nuclear waste management
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Health Effects of Radiation&
Nuclear Waste Management
Biplab Das
Scientific Officer & Safety Coordinator
Kalpakkam Reprocessing Plant
BARC, Kalpakkam1
NATURALSOURCES OF RADIATION
• COSMIC RAYS
• EARTH’S CRUST
• AIR
• HUMAN BODY2
Natural Radiation : Terrestrial sources
Radon, Thoron
Th, U - a few grams per 1,000,Kg of ground material
K-40 : 30 Bq per gram of potassium
3
Radon and Thoron
Man
aval
akku
rich
i
&K
eral
a co
ast
Stable Daughter
210Tl
214Bi
218Rn222Rn
238U
234Th
234Pa
238U
230Th
226Ra
218Po
214Pb
218At214Po
210Pb
210Bi
210Po
206Pb
Natural uranium as ore in soilUnstable parent
Gas
Gamma emitters
Alpha emitters
208Tl
212Bi
220Rn
232Th228Pa
228Th
224Ra
216Po
212Pb
212Po
208Pb
Gas
Gamma emitters
228Ra
Stable Daughter
Thorium as ore in soilUnstable parent
Alpha emitters
86Rn2224
List of Natural occurring and artificially produced Radionuclides
238U – 4.5 x 109 y
232Th – 1.4 x 1010 y
40K – 1.3 x 109 y
14C – 5700 y
99mTc – 6 h131I – 8 d60Co – 5.26 y137Cs – 30 y239Pu – 24000 y233U – 6.2 x 105 y
Natural Artificial
Produced in nuclear reactors & using accelerators
Present in earth crust and produced in the atmosphere by cosmic radiation
5
Technologically Enhanced Sources (Man-Made)
Diagnostic X-rays, radiopharmaceuticals
Nuclear Weapons Tests fallout
Industrial Activities, Research
Consumer Products
Miscellaneous:
Air Travel, Transportation of Radioactive Material
6
Air 51%
Radon & Thoron
Cosmic 10%
Food 12%
Terrestrial 14%
Natural 87%
2.5 mSv/y
Manmade 13%
Misc. 0.3%
Fallout 0
.4%
Occupational 0
.2%
Nuclear 0.1%
Medical 12%
7
high energyhigh energyionizing radiationionizing radiation
Alpha particlesBeta particlesX -rays Gamma raysNeutrons
low energylow energynon-ionizingnon-ionizing
Radio wavesMicro wavesLight Heat
8
• RADIATION
• RADIO ACTIVITY
• RADIOACTIVE MATERIAL
9
Unstable atoms attain stability by throwing out the excess nucleons in the form of Radiation as Particles or Electromagnetic waves.
Material with radioactive atoms are called Radioactive Material.
Beta radiation
RadioactivityRadioactivity
The process of spontaneous emission radiation by unstable nucleus is called Radioactivity.
Tritium (unstable) Helium (stable)
10
Beta radiation
Tritium(unstable)
Helium (stable)
Example :
11
ActivitySpontaneous decay of nucleus of an atom
Usually by emission of Particles ( Alpha and Beta )
And by electromagnetic Radiation ( X, Gamma ray )
12
Alpha Particles
• Heavy and Charged particles• Cause more ionisation• Loose energy faster• Less penetration power
13
Beta Particles
• Smaller mass • Chararged particles• Cause ionisation• Less penetration power
14
Gamma Rays
• More Penetrating waves• Also cause ionisation
15
Penetrating power of Radiation
Alpha
Beta
Gamma and X-rays
Paper Plastic Lead Concrete
Neutronn
Use of right shielding materials reduces radiation exposure 16
Fission• If neutron absorption occurs
in certain nuclei, fission can be induced.– 235U, 239Pu and 233U can all
undergo fission by the absorption of a thermal neutron
– 238U can fission from the absorption of a fast neutron.
17
18
Nuclear Fission
Consider a neutron bombarding a 235U nucleus:
19
Units of Radioactivity
• Becquerel (Bq) - the SI unit of radioactivity. Defined as one radioactive transformation per second.
• Curie (Ci) - the traditional unit of radioactivity. Now defined as below:
• 1 curie (Ci) = 3.7 x 10 10 becquerel (Bq)20
Units of Exposure
• Roentgen: 1 Roentgen = 2.58x10 -4 C/kg
• Absorbed Dose:1 Gy = 1 J/kg = 100 Rad
• REM = Rad x W.F21
Types of radiation exposures
External exposure
Internal exposure
source
sourceInhalation
Ingestion
Injection
Skin Absorption22
• Measures for control of exposures
External exposures – TLD
Internal exposures – PPE, ventilation and isolation
Management control
Training of personnel
Adequate supervision and radiation protection surveillance
23
ZONING
• Red Zone• Amber Zone• Green Zone• White Zone
24
Radiation and Contamination• Two frequently confused quantities
• Radiation arises as a flux of energy in the form of EM waves or a stream of particles that gives rise to a field. Energy absorbed per unit mass is the dose of radiation
• Contamination is the presence of radioactive material in the wrong place. It gives rise to a human internal hazard and to the presence of a radiation field (an external hazard).
• Contamination control is an essential radiation protection activity.
25
WHAT IS radioactive CONTAMINATION?
• Presence of radioactive material in undesired place.
• Radioactive material either in powder or liquid form can be present inside a glove box but not in the operating /working area
26
Control of airborne contamination
• Result in internal exposure, skin contamination
• Design measure : Layout , Ventilation
• On-job protection: PPEs, Respirators etc
27
Control of Surface contamination: area/equipment
• Result in airborne contamination, personnel contamination and internal exposure
• Detection method : Swipe sample on the floor, scan with monitor for fixed contamination
28
Control of Personnel Contamination
• Skin exposure or internal exposure
• Gloves, gumboots, plastic suit, Hoods
• Detection method: swipe samples and scan with monitor, nasal swaps etc.
29
Swipe Samples
• Swipe samples indicate the amount of transferable contamination
• Swipe a piece of absorbent sheet on the floor or equipment
• Estimate the activity in the swipe paper
• Measure the area covered
• Expressed in terms of Bq /100 cm2
30
CONTROL OF INTERNAL EXPOSURE
• RUBBER STATION
• VENTILLATION
• USING PPE
31
PROTECTIVE CLOTHING
Protective clothing serves two functions:
• Protects the individual from body
contamination.
• Prevents the spread of contamination
32
EVLAUATION OF RADIATION STATUS
• AREA MONITORING- area gamma monitors
• AIR MONITORING- air monitors, air sampler
• CONTAMINATION MONITORING- swipe samples
33
Evaluation of personnel exposure
• EXTERNAL-- TLD– DRD etc.
• INTERNAL– WHOLE BODY COUNTING,
BIO- ASSAY( URINE, BLOOD)
DOSELIMIT:INTERNAL+EXTERNAL= 20 mSv
DOSE RECORDS MAINTAINED34
Biological Effects of Radiation
1. Somatic Effects
2. Hereditary Effects
35
Stochastic Effects
1. Probabilistic Occurrence of effect
2. No threshold dose
3. Low probability
4. Long latent Periods
5. Result of acute and chronic exposure
6. Important from protection point
36
Deterministic Effects
1. Severity of dose is considered
2. Threshold present
37
Deterministic Effects
– Occurs above threshold dose– Severity increases with dose
– Tend to occur at
– whole-body doses > 100 rem.
Examples:– Alopecia (hair loss)– Cataracts– Erythema (skin reddening)– Radiation Sickness– Temporary Sterility
38Dose
Effects
“Dose-ResponseCurves”
Stochastic Effects
• Occurs by chance• Probability increases with dose
• effects are documented only at doses > 10 rem.
39
• Carcinogenesis• Mutagenesis• Teratogenesis
Dose
Effect
“Dose-ResponseCurves”
?
While moderate doses cause well-documented effects, one cannot measure significantly effects at the doses where real doses or regulated doses occur
Effect
Dose 40
Type of Exposure
1. Acute Exposure: Dose received in a short time
2. Chronic Exposure:Dose received over longer time periods
41
Energy Deposition
• Radiation interacts by either ionizing or exciting the atoms or molecules in the body (water)
• Energy is deposited and absorbed as a result of these interactions
• Absorbed Dose is defined as the energy absorbed per unit mass of material (tissue in this case)
42
• Produce free radicals.
• Break chemical bonds.
• Produce new chemical bonds and cross-linkage between macromolecules.
• Damage molecules that regulate vital cell processes (e.g. DNA, RNA, proteins).
How does radiation injure people?
43
Direct Action
• Radiation interacts directly with a molecule through excitation or ionization
• The molecule dissociates
• The effect depends on which molecule was affected
Indirect Action
• The body is composed primarily of water and most direct action will be on water
• This results in hydrolysis of water
End Result:
• Disruption cell membrane integrity, cellular chemistry and DNA replication.
44
Biological Damage
• Damage can occur at various biological levels– Sub-cellular– Cellular (cell death)– Organ (malfunction)– Organism (cancer, death)
45
Cellular Radio-sensitivity
46
Cells that divide more rapidly are more sensitive to the effects of radiation ...
… essentially because the resulting effect is seen more rapidly.
Most Sensitive: Blood-forming organsReproductive organsEyes, Skin, Bone and teeth, Muscles
Least sensitive: Nervous system
Factors Influencing Biological Effect
• Total absorbed energy (dose)
• Dose rate– Acute (seconds, minutes)– Chronic (days, years)
• Type of radiation
• Source of radiation– External– Internal
• Age at exposure47
Quality Factors
Radiation Quality Factor (Q)
Alpha particles 20
Beta particles 1
Gamma rays 148
Different Ionization densities
X-ray,γ-Ray, neutron-- not many ionizations
α- particles -- Very high density
β- particles -- High density at end
X-ray passes straightthrough cell
No change to cell
Cells are undamaged by the dose
What will happen when radiation interacts with tissues?
49
X-ray causes achemical reaction incell, but no damage
done or damagerepaired by cell
No change to cell
*
Cells are damaged, repair the damage and operate normally
50
DNA damaged in a“fatal” way”
Cell killed
*
Cells die as a result of the damage
51
OBJECTIVE
Keeping radiation exposure As Low As Reasonably Achievable (ALARA) and
within the prescribed limits;
Taking actions to prevent accidental exposures,
Mitigating the consequences of any accident that might occur in nuclear
and radiological installations.
52
PRINCPLE OF RADIATION PROTECTION
• JUSTIFICATION
• OPTIMISATION
• EQIVALENT DOSE LIMITS
53
Short-term effects usually occur when there’s a large amount of
exposure to radiation.
Short-Term Effects of Radiation
54
Long-Term Effects of Radiation
These effects take longer to become apparent and can be caused by much lower levels of radiation.
Uranium miners tended to get lung cancer due to breathing in gases which emitted alpha particles.
People who painted the dials of clocks with luminous paint developed one cancer from using their lips to make points on the brushes.First example of radiation induced leukaemia (blood cancer)
One of the most important long-term effects of radiation is that of cancer in various parts of the body.
55
Exposure to ionising radiation does not necessarily cause cancer
The mechanisms for cancer occurring are poorly understood at the moment. One theory is that the ionising radiation affects the DNA material within us – our genetic make-up. Our DNA contains genetic instructions which control the operation and reproduction of the cells. If ionisations caused by ionising radiations alter these instructions in the DNA, there is a chance that cancer will develop.
Genetic damage can be caused to cells by radiation, including cells which are involved in reproduction.
56
ACUTE RADIATION DOSE
An acute radiation dose more than 10 rad or greater, to the whole body delivered during a short period of time.
Blood-Forming Organ • Dose threshold : >100 rad• Affected organs/cells : bone marrow, the spleen
and lymphatic tissue. Symptoms: Internal bleeding, fatigue, bacterial
infections, and fever.
57
Gastrointestinal Tract Syndrome : >1000 Rad • Affected organs/cells: Linings of stomach & intestines. • Symptoms: nausea, vomiting, diarrhea, dehydration,
electrolytic imbalance
Central nervous system syndrome • Dose threshold: >5000 Rad • Affected cells: Nerve Cells.• Symptoms: loss of coordination, confusion, coma,
convulsions, shock, and the symptoms of the blood forming organ
58
Chronic dose
A chronic dose is a relatively small amount of radiation received over a long period of time.
• The body is better equipped to tolerate a chronic dose than an acute dose. The body has time to repair damage because a smaller percentage of the cells need repair at any given time. The body also has time to replace dead or non-functioning cells with new, healthy cells.
• This is the type of dose received as occupational exposure.
59
• Reproductive System: Doses of about 6 Gy are required to permanently sterilize males (sterility occurs after several months)
• Lens of Eye: At doses 2-6 Gy, damage to the lens, significant to cause eventual cataract formation.
• Skin: Dose of 6-8 Sievert — effects occur 1-2 days after exposure: Effects: Erythema.
• Cataract Dose of 50 Sievert, Superficial Cataract
• Lungs: Relatively radio resistantDoses at 7-8 Sievert, 60
Prompt Effects
• Examples• Blood count changes----above 10 rem• Vomiting (threshold)---100 rem• Mortality (threshold)---150 rem• LD50/60* (with minimal supportive care)--320 – 360
rem• LD50/60---(with supportive medical treatment)--480 – 540 rem• 100% mortality --(with best available treatment) -800 rem
61
Seen immediately after large doses of radiation delivered over short periods of time
Delayed Effect- Cataract
• Cataracts are induced when a dose exceeding approximately 200-300 Rem is delivered to the lens of the eye.
• Radiation-induced cataracts may take many months to years to appear.
• Radiation-induced cancers may take 10 - 15 years or more to appear.
62
That may appear months or years after a radiation exposure. Ex-cataract and cancer
RADIOACTIVE WASTE MANAGEMENT
Radioactive Waste
Radioactive wastes are waste containing radioactive chemical elements that do not
have a practical purpose.
Objective of Radioactive Waste Management
To protect radiation workers, general public and their environment from potential hazards arising from waste
SOURCES OF RADIOACTIVE WASTES
• Natural radioactive material• Artificial radioactive elements by neutron
activation ( Co-60 )• Fission products and alpha wastes from
nuclear fission
Rad.Waste from Nuclear Fuel Cycle
– Mining and Milling,
– Fuel Fabrication,
– Nuclear Power Generation
– Reprocessing & Waste Management
• Fission products: Cs137, I131, Sr90
• Activation products: Ar41, Co60, H3
• Solid and Liquid Waste from decontamination of equipment, spaces and materials, contaminated equipment etc.
Rad. Waste from Industries, Medical facilities and Research
Sealed Spent Sources, Contaminated filter papers. Plastics, Glassware, Syringes, Carcasses etc.
Co60, C14, P32, Sr90, Au198, Ir192, Cs137
Basic Philosophies of Waste Management
Delay and decay Delay and decay
Dilute and disperseDilute and disperse
Concentrate & containConcentrate & contain
CATEGORIES OF RADIOACTIVE WASTE
LIQ U ID W AST E
N on-trea tab le T rea tab le
SO LID W AST E G ASEO U S W AST E
W A S T E S F R O M N U C LE A R IN D U S T R Y
LIQUID WASTES – SEGREGATION, COLLECTION & TRANSPORT
TypeCategory&Sp. activity
(mCi /l)Source Collection Disposal
Potentially Active
I (<10-6)Personal washes & showers
PipelinesDilution and
discharge
Low LevelII (<10-3) & III (<10-1)
Sumps, Labs &
decontamination
Spl. Pipelines/ tankers
Treatment, dilution and discharge
Intermediate Level
IV (<104)Research Activities
Spl. Containers/tankers
Treatment, dilution and discharge
High Level V (>104)Reprocessing of spent fuel
Spl. containers/tankers
after coolingImmobilisation
TREATMENT OF LOW AND INTERMEDIATE LEVEL LIQUID WASTES
• Solid Phase Separation
• Chemical Precipitation( Using Chemicals to precipitate Cs and Sr)
• Ion-exchange ( Polishing treatment prior to Disposal Cs 137)
• Evaporation (After proper conditioning passed thro evaporator and the vapor is condensed)
CLASSIFICATION OF SOLID WASTE
CATEGORYSURFACE DOSE
[D] (mR/h)REMARKS
I D < 200 No shielding required
II 200 < D < 2000 Some shielding
III D > 2000 Shielding required
IVAlpha
Contaminated (Bq/m3)
Specially treated
TREATMENT OF SOLID WASTES
Types of waste and Immobilisation Matrix
Sludges Spent ion-exchange resins Evaporator bottoms
Cement Bitumen Plastics Glass or Synrock
Types of waste
Immobilisation Matrix
Near Surface Disposal FacilitiesDisposal Criteria
• The solid waste, packed suitably are disposed in the Near Surface Disposal Facilities.
• These NSDF are of three types:– Brick Walled Trenches – 20 mR/hr.– RCC Trenches 20 mR/hr to 50 R/hr.– Tile Holes > 50 R/hr.
• The facilities are engineered to provide multiple barriers between the waste and the environment.
• The higher the surface dose, the more the number of barriers.
• NSDFs are designed to hold the waste for up to 300 years - activity would see 10 half lives or decay to 1/210 of its original value.
CLASSIFICATION OF GASEOUS WASTES
CATEGORYSPECIFIC ACTIVITY
[A] (Bq/ml)
I A <3.7 X 10-6
II 3.7x10-6 < A < 3.7x10-2
III A > 10-2
MANAGEMENT OF GASEOUS WASTES
• Particulate Removal- High Efficiency Filter
• Gaseous Waste Removal- Charcoal Filter & Molecular Sieve
• Gaseous Wastes from Nuclear Power Plants – Particulate Filter System (such as HEPA)– Iodine Adsorption System– Noble Gas Delay System
• Gaseous Wastes from Fuel Reprocessing Plants – 85Kr by cryogenic distillation and adsorption– 129I by caustic scrubbing
SURVEILLANCE
• REGULAR AREA / AIR MONITORING
• PERIODIC BORE WELL WATER ANALYSIS
• PERIODIC SOIL ANALYSIS
• PERIODIC VEGETATION SAMPLES
• ENVIRONMENTAL SURVEY AROUND NUCLEAR FACILITY
Ion-exchange method
Ion-exchange is one of the methods used to remove the radionuclides from the liquid waste.
e.g. If NaCl has to be removed from a liquid
R-H+ + NaCl R-Na+ + HCl (Cation exchange)R+OH- + HCl R+Cl- + H2O (Anion exchange)
Regeneration of the bed….
2 R-Na+ + H2So4 2 R-H+ + Na2SO4
R+Cl- + NaoH R+OH- + NaCl
Solidified high level waste equivalent to power consumed by an average Indian family in 25 years, if all the power is from nuclear power station.
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