless communication towers, cable systems, and satellite networks; industry-based infrastructures, including electricity transmission lines, gas and oil pipelines, water distribution systems, and wastewater collection and processing
systems; and social infrastructure, including schools, hospitals, prisons, and courthouses; (II) Industrial and economic zones, including Special Economic Zones, manufacturing and processing zones, free-trade zones, integrated development zones, bonded zones, logistic zones, tourism zones, and many others; (III) Urban and metropolitan areas, which include the formation of new urban and metropolitan areas, rehabilitating slump areas, as well as housing projects and residential areas; (IV) Extractive economic activities, such as mining, large-scale plantations, industrial
https://philoforchange.files.wordpress.com/2013/12/feud0.jpg
ASIA IS
THE CENTEROF ECONOMIC CORRIDORS
http
s://o
bort
unity
.org
/wp-
cont
ent/u
ploa
ds/2
018/1
2/m
z-m
ozam
biqu
e-ec
onom
ic-u
pdat
e-a-
two-
spee
d-ec
onom
y-v2
-780x4
39.jp
g
BEYOND ASIA ECONOMIC CORRIDORS
/ 4 /
forest plantations, and marine-based industries. In many cases, the objectives of establishing economic corridors are to make use, connect as well as compress the space and time among sites of production, distribution and consumption. Therefore, the current economic corridors mostly involve with developing the four aspects mentioned above concurrently.
The two phenomenal economic development designs in Asia are: The Comprehensive Asia Development Plan (CADP) and The Belt and Road Initiative (BRI). The CADP was formulated in 2009 and by ERIA (Economic Research Institute for ASEAN and East Asia), East Asia and Southeast Asia-based research institute, and was initiated by several countries such as Indonesia, Malaysia, Singapore, Brunei Darussalam, Myanmar, The Philippines, Thailand, Cambodia, Laos, Vietnam, India, New Zealand, Australia, Republic of Korea, Japan and China. Those countries above then formed an economic
block well-known as ASEAN + 6 (Urata 2008). The CADP is mostly supported by Asian Development Bank and World Bank.
There are at least four gigantic economic corridors developed under CADP, they are: Mekong Subregion Economic Corridors; Mekong-India Economic Corridors; Indonesia, Malaysia, Thailand Growth Triangle and Surrounding Regions (IMT + Subregion) and Brunei, Indonesia, Malaysia, The Philippines East ASEAN Growth Area and Surrounding Regions (BIMPEAGA). In each of those economic corridors, several extractive economic activities, infrastructures, industrial and economic zones, urban metropolitan areas are designed, planned and built.
However, the most influential and ambitious economic corridor on the Asian region is Belt and Road Initiative (BRI), launched by China’s President Xi Jinping on 2013. It was previously well-known as One Belt and One Road (OBOR) and has two main components:
The Economic Corridors under Belt and Road InitiativeSource: https://www.lehmanbrown.com/insights-newsletter/belt-road-initiative/
/ 5 /
The Emergence of Extreme Dispossession, Exploitation and Extraction in Asia
the Silk Road Economic Belt and the 21st Century Maritime Silk Road (TENGGARA 2018). The Belt refers to overland roads that link China with West Asia, Southeast Asia, the Middle East and Central Asia all the way to Eastern and Western Europe, including Russia.
The “Road” refers to the maritime route that links China with island countries in the Western Pacific and littoral states in Southeast Asia, South Asia, horn of Africa, Middle East and Europe (TENGGARA 2018). The Belt and Road Initiative has enrolled at least 70 countries of the world with several trillion dollars worth of new investments in infrastructure such as roads, bridges, seaports, airports and power plants in China and BRI participating countries.
To reinforce this Initiative, the Chinese government consecutively launched AIIB (Asia Infrastructure Investment Bank) in 2014 at the annual leaders’ meeting of the Asia-Pacific Economic Co-operation (APEC) forum in Bali, Indonesia (The Economist 2013). The objectives to establish of the new Bank is to provide governmental loans and technical assistance to boost infrastructure development in several sectors such as energy and power, transportation and telecommunications, rural infrastructure and agricultural development, water supply and sanitation, environmental protection, urban development and logistics (Heijster 2016).
The main idea of establishing AIIB is to meet the estimated funds for financing Asia’s infrastructure development which cost about
BEYOND ASIA ECONOMIC CORRIDORS
/ 6 /
$26 trillion. 57 states became founding members of the AIIB and would operate in a similar way to other International Financial Institutions such as World Bank and Asia Development Bank (Heijster 2016). However, China is the most influential shareholder of the Bank which holds 26,6 percent of the voting shares, while India and Russia come second and third largest shareholders with respectively 7,5% and 5,9% of voting shares (Heijster 2016).
/ 7 /
WHAT ARE (ASIAN) ECONOMIC CORRIDORS
REALLY ABOUT?
T o some, Asia economic corridors sign the bright future for the life of millions Asian people. Buzzwords and jargons such as ‘connectivity’, ‘economic growth’, ‘agglomeration’, ‘infrastructure’ ‘urban development’, ‘balancing
development gap’, ‘public-private investment’ are now on everyone’s lips. But, what are Asian Economic Corridors really about? Why economic corridors and giant infrastructure projects are mushrooming in the world, and especially in the Asia, now? What are the underlying conditions that drive the emergence of giant economic corridors and mega infrastructure projects in the world and Asia today? How they exactly work?
BEYOND ASIA ECONOMIC CORRIDORS
/ 8 /
To anwer the question adequately, first, one has to take the nature of capital into consideration. Capital is a mode of production in which Money (M) is used to buy Commodity (C) such as raw materials, machines and hire labour power to engage in certain production to make profit or More Money (M’), which is generally called by capital accumulation. However, in such mode of production, the profit and wealth created by capital owners (capitalist) can only occur through the exploitation of labour: the workers produce more in a day than they need to live, or in other words, the value of labour power is less than the value produced by labour. This process is called by the appropriation of surplus value which is generated during the process of production.
Absorption of Capital Overaccumulation for Further Capital Accumulation
Capital cannot work in one-cycle accumulation, yet, it should be a process of endless accumulation and in so doing should eliminate certain barriers and limits in order to create boundless accumulation. To sustain such endless and boundless capital accumulation, another action is required, called by ‘primitive accumulation’, ‘enclosure’ or ‘accumulation by dispossession’ which means ‘the separation of producers from the means of production’, in the forms of land grabbing, enclosuring common natural resources, looting national assets, slavery, and many more.
However, capital mode of production always produce crisis, called by “crisis of overaccumulation’, which takes several forms i.e.: overproduction—abundant commodity which can not be absorbed in the market for consumption; the falling rate of profit i.e. the general rise in the level of mechanisation and automation which lead to decreasing surplus value exploited from labour power;
capital surplus, which manifests in the idle and unused productive capacity or as unavailable opportunity for capital to make profit from production; labour surplus and/or the increasing of reserve labour army which remained unemployed. To put in another way, capital overaccumulation is ‘capital absorption problem’, in which huge amount of surplus capital need and has to be reinvested.
Capital solves such overaccumulation crisis through several mechanisms: First, temporal fixes, which means ‘temporal displacement through investment in long-term capital projects or social expenditures that defer the re-entry of capital values into circulation into the future’ (Harvey 2003: 109) such
/ 9 /
The Emergence of Extreme Dispossession, Exploitation and Extraction in Asia
as research, community development or education. Second, spatial fixes, which means ‘spatial displacements through opening up new markets, new production capacities, and new resource, social, and labour possibilities elsewhere’ (Harvey 2003: 109). Other mechanism could be a combination of temporal fixes and spatial fixes. Other fixes, as said by Arrighi (2003) is financialization which nowadays becomes the center for capital accumulation and capital expansion. Other fixes to solve and absorb capital overaccumulation is through the role of state(s) that creates and gives a way to greater geographical expansion of capital through development planning or spatial plan.
Extreme Dispossession, Exploitation and Extraction
Asia has been incorporated into global production chain since 1960s. In the 60s, as a result of the decline of profit, some western companies, especially the ones based in the United States, started to incorporate Asian countries into their production chain. Initially it was on Japan, but then when the wage raised, those companies shifted their production to Hong Kong, Taiwan, and South Korean (Pratap 2014).
By the end of 1970s, and at the dawn of 1980s, the wage increased and the rate of profit fallen, companies from South Korea, Hong Kong, Taiwan, and Singapore started to
https://jogja.tribunnews.com/2018/07/30/penolak-nyia-enggan-berkomunikasi-pemkab-kulonprogo-sulit-tentukan-langkah?page=2
BEYOND ASIA ECONOMIC CORRIDORS
/ 10 /
move the production processes to countries with cheaper labour cost in South East Asia such as Malaysia, Phillipines, Thailand, Indonesia and Vietnam (Pratap 2014). Meanwhile, from 1980s to early 2000s, when Asian was hit by 1998 financial crisis, countries in Asia were liberalized massively through IMF’s and World Bank’s Structural Adjustment Programme and were then fully integrated into global production networks.
Based on David McNally’s analysis, the geographical shift of production in Asia basically was started from East Asian countries such as Japan, South Korea, Taiwan and China which is coincided by the massive land grabbing; the introduction of new technologies and new divisions of labour and labour’s organization; and massive Foreign Direct Investment to the East Asia countries. As consequences, the profit had been flowing from Southern developing countries to the Northern developed countries. Ultimately, in 1990s, East Asia is considered as the center of capital accumulation on global scale. McNally (2009: 51) then noted that the total
of capital formation in the whole East Asia during 1990-1996 had increased as much 300%, meanwhile it was only increasing as much 40% in United State and Japan, and only 10% in the whole Europe.
Such facts above indicate that there is an enormous capital flows and expansion to Asia which resulted on the full integration of Asia into global supply chains and international production networks. This can be seen, at least, by the moving up some of the firms in Asia to next tier in the global value chain. Some of the firms in Asian industrialised countries such as South Korea, Taiwan, Hong Kong, China, India and Singapore moved up in value chain and emerged as big contract manufacturers, or develop their own brands and emerge as competitive lead firms.
Furthermore, new industrialisng countries such as Vietnam, Malaysia, Indonesia, and Thailand has also moved up in the level of accelerating technological transfers and spillover in the global value chain (Pratap 2014). Other trend that signify the capital
Coal mining exploitation in Eastern Kalimantan. (kaltimprov.go.id/dok-humasprov_kaltim)
/ 11 /
The Emergence of Extreme Dispossession, Exploitation and Extraction in Asia
expansion in Asia is the mushrooming of Special Economic Zones (SEZs) and Export-Processing Zones (EPZs). Currently, Asia has more Export-Processing Zones than other continent in the world and has more than 85% of all EPZ workers in the world (Khanna 2016).
Other thing that signifies capital expansion to Asia is the fact that Asia is now dominating the world in terms of manufacturing activities. Most supply chain trade happens within what have been called Factory Asia, Factory Europe, and Factory North America. Over the last decade or so, supply-chain trade has shifted heavily towards Factory Asia and away from Factory North America and Factory Europe. From 2011, China has edged out United States and Germany and becomes the top global manufacturing exporters, while Japan sit on third, Republic Korea is on sixth, India is tenth of the world largest manufacturing exporters (ADB 2011). Meanwhile, China is now the largest trade partner of more than twice as many countries as America (Khanna 2016).
With the emergence of Factory Asia mentioned above and with the recent plan of expanding economic corridors in Asia, it could be said that Asia is projected as the major site of global production, distribution and consumption. Therefore, this has consequences: the increasing of production of space in Asia merely for the sake capital accumulation.
The Extraction of Public Wealth through Public Private Partnership
One of the prominent aspect in the current economic corridors, especially in the development of mega-infrastructure projects, is the implementation of public-private partnership. Public Private Partnership (PPP) was first introduced by World Bank’s World Development Report (WDR) of 1994 titled “Infrastructure for Development”. Before the Report published, the majority of infrastructure projects in the developing world was funded by national governments, with substantial loans from International Financial Institutions such as the World Bank or Asia Development Bank, while the role of the private sector in
Kuching, Malaysia. Forests and peatlands in Borneo are being destroyed to make way for oil palm plantation, a practice which researchers forecast to release 8.7 gigatons of carbon dioxide over the next 100 years. Image: Rich Carey / Shutterstock.com
https://www.eco-business.com/news/rivers-in-the-sky-how-deforestation-is-affecting-global-water-cycles/
BEYOND ASIA ECONOMIC CORRIDORS
/ 12 /
financing infrastructure was still minor. In the Report, the Bank condemned the provision of infrastructure by the state and mentioned that the state’s provision of infrastructure as inadequate, corrupt and bureaucratic, lack of professionalism and efficiency as well as lack of technological advancement and modernization. Therefore the Bank was calling for privatizition of the infrastructure or making infrastructure as a business.
Public Private Partnership was then back into international policy agenda in 2000s, especially in developing and newly liberalized Asian countries through “good governance” programmes. Now, PPP is touted and seen as the only best way to provide infrastructure: PPP would bring “improved operational efficiency” and improved efficiency; PPP would lower costs and thus brings better value for money; PPP would contribute to poverty alleviation; PPP would spur economic growth and many more (Hildyard 2014). World Bank, for instance, shows that the private sector now contributes about 15–20 percent of total infrastructure investment and are now
used in more than 134 developing countries (Hildyard 2014).
However, Hildyard and Sol (2017) shows that PPP basically is a new mode for developing finance rather than financing development, because:
“The idea behind the new financing paradigm is that infrastructure is packaged to attract long-term institutional investors, such as pension, insurance, mutual funds and sovereign wealth funds. In this paradigm, the government would shoulder most of the risk in the early stages of design and construction and the institutional investors would take the revenue stream over decades.”
PPP could take many forms in its’ implementation, but in general it has similar mechanisms: state should give a guarantee to their private partners in the infrastructure business and provision. To do
The lower Sesan 2 dam site, located at the confluence of the sesan and srepok rivers, two of the main tributaries of the mekong. photos: Giorgio Taraschi. Source: http://khmercircle.blogspot.com/2015/09/china-built-dam-in-cambodia-set-to.html
/ 13 /
The Emergence of Extreme Dispossession, Exploitation and Extraction in Asia
so, therefore, state should give subsidies to the corporations and firms that work as the partners of the state to provide and conduct the business of infrastructure. Above are Nicholas Hildyard’s findings (2014) related to the subsidies and guarantees given to the firms and corporations:
Cash subsidies
“The government or public authority agrees to provide a cash subsidy to a project. It can be a total lump sum or a fixed amount on a per unit basis, and payments can be made in instalments or all at once.” Example: a government may agree to subsidise the toll fares of say buses (often themselves run under PPPs) in order to allow poorer users access to, say, privately-owned and operated motorways.
Payment Guarantees
“The government agrees to fulfil the obligations of a purchaser (typically a publicly-owned enterprise) with respect to the private entity in the case of non-performance by the purchaser.” Example: a private company operating a dam has a power purchasing agreement with a state-owned utility to take the electricity generated by the dam at a specified dam. The utility fails to honour the agreement because it can get cheaper electricity from another source. So the government steps in and guarantees the payments.
Revenue guarantees
“The government sets a minimum variable income for the private partner, typically this income is from customer user fees.” Example: the government enters into an agreement with a toll road operator to guarantee a minimum
income stream. If the volume of traffic falls below an agreed level, the government makes up the loss.
Other than giving subsidies and guarantees, governments are willing to provide many incentives for developing economic corridors and mega-infrastructure projects, such tax heaven, tax allowance and tax deductible. On the other hands, to gain the public funds for giving those subsidies, guarantees and incentives to the corporations and firms working in business of infrastructure, government should cut the subsidies for the poor, such as fuel and electricity subsidy for the poor, fertilizer and agricultural inputs subsidy for the small-scale farmers; health and education subsidy for the poor. Therefore, PPP can be seen as an institution as well as mechanism to extract public fund and value from the rest of society for the profit of capitalists. To put in Hildyard’s word (2016): it is a licensed larceny!
Social-Ecological Crisis Deepened and Expanded
In the last two decades, Asian has been witnessing deeper social-ecological crises, i.e. the massive land grabs for natural resources extraction, palm oil expansion, industrial economic zones, and mega-infrastructure projects. Peasantries and indigenous people in India and Indonesia, for instance, have been suffering from land grabbing for the development of Special Economic Zones (SEZs) and for various infrastructure projects. Palm oil companies in Thailand, Indonesia, Cambodia and Philippines have cleared millions hectares of forest which are the living space for indigenous peoples and other forest-dependent communities. The plan for developing 88 dams along Mekong Basin for hydro-electric power generation and for various purposes has undermine the livelihoods and food sovereignty of peasants, rural poor and fishermen in the region.
BEYOND ASIA ECONOMIC CORRIDORS
/ 14 /
As Asia now is merely seen and defined as a space for capital accumulation, consequently, the Continent is now facing the potential lost of its’ tropical forest where more than 300.000 indigenous communites depend on it. The continent might confront huge and massive land grabs and land use changes from the agricultural land into industrial or agribusiness complex uses. This might lead the rural poor into a “no job, no land and no social security” situation. Asia is potentially lost its’ carrying capacities and more vulnerable to the climate changes threat, as shown by several scholars (Yusuf and Fransisco 2009). In short, Asian is facing the violence of economic corridors and is under continous threat of more profound and accute social-ecological crises.
As mentioned above, the current emergence of mega-economic corridor in Asia is part of global development plan to restore capital from overaccumulation crisis. It also aims at expanding capital in the less-capital intensive areas, deepening capital social relations in the more developed areas as well as accelerating the flow of commodity, people, and, surely, profit.
However, every drip of capital always has contradictory consequences. On one hand, capital creates wealth, abundance, convenience and luxury for human’s life, on the other hand it also creates dispossession, exploitation and extraction. Capital creates connectivity: one people in some places with other people in other places, connects goods with the consumers and many more. At the same time, it also disconnects people from their land, forest, sea---above all, human’s means of life and human’s life spaces, through dispossession to create an industry, commodity as well as labour reserve army. Once human defined and forced to be labour, capital then alienates labour from their real existence and exploits their labour power.
Capital also disconnects the metabolic relations between human and nature (and therefore creates ‘metabolical rift’), as the later is merely seen as factor of production that has to be extracted and exploited.
https://www.kamerabild.se/artiklar/intervjuer/mattias-klum-det-finns-inget-d-ligt-ljus
/ 15 /
The Emergence of Extreme Dispossession, Exploitation and Extraction in Asia
Maj
or E
cono
mic
Cor
ridor
s in
Afric
a.So
urce
: htt
ps:/
/ww
w.o
ecd.
org/
daf/
inv/
inve
stm
entfo
rdev
elop
men
t/41
8649
77.p
df
BEYOND ASIA ECONOMIC CORRIDORS
/ 16 /
Infrastructure projects in AfricaSource: https://www.paragkhanna.com/home/2016/4/18/these-maps-show-how-vast-new-infrastructure-is-
bringing-the-world-together
/ 17 /
The Emergence of Extreme Dispossession, Exploitation and Extraction in Asia
Integration of Regional Infrastructure in South America (IIRSA) integration corridors and hubsSource: http://www.fao.org/3/a-i4204e.pdf
Canadian Arctic CorridorSource: https://euobserver.com/nordic/141142
BEYOND ASIA ECONOMIC CORRIDORS
/ 18 /
North America Economic CorridorsSource: https://www.paragkhanna.com/home/2016/4/18/these-maps-show-how-vast-new-infrastructure-is-
bringing-the-world-together
Finnish-Norway Arctic CorridorSource: https://euobserver.com/nordic/141142
/ 19 /
The Emergence of Extreme Dispossession, Exploitation and Extraction in Asia
Indonesia Economic CorridorsSource: goodnewsfromindonesia.id
China-Mongolia-Russia Economic Corridor (CMREC) – Proposed railwaysSource: http://nigscass.cssn.cn/xshy/201701/W020170303349361882465.pdf
BEYOND ASIA ECONOMIC CORRIDORS
/ 20 /
Delhi and Mumbai Industrial CorridorSource: https://content.magicbricks.com/
Eastern Economic Corridor in Thailand Source: https://www.eeco.or.th/en
/ 21 /
The Emergence of Extreme Dispossession, Exploitation and Extraction in Asia
THE E
MER
GEN
CE O
F EC
ON
OM
IC C
OR
RID
OR
PR
OJE
CTS
IN
TH
E W
OR
LD
Loca
tion
Eco
nom
ic C
orrido
rD
rive
rs, pr
omot
ors,
an
d ot
her
supp
ortin
g ac
tors
Aim
s an
d In
fras
truc
ture
sFi
nanc
ial m
echa
nism
Inve
stm
ent
(USD
)Exi
stin
g So
cial
-Eco
n-om
y an
d Eco
logi
cal
Crise
s
Afr
ica
Mor
e th
an 3
0
econ
omic
cor
ridor
s ha
ve b
een
plan
ned,
de
velo
ped
and
oper
ated
. T
hose
co
rrid
ors
cons
ist
of
meg
a in
fras
truc
ture
pr
ojec
ts t
hat
trav
erse
ov
er 3
8 c
ount
ries
and
with
tot
al 5
3,0
00
km
in
leng
th.
Fore
ign
inve
stor
sM
ainl
y fo
r m
inin
g, g
as,
iron
ore,
ni
ckel
, co
pper
and
oth
er m
ines
w
ith a
gric
ultu
re a
nd t
ouris
m
beco
me
seco
ndar
y go
als.
The
in
fras
truc
ture
s ar
e el
ectr
icity
, hi
ghw
ays,
rai
l lin
ks,
pipe
lines
and
de
ep s
ea p
orts
Publ
ic p
rivat
e pa
rtne
rshi
p; F
orei
gn
Dire
ct In
vest
men
t;
Loan
and
deb
t .
N/A
Des
ertifi
catio
n,
wat
er s
uppl
y ac
cess
, po
vert
y,
hung
er,
air
pollu
tion,
de
fore
stat
ion,
soi
l de
grad
atio
n, d
ebt
cris
is,
food
cris
is.
Sout
h A
mer
ica
Has
10
eco
nom
ic
corr
idor
s in
nat
iona
l le
vel a
nd n
ew fr
ontie
r ar
eas
such
as
Am
azon
C
orrid
or, A
ndea
n C
orrid
or, M
erco
sur-
Chi
le C
orrid
or a
nd
Peru
-Bra
zil-B
oliv
ia
Cor
ridor
s
Initi
ativ
e fo
r th
e In
tegr
atio
n of
Reg
iona
l In
fras
truc
ture
in S
outh
A
mer
ica
(IIR
SA);
In
ter-
Am
eric
an
Dev
elop
men
t B
ank
(IA
DB
);
Fore
ign
inve
stor
s
Con
sist
of 5
79 p
roje
cts
with
89%
of
the
m a
re m
ainl
y fo
r bu
ildin
g ro
ads,
airp
orts
inla
nd w
ater
way
s an
d m
ulti
mod
al t
rans
port
s an
d th
e re
st o
f the
m a
re fo
r co
mm
unic
atio
n in
fras
truc
ture
and
en
ergy
pro
ject
s
Publ
ic p
rivat
e pa
rtne
rshi
p; F
orei
gn
Dire
ct In
vest
men
t;
Loan
and
deb
t
16
3 b
illio
ns
(to
build
the
co
nstr
uctio
n or
up
grad
ing
of 8
00
0
km o
f roa
ds,
70
00
km
of r
ailw
ays,
fo
ur r
iver
por
ts
and
8,5
00
km
of
nav
igab
le
wat
erw
ays)
Deb
t cr
isis
, m
igra
tion,
ai
r po
llutio
n,
cont
amin
ated
w
ater
, so
il er
osio
n,
defo
rest
atio
n, lo
ss
of b
iodi
vers
ity,
food
cr
isis
, in
crea
sing
un
empl
oym
ent
rate
,clim
ate
cris
is,
publ
ic h
ealth
ser
vice
s,
pove
rty,
Nor
th A
mer
ica
Att
ache
d in
NA
FTA
(N
orth
Am
eric
a Fr
ee
Trad
e A
gree
men
t)
corr
idor
s
Fore
ign
inve
stor
sTo
con
nect
oil,
gas
pip
elin
es a
s w
ell a
s w
ater
to
chan
nel i
t in
to
dry
area
suc
h as
Sou
th W
est
of
USA
. Als
o to
con
nect
the
net
wor
k of
hig
hway
s, r
ailw
ays,
pip
elin
es
and
elec
tric
ity g
rids
acro
ss N
orth
Am
eric
an a
nd c
laim
ed t
o be
one
of
“uni
fied
meg
a-co
ntin
ent
of s
hare
d re
sour
ces
and
pros
perit
y
Publ
ic p
rivat
e pa
rtne
rshi
p; F
orei
gn
Dire
ct In
vest
men
t;
Loan
and
deb
t .
N/A
Deb
t cr
isis
, cl
imat
e cr
isis
, lo
ss
biod
iver
sity
, ai
r po
llutio
n, p
over
ty,
unce
rtai
n po
litic
, so
cial
wel
fare
, m
igra
tion,
indi
geno
us
issu
e, h
ealth
issu
e,
BEYOND ASIA ECONOMIC CORRIDORS
/ 22 /
Loca
tion
Eco
nom
ic C
orrido
rD
rive
rs, pr
omot
ors,
an
d ot
her
supp
ortin
g ac
tors
Aim
s an
d In
fras
truc
ture
sFi
nanc
ial m
echa
nism
Inve
stm
ent
(USD
)Exi
stin
g So
cial
-Eco
n-om
y an
d Eco
logi
cal
Crise
s
The
Eur
opea
n U
nion
Tran
s-Eu
rope
an
Tran
spor
t N
etw
ork
(TEN
-T);
at
leas
t 9
co
rrid
ors
thro
ugho
ut
Wes
tern
Eur
ope
such
as
Bal
tic-A
dria
tic
Cor
ridor
, N
orth
Sea
-B
altic
Cor
ridor
, O
rient
-Ea
st-M
edite
rran
ean
Cor
ridor
, R
hine
-Alp
ine
Cor
ridor
, an
d so
fort
h
Fore
ign
inve
stor
sTo
inte
rcon
nect
roa
ds,
cana
ls,
wat
erw
ays,
ele
ctric
ity c
orrid
ors
and
oil a
nd g
as p
ipel
ines
Publ
ic p
rivat
e pa
rtne
rshi
p;N
/AD
ebt
cris
is,
mig
ratio
n cr
isis
, un
empl
oym
ent
peop
le,
high
cos
t of
liv
ing,
crim
e, h
ealth
an
d so
cial
sec
urity
, te
rror
ism
, ho
usin
g,
clim
ate
chan
ge,
the
loff
of b
iodi
vers
ity,
Nor
th P
ole
Arc
tic C
orrid
ors
Can
adia
n go
vern
men
t;A
sian
Infras
truc
ture
In
vest
men
t B
ank
(AIIB
); C
hina
go
vern
men
t;
Fore
ign
inve
stor
s
To
fast
er a
nd c
heap
er
inte
rcon
tinen
tal s
hipp
ing
by p
rese
rvin
g w
ildlif
e an
d na
tura
l res
ourc
es.
Prop
oses
a
com
preh
ensi
ve s
yste
m o
f tie
red
ship
ping
and
rai
lroad
s ro
utes
th
at w
ill b
enefi
t C
anad
a, t
he
ship
ping
indu
stry
and
nor
ther
n co
mm
uniti
es.
And
to
inte
grat
e Arc
tic C
orrid
or—
espe
cial
ly t
hrou
gh
Nor
th S
ea R
oute
from
Rus
sian
Arc
tic t
o B
erin
g St
rait
with
BR
I
Publ
ic p
rivat
e pa
rtne
rshi
p; F
orei
gn
Dire
ct In
vest
men
t;
Loan
and
deb
t .
N/A
Clim
ate
cris
is,
glob
al
war
min
g, m
eltin
g ic
e.
/ 23 /
The Emergence of Extreme Dispossession, Exploitation and Extraction in Asia
Loca
tion
Eco
nom
ic C
orrido
rD
rive
rs, pr
omot
ors,
an
d ot
her
supp
ortin
g ac
tors
Aim
s an
d In
fras
truc
ture
sFi
nanc
ial m
echa
nism
Inve
stm
ent
(USD
)Exi
stin
g So
cial
-Eco
n-om
y an
d Eco
logi
cal
Crise
s
Indi
aFi
ve in
dust
rial
deve
lopm
ent
corr
idor
s (e
ach
with
‘nod
al’
Smar
t C
ities
and
cor
e in
dust
rial
hubs
) ar
e al
so b
eing
deve
lope
d, in
clud
ing
the
Am
ritsa
r-K
olka
ta
Indu
stria
l Cor
ridor
,th
e B
enga
luru
-Mum
bai
Econ
omic
Cor
ridor
, th
e C
henn
ai-
Ben
galu
ru In
dust
rial
Cor
ridor
and
the
Del
hi-M
umba
i In
dust
rial
Cor
ridor
.
Fore
ign
inve
stor
sSe
ven
dedi
cate
d frei
ght
trai
n co
rrid
ors
are
plan
ned
or u
nder
cons
truc
tion;
and
mul
tiple
pro
ject
s ar
e be
ing
impl
emen
ted
to in
crea
se t
he c
apac
ity o
f the
co
untr
y’s
twel
ve m
ajor
por
tsw
hose
thr
ough
put
of ir
on o
re,
coal
an
d co
ntai
ners
is e
xpec
ted
to h
ave
incr
ease
d by
146 p
er
cent
, 225 p
er c
ent
and
818 p
er
cent
res
pect
ivel
y be
twee
n 2007
and
2026.
Publ
ic p
rivat
e pa
rtne
rshi
p; F
orei
gn
Dire
ct In
vest
men
t;
Loan
and
deb
t .
N/A
Pove
rty,
fres
h w
ater
cr
ises
, ex
trem
e dr
ough
t, e
xtre
me
econ
omic
ineq
ualit
y,
sani
taito
n is
sue,
so
cial
wel
fare
, he
alth
and
edu
catio
n cr
ises
, liv
ing
spac
e,
agric
ultu
ral i
ssue
.
Indo
nesi
aTh
e M
aste
r P
lan
for
Acc
eler
atio
n an
d Ex
pans
ion
of
Indo
nesi
a’s
Econ
omic
D
evel
opm
ent
(MP
3EI
);
Bel
t R
oad
Initi
ativ
eC
ompr
ehen
sive
A
sia
(BR
I);
The
C
ompr
ehen
sive
Asi
a D
evel
opm
ent
Pla
n (C
AD
P)
Fore
ign
Inve
stor
s;
Indo
nesi
an
Gov
ernm
ent;
Chi
na
Gov
ernm
ent;
Asi
an
Dev
elop
men
t B
ank
(AD
B);
N
atio
nal
Mili
tary
For
ce
Dev
elop
ing
new
SEZ
s in
new
are
as
or e
xpan
ding
the
exi
stin
g SE
Zs i.
e M
aloy
Bat
uta
Tran
s K
alim
anta
n SE
Z (c
entr
al o
f ole
chem
ical
and
m
inin
g in
dust
ry in
fron
tier
area
);
Sei M
angk
ei S
EZ (
expa
ndin
g th
e ce
ntra
l of o
leoc
hem
ical
in
Sum
atra
); T
he G
olde
n Tr
iang
le in
N
orth
Coa
stlin
e of
Wes
t Ja
va (
new
in
dust
ry a
reas
). T
hose
SEZ
s ar
e fo
r in
dust
ries
purp
oses
(do
wns
trea
m
indu
strie
s, t
ouris
m,
real
est
ate)
Publ
ic p
rivat
e pa
rtne
rshi
p; F
orei
gn
Dire
ct In
vest
men
t;
Loan
and
deb
t .
Mal
oy B
atut
a Tr
ans
Kal
iman
tan
SEZ=
71
3 m
illio
n (fi
rst
phas
e of
to
ll ro
ads)
, 8
,2
billi
on (
railw
ays
cons
truc
tion)
; S
ei
Man
gkei
SEZ
=
9 m
illlio
n;
The
Gol
den
Tria
ngle
in
Nor
th C
oast
line
of
Wes
t Ja
va=
N/A
Pove
rty,
pol
lute
d w
ater
and
air,
ex
trem
e ev
ictio
n,
land
deg
rada
tion,
de
fore
stat
ion,
ec
onom
ic in
equa
lity,
la
rge-
scal
e la
nd
conv
ersi
on,
fore
st fi
re,
loss
of b
iodi
vers
ity,
clim
ate
cris
is,
land
pr
ices
, co
nver
ting
agric
ultu
re la
nd in
to
urba
n or
indu
strie
s ar
ea.
BEYOND ASIA ECONOMIC CORRIDORS
/ 24 /
Loca
tion
Eco
nom
ic C
orrido
rD
rive
rs, pr
omot
ors,
an
d ot
her
supp
ortin
g ac
tors
Aim
s an
d In
fras
truc
ture
sFi
nanc
ial m
echa
nism
Inve
stm
ent
(USD
)Exi
stin
g So
cial
-Eco
n-om
y an
d Eco
logi
cal
Crise
s
Mon
golia
Chi
na-M
ongo
lia-R
ussi
a Ec
onom
ic C
orrid
or
(CM
REC
); B
elt
Roa
d In
itiat
ive
Com
preh
ensi
ve A
sia
(BR
I);
Cen
tral
Asi
an
Reg
iona
l Eco
nom
ic
Coo
pera
tion
(CA
REC
) pr
ogra
mm
e.
Mon
golia
n G
over
nmen
t; C
hina
G
over
nmen
t; F
orei
gn
Inve
stor
s; A
sian
D
evel
opm
ent
Ban
k (A
DB
).
Exis
ting
min
ing
targ
et:
Cop
per
min
ing
proj
ect
in O
yu T
olgo
i and
co
al m
inin
g pr
ojec
t in
Tav
an
Tolg
oi.
Doc
king
the
Silk
Roa
d Ec
onom
ic
Zone
with
Rus
sia‘
s Acr
oss
the
Eura
sian
Rai
lway
and
Mon
golia
‘s
Gra
ssla
nd P
lan,
and
bui
ldin
g a
Chi
na-M
ongo
lia-R
ussi
a Ec
onom
ic
Cor
ridor
.
Publ
ic p
rivat
e pa
rtne
rshi
p; F
orei
gn
Dire
ct In
vest
men
t;
Loan
and
deb
t .
CM
REC
45
mill
ion
from
AD
B w
hich
to
tal p
roje
ct is
7
1.6
4 m
illio
n;
CA
REC
pro
gram
2
4 m
illio
n fr
om
AD
B
Mon
golia
‘s
envi
ronm
enta
l pr
oble
ms
have
be
com
e in
crea
sing
ly
prom
inen
t du
e to
gl
obal
war
min
g: 7
0%
of
the
cou
ntry
‘s la
nd
face
s va
rious
deg
rees
of
des
ertifi
catio
n, a
nd
ther
e is
a g
row
ing
tren
d. T
he la
test
st
atis
tics
show
ed t
hat
Mon
golia
has
thr
ee
larg
e la
kes,
and
riv
ers,
st
ream
s 6
64
6,
amon
g w
hich
55
1 a
re d
ryin
g or
alre
ady
dry.
The
to
tal a
nim
al h
erd
size
no
w a
t th
e be
ginn
ing
of 2
01
9 r
each
ed t
o its
hi
stor
ic h
ighe
r le
vel,
to n
ear
70
,0 m
ln
head
.
Cam
bodi
aTh
e G
reat
Mek
ong
Sub-
regi
on (
The
GM
S);
The
Com
preh
ensi
ve
Asi
a D
evel
opm
ent
Pla
n (C
AD
P);
Th
e So
uthe
rn
Econ
omic
Cor
ridor
(S
EC)
Cam
bodi
an
Gov
erm
ent;
Asi
an
Dev
elop
men
t B
ank
(AD
B);
For
eign
In
vest
ors;
Nat
iona
l M
ilita
ry F
orce
; C
hina
go
vern
emen
t
To b
e a
res
ort
alon
g th
e co
astli
ne,
com
plet
e w
ith a
cas
ino,
gol
f co
urse
, 5-s
tar
hote
l, be
ach
club
an
d m
any
othe
r fa
cilit
ies.
Rec
ent
repo
rts
unve
il a
mas
ter
plan
with
“a
nea
rly c
ompl
ete
econ
omy,
w
ith m
edic
al t
reat
men
t ce
ntre
s,
cond
omin
ium
s, r
esor
ts a
nd h
otel
s,
man
ufac
turin
g fa
cilit
ies,
a d
eep-
wat
er p
ort,
and
an
inte
rnat
iona
l ai
rpor
t”.
Publ
ic p
rivat
e pa
rtne
rshi
p; F
orei
gn
Dire
ct In
vest
men
t;
Loan
and
deb
t .
3.8
bill
ion
and
50
0.4
mill
ion
for
next
pro
ject
Losi
ng a
cces
s to
fis
hing
are
as a
nd lo
w
lyin
g ag
ricul
tura
l lan
ds
for
farm
ing;
th
e la
nd
gran
ted
for
relo
catio
n do
esn’
t ha
ve s
ecur
e tit
le;
inad
equa
te
shel
ter
stan
dard
s;
inco
me
gene
ratio
n is
be
com
e ve
ry s
hort
age
sinc
e al
l far
min
g la
nd
was
tot
ally
des
troy
ed;
/ 25 /
The Emergence of Extreme Dispossession, Exploitation and Extraction in Asia
Loca
tion
Eco
nom
ic C
orrido
rD
rive
rs, pr
omot
ors,
an
d ot
her
supp
ortin
g ac
tors
Aim
s an
d In
fras
truc
ture
sFi
nanc
ial m
echa
nism
Inve
stm
ent
(USD
)Exi
stin
g So
cial
-Eco
n-om
y an
d Eco
logi
cal
Crise
s
Thai
land
The
Gre
at M
ekon
g Su
b-re
gion
(Th
e G
MS)
; Ea
ster
n Ec
onom
ic
Cor
ridor
(EE
C);
The
C
ompr
ehen
sive
Asi
a D
evel
opm
ent
Pla
n (C
AD
P)
Asi
an D
evel
opm
ent
Ban
k (A
DB
); T
haila
nd
Gov
ernm
ent
(the
M
inis
try
of F
inan
ce,
the
Min
istr
y of
Tr
ansp
ort,
the
Min
istr
y of
Dig
ital E
cono
my
and
Soci
ety,
the
M
inis
try
of E
nerg
y,
the
Min
istr
y of
Fo
reig
n Affa
irs,
the
Min
istr
y of
Lab
our,
the
Min
istr
y of
Soc
ial
Dev
elop
men
t an
d H
uman
Sec
urity
, th
e C
usto
ms
Dep
artm
ent,
Th
aila
nd In
tern
atio
nal
Coo
pera
tion
Age
ncy)
; th
e Ec
onom
ic
Dev
elop
men
t C
oope
ratio
n Age
ncy
of n
eigh
bour
ing
coun
trie
s; F
orei
gn
Inve
stor
s,
To e
nhan
ce t
he fi
rst
exis
ting
S-cu
rve
indu
strie
s in
clud
ing
auto
mot
ive,
agr
icul
ture
and
bio
te
chno
logy
, fo
od,
high
inco
me
wel
lnes
s an
d m
edic
al t
ouris
m,
and
smar
t el
ectr
onic
s, a
long
with
the
ad
ditio
n an
d de
velo
pmen
t of
five
ne
w S
-cur
vein
dust
ries
incl
udin
g ro
botic
s an
d au
tom
atio
n, a
viat
ion
and
logi
stic
s,
bioe
nerg
y an
d bi
oche
mic
als,
m
edic
alhu
bs,
and
the
digi
tal i
ndus
try.
Publ
ic p
rivat
e pa
rtne
rshi
p; F
orei
gn
Dire
ct In
vest
men
t;
Loan
and
deb
t .
14
bill
ion
Land
pric
es in
R
ayon
g, C
honb
uri a
nd
Cha
choe
ngsa
o ha
ve
seen
an
incr
ease
of
mor
e th
an 5
0%
ow
ing
to the
stro
ng d
eman
d fo
r pr
oper
ty fo
r bo
th r
esid
entia
l and
in
dust
rial d
evel
opm
ent
purp
oses
. R
apid
in
dust
rial d
evel
opm
ent
over
the
last
few
de
cade
s ha
s al
read
y le
d to
env
ironm
enta
l de
grad
atio
nin
the
pro
vinc
es o
f C
honb
uri,
Ray
ong
and
Cha
choe
ngsa
o. A
lso,
w
ater
and
tox
ic a
irpo
llutio
n as
wel
l as
illeg
al d
umpi
ng o
f ha
zard
ous
was
tes
BEYOND ASIA ECONOMIC CORRIDORS
/ 26 /
BIBLIOGRAPHY
Arrighi, Giovanni 200, ‘Spatial and Other “Fixes” of Historical Capitalism’, Paper of Globalization in the World-System Conference: Mapping Change over Time, University of California, Riverside, viewed 5 April 2019, http://citeseerx.ist.psu.edu/viewdoc/download?doi=10.1.1.146.2476&rep=rep1&type=pdf.
Banyan 2013, ‘An Asian infrastructure bank-Only connect’, The Economist, 4 October, viewed 5 April 2019, https://www.economist.com/analects/2013/10/04/only-connect.
Harvey, David 2003, The New Imperialism, Oxford University Press, New York, US.
Heijster, Joan van 2016, ‘The Asian Infrastructure Investment Bank (AIIB)-The Asian solution to the continued accumulation of capital: A critical political economy analysis on the emergence of the AIIB’, Master thesis, Radboud University Nijmegen, viewed 20 May, 2016, https://theses.ubn.ru.nl/bitstream/handle/1234 56789/2106/Heijster%2C_Joan_van_1.pdf?sequence=1.
Hildyard, Nicholas 2014, ‘Public-Private Partnerships, Financial Extraction and the Growing Wealth Gap: Exploring the connections’, Speech presented at Manchester Business School, Centre for Research on Socio-Cultural Change (CRESC), Manchester, UK, 31 July.
_______________2016, Licensed Larceny: Infrastructure, Financial Extraction and the global South, Manchester University Press, Manchester, UK.
Hildyard, Nicholas & Sol, Xavier 2017, ‘How Infrastructure Is Shaping The World? A Critical Introduction to Infratstructure Mega-Corridors’, Counter Balance. December, 2017, pp. 1-43.
Isono, Ikumo 2010, ‘Economic Impacts of the Economic Corridor Development in mekong Region’, In Investment Climate of Major Cities in CLMV Countries, edited by Masami Ishida, BRC Research Report No.4, Bangkok Research Center, IDE-JETRO, Bangkok, TH.
Khanna, Parag 2016, Connectography: Mapping the Future of Global Civilization, Penguin Random House. LLC, New York, US.
/ 27 /
The Emergence of Extreme Dispossession, Exploitation and Extraction in Asia
McNally, David 2009, ‘From Financial Crisis to World-Slump: Accumulation, Financialisation, and the Global Slowdown’, Historical Materialism, vol. 17, pp. 35–83, viewed 18 June 2019, http://citeseerx.ist.psu.edu/viewdoc/download? doi=10.1.1.639.1435&rep=rep1&type=pdf.
Pratap, Surendra 2014, Emerging Trends in Factory Asia: International Capital Mobility, Global Value Chains, and the Labour Movement, Asia Monitor Resource Centre, Kowloon, HK.
Tenggara Strategics 2018, ‘Belt and Road Initiative: What’s in it for Indonesia?’, Tenggara Strategies, Jakarta, ID.
Urata, S 2008, An ASEAN 6 Economic Partnership: Significance and tasks, Asia Research Report, 2007, Tokyo: Japan Center for Economic Research, https://www.jcer.or.jp/eng/pdf/asia07.pdf.
Yusuf, Arief Anshory and Fransisco, Herminia 2009, Climate Change Vulnerability Mapping for Southeast Asia, Singapore: Economy and Environment Program for Southeast Asia (EEPSEA), https://www.idrc.ca/sites/default/files/sp/Documents%20EN/ climate-change-vulnerability-mapping-sa.pdf
Contact person:
Ganies Oktaviana
(Sajogyo Institute - Indonesia)
+62 878 8292 0366
ganiesoul@gmail.com
BEYOND ASIA ECONOMIC CORRIDORS
/ 28 /
/ 29 /
The Emergence of Extreme Dispossession, Exploitation and Extraction in Asia
Forest fires in Indonesia. Source: https://wsimag.com/economy-and-politics/18767-southeast-asian-haze-fires
BEYOND ASIA ECONOMIC CORRIDORSThe Emergence of Extreme Dispossession,
Exploitation and Extraction in Asia
top related