nuclear energy professor stephen lawrence leeds school of business university of colorado at boulder

Nuclear Energy

Professor Stephen LawrenceLeeds School of Business

University of Colorado at Boulder

Agenda

• Overview of Nuclear Energy

• Nuclear Physics• Nuclear Fuel• Nuclear Power Plants• Radiation• Nuclear Waste• Nuclear Safety

• Nuclear Power and the Environment

• Nuclear Power Economics

• Nuclear Power – Pro & Con

• Future of Nuclear Power

Overview of Nuclear Power

Nuclear energy consumption by area

http://www.nei.org

http://www.uic.com.au/opinion6.html

World Nuclear Power Plants

http://www.uic.com.au/opinion6.html

Electric Power Generation

http://www.uic.com.au/opinion6.html

Electric Consumption Profile

http://www.uic.com.au/opinion6.html

US Nuclear Generation Trends

http://www.eia.doe.gov/cneaf/nuclear/page/nuc_generation/gensum.html

Nuclear Physics

Nuclear Binding Energy

http://www.euronuclear.org/info/encyclopedia/n/nuclearenergy.htm

Nuclear Binding Energy 2

http://www.euronuclear.org/info/encyclopedia/n/nuclearenergy.htm

Maximum Stability

(Iron)

Nuclear Fission

http://users.aber.ac.uk/jrp3/nuclear_power.htm

Nuclear Chain Reaction

http://www.btinternet.com/~j.doyle/SR/Emc2/Fission.htm

Nuclear Fuel

Uranium

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nuclear_fuel_cycle

Creating Uranium Fuel

• 50,000 tonnes of ore from mine • 200 tonnes of uranium oxide concentrate (U3O8)

– Milling process at mine• 25 tonnes of enriched uranium oxide

– uranium oxide is converted into a gas, uranium hexafluoride (UF6),

– Every tonne of uranium hexafluoride separated into about 130 kg of enriched UF6 (about 3.5% U-235) and 870 kg of 'depleted' UF6 (mostly U-238).

– The enriched UF6 is finally converted into uranium dioxide (UO2) powder

– Pressed into fuel pellets which are encased in zirconium alloy tubes to form fuel rods.

Uranium Mined and Refined

Uranium Enrichment

Nuclear Fuel Pellet

Pellets Encased in Ceramic

Pellets Inserted into Rods

Sources of Uranium

http://www.uic.com.au/opinion6.html

World Uranium Production

http://www.uic.com.au/opinion6.html

Nuclear Power Plants

Nuclear Power Plants

• Work best at constant power– Excellent for baseload power

• Power output range of 40 to 2000 MW– Current designs are 600 to1200 MW

• 441 licensed plants operating in 31 countries

• Produce about 17% of global electrical energy

Nuclear Power Plant

Nuclear PP Cooling Tower

http://www.howstuffworks.com/nuclear-power.htm/printable

Core of Nuclear Reactor

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nuclear_reactors

Nuclear PP Control Room

http://www.howstuffworks.com/nuclear-power.htm/printable

Idea of a Nuclear Power Plant

Spinning turbine blades and generatorBoiling water

Steam

Nuclear Heat

Heat

Steam produced

Steam

Turbine

Generator

Electricity

Controlling Chain Reaction

Control rods

Fuel Assemblies

Withdraw control rods,reaction increases

Insert control rods,reaction decreases

Boiling Water Reactor

Boiling Water Reactor (BWR)

1. Reactor core creates heat2. Steam-water mixture is produced when very pure

water (reactor coolant) moves upward through the core absorbing heat

3. The steam-water mixture leaves the top of the core and enters the two stages of moisture separation where water droplets are removed before the steam is allowed to enter the steam line

4. Steam line directs the steam to the main turbine causing it to turn the turbine generator, which produces electricity.

Steam

Pressurized Water Reactor

Pressurized Water Reactor (PWR)

1. Reactor core generates heat

2. Pressurized-water in the primary coolant loop carries the heat to the steam generator

3. Inside the steam generator heat from the primary coolant loop vaporizes the water in a secondary loop producing steam

4. The steam line directs the steam to the main turbine causing it to turn the turbine generator, which produces electricity

Reactor Safety DesignContainment Vessel1.5-inch thick steel

Shield Building Wall3 foot thick reinforced concrete

Dry Well Wall5 foot thick reinforced concrete

Bio Shield4 foot thick leaded concrete with1.5-inch thick steel lining inside and out

Reactor Vessel4 to 8 inches thick steel

Reactor Fuel

Weir Wall1.5 foot thick concrete

Tour of a Nuclear Power Plant

Reactor Type Main Countries Number GWe Fuel Coolant Moderator

Pressurised Water Reactor (PWR)

US, France, Japan, Russia

252 235 enriched UO2 water water

Boiling Water Reactor (BWR)

US, Japan, Sweden

92 83 enriched UO2 water water

Gas-cooled Reactor (Magnox & AGR)

UK 34 13natural U (metal),

enriched UO2 CO2 graphite

Pressurised Heavy Water Reactor "CANDU" (PHWR)

Canada 33 18 natural UO2 heavy

water heavy water

Light Water Graphite Reactor (RBMK)

Russia 14 14.6 enriched UO2 water graphite

Fast Neutron Reactor (FBR)

Japan, France, Russia

4 1.3 PUO2and UO2 liquid

sodium

none

Other Russia, Japan 5 0.2      

TOTAL 434 365

Source: Nuclear Engineering International handbook 1999, but including Pickering A in Canada.

http://www.uic.com.au/opinion6.html

Advanced Research Designs

• Generation IV Reactors– Gas cooled fast reactor– Lead cooled fast reactor– Molten salt reactor– Sodium-cooled fast reactor– Supercritical water reactor– Very high temperature reactor

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nuclear_reactor

SSTAR Design

• SSTAR – Small, sealed, transportable, autonomous reactor

• Fast breeder reactor• Tamper resistant, passively safe, self-

contained fuel source (U238)• 30 year life• Produce constant power of 10-100 MW

– 15m high × 3 m wide; 500 tonnes

• Prototype expected by 2015

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/SSTAR

SSTAR Schematic

http://www.llnl.gov/str/JulAug04/gifs/Smith1.jpg

Radiation

Types of Radiation

http://www.uic.com.au/wast.htm

Types of Radiation

• Alpha radiation – Cannot penetrate the skin– Blocked out by a sheet of paper– Dangerous in the lung

• Beta radiation – Can penetrate into the body – Can be blocked out by a sheet of aluminum foil

• Gamma radiation – Can go right through the body – Requires several inches of lead or concrete, or a yard or

so of water, to block it.• Neutron radiation

– Normally found only inside a nuclear reactor

http://www.uic.com.au/wast.htm

Measuring Radioactivity

• Half-Life– The time for a radioactive source to lose 50% of

its radioactivity– For each half-life time period, radioactivity drops

by 50%• 1/2; 1/4; 1/8; 1/16; 1/32; 1/64; 1/128; 1/256; …• A half-life of 1 year means that radioactivity drops to

<1% of its original intensity in seven years

• Intensity vs. half-life– Intense radiation has a short half life, so decays

more rapidly

Half-Life Graph

Nuclear Waste

Handling Nuclear Waste

• Waste Reprocessing– Recondition for further use as fuel

• Waste Disposal– Temporary storage– Permanent disposal (usually burial)

Waste Disposal Funding

• Funded by power customers

• 0.1 cent per kWh

• About $18 billion collected to date

• About $6 billion has been spent– Yucca Mountain, elsewhere

http://www.uic.com.au/wast.htm

Nuclear Fuel Cycle

http://eia.doe.gov/cneaf/nuclear/page/intro.html

Decay of Nuclear PP Waste

http://www.uic.com.au/opinion6.html

Nuclear Waste Reprocessing

• Separates usable elements (uranium, plutonium) from spent nuclear reactor fuels

• Usable elements are then reused in a nuclear reactor

• Other waste products (e.g., radioactive isotopes) must be disposed of

Nuclear Waste Disposal

• Cooled in a spent fuel pool– 10 to 20 years

• Onsite temporary dry storage– Until permanent site becomes available

• Central permanent buried disposal

Spent Fuel Cooling Pool

http://www.uic.com.au/opinion6.html

Fuel Rod Storage

http://library.thinkquest.org/17940/texts/nuclear_waste_storage/nuclear_waste_storage.html

Dry Storage Cask

http://www.uic.com.au/opinion6.html

http://library.thinkquest.org/17940/texts/nuclear_waste_storage/nuclear_waste_storage.html

Dry Storage On Site

Dry Cask Construction

http://www.nei.org/http://www.nei.org/index.asp?catnum=2&catid=84

Dry Cask Durability

http://www.nei.org/http://www.nei.org/index.asp?catnum=2&catid=84

Waste Burial

• Immobilize waste in an insoluble matrix– E.g. borosilicate glass, Synroc (or leave them as uranium

oxide fuel pellets - a ceramic)

• Seal inside a corrosion-resistant container– Usualy stainless steel

• Locate deep underground in stable rock• Site the repository in a remote location. • Most radioactivity decays within 1,000 years

– Remaining radioactivity similar to that of the naturally-occurring uranium ore, though more concentrated

http://www.uic.com.au/wast.htm

Yucca Mountain Burial Site

http://www.cnn.com/EARTH/9803/27/nuclear.waste.ap/

Yucca Mountain, NV

http://www.sandia.gov/tp/SAFE_RAM/WHEN.HTM

Yucca Mountain Cross Section

http://www.nrc.gov/waste/hlw-disposal/design.html

Entrance to Yucca Mountain

http://www.wnfm.com/New%20files/Yucca%20Mountain%20Pictures.htm

Interior of Yucca Mountain

http://library.thinkquest.org/17940/texts/nuclear_waste_storage/nuclear_waste_storage.html

Yucca Mountain – One Opinion

http://www.claybennett.com/pages/yucca.html

Nuclear Safety

Three Mile Island, PA

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Three_Mile_Island

Three Mile Island Accident

• March 28, 1979• Partial core meltdown over 5 days

– Main feedwater pumps failed– Backup feedwater system was inoperative– Instrumentation failed; operators unaware– Should region around TMI be evacuated?

• No fatalities; little radiation exposure• Cleanup lasted 14 years; cost $975 million• Public confidence shaken

– 51 US nuclear reactor orders cancelled 1980-84

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Three_Mile_Island

Chernobyl Accident

• April 26, 1986

• Pripyat, Ukraine

• Catastrophic steam explosion– Destroyed reactor– Plume of radioactive fallout spread far

• USSR, eastern Europe, Scandinavia, UK, eastern US• Belarus, Ukraine, and Russia hit hardest

– 56 direct deaths; ~4,000 long-term deaths– 200,000 people evacuated and resettled

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chernobyl_accident

Chernobyl Accident

http://www.ourtimelines.com/zchern.html

Causes of Chernobyl

• No containment building

• Poor reactor design (unsafe)– Inserting control rods initially increased reactor

energy generation

• Operators were careless & violated plant procedures– Switched off many safety systems– Withdrew too many control rods

• Causes still in dispute by various parties

Chernobyl Contamination

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chernobyl_accident

Recent US Auto Scrams

http://www.nei.org

Recent US Significant Events

http://www.nei.org

Nuclear Power and the Environment

US Sources of Clean Energy

http://www.nei.org

The Environment

Over the past 50 years, US Nuclear Plants Have:

• Generated 13.7 Trillion Kilowatt-Hours of Electricity

• Zero Carbon Depletion & Zero Emissions

Avoiding:

• 3.1 Billion Metric Tons of Carbon

• 73.6 Million Tons Sulfur Dioxide

• 35.6 Million Tons of Nitrogen Oxides

Greenhouse Gas Production

http://www.uic.com.au/opinion6.html

Voluntary CO2 Reductions

http://www.nei.org

Emissions Avoided

http://www.nei.org

Life Cycle Emissions Analysis

GenerationOption

Greenhouse gas emissions

gram equiv CO2/kWh

SO2 emissions

milligram/kWh

NOx emissions

milligram/kWh

NMVOC milligram

/kWh

Particulate matter

milligram/kWh

Hydropower 2-48 5-60 3-42 0 5

Coal - modern plant 790-1182 700-32321+ 700-5273+ 18-29 30-663+

Nuclear 2-59 3-30 2-100 0 2

Natural gas (combined

cycle)389-511 4-15000+ 13+-1500 72-164 1-10+

Biomass forestry waste

combustion15-101 12-140 701-1950 0 217-320

Wind 7-124 21-87 14-50 0 5-35

Solar photovoltaic 13-731 24-490 16-340 70 12-190

http://www.nei.org/index.asp?catnum=2&catid=260

Emissions Produced by 1 kWh of Electricity Based on Life-Cycle Analysis

Life-Cycle CO2 Emissions

Nuclear Power Economics

Nuclear Operating Performance

0%

50%

100%

1992 1993 1994 1995 1996 1997 1998 1999 2000 2001 2002

Year

Cap

acit

y F

acto

r

0

500

1000

Gen

erat

ion

(B

illi

on

Kw

hr)71 71 74 77 76 74

80 85 87 89 90

RecordPerformance778 Billion kWhrs

GenerationCapacity FactorCDF

Nuclear Generating Costs

0

5

10

15

20

25

30

35

1992 1993 1994 1995 1996 1997 1998 1999 2000 2001 2002

Gen

erat

ion

Co

sts

($/M

wh

r) 30.3 29.927.3

25.5 25.227.2

23.521.2 20.5 19.4 18.8

FuelCapital ImproveO&M

2002 Dollars

US Nuclear Production Costs

http://www.nei.org

US Production Cost Comparison

http://www.nei.org

US Capacity Factors (2004)

http://www.nei.org

Nuclear PowerPro and Con

Disadvantages of Nuclear Power

• Possibly disastrous accidents• Nuclear waste dangerous for thousands of years

– unless reprocessed• Risk of nuclear proliferation associated with some

designs • High capital costs • Long construction periods

– largely due to regulatory delays• High maintenance costs • High cost of decommissioning plants • Designs of current plants are all large-scale

Anti-Nuclear Ad

http://perth.indymedia.org/storyuploads/13114/en_4b.jpg

Advantages of Nuclear Power

• Substantial base load energy producing capability• No greenhouse gas emissions during operation• Does not produce air pollutants • The quantity of waste produced is small • Small number of major accidents

– only one (TMI) in types of plants in common use

• Low fuel costs; Large fuel reserves • Ease of transport and stockpiling of fuel • Future designs may be small and modular

– For example, SSTAR

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nuclear_power_plant

Nuclear Energy Institute Ad

The Future ofNuclear Power

Nuclear Units in Construction

http://www.nei.org

New Nuclear Plants Inevitable

• It is no longer a matter of debate whether there will be new nuclear plants in the industry’s future. Now, the discussion has shifted to predictions of how many, where and when.

• New nuclear plants and base-load power plants using new coal technologies are least likely to appear in the populous and energy-hungry Northeast or in California, regions that already have significantly higher energy prices than the Southeast and Midwest

• These differences will tend to favor lower energy prices in the Southeast and Midwest to the disadvantage of the Northeast and California.– Fitch Ratings Ltd., “Wholesale Power Market Update,” March 13,

2006

http://www.nei.org

G-8 Energy Ministers

• G-8 Energy Ministers Call Nuclear Energy Crucial to Environmentally Sustainable Diversification of Energy Supply– Ministers proceed from the fact that diversification of the

energy portfolio in terms of energy sources, suppliers and consumers as well as delivery methods and routes will reduce energy security risks not only for individual countries but for the entire international community.

– For those countries that wish, wide-scale development of safe and secure nuclear energy is crucial for long-term environmentally sustainable diversification of energy supply

• G8 Energy Ministerial Meeting, March 15-16, 2006, Moscow• http://www.nei.org/documents/G-8_Statement_3-21-06.pdf

http://www.nei.org

Greenpeace Founder for NP

• Greenpeace Founder Patrick Moore Speaks in Favor of Nuclear Energy at U.N. Climate Change Conference– There is now a great deal of scientific evidence showing

nuclear power to be an environmentally sound and safe choice,” Moore has said, adding that calls to phase out both coal and nuclear power worldwide are unrealistic. “There are simply not enough available forms of alternative energy to replace both of them together. Given a choice between nuclear on the one hand and coal, oil and natural gas on the other, nuclear energy is by far the best option, as it emits neither CO2 nor any other air pollutants.”

• http://www.greenspiritstrategies.com/D151.cfm

http://www.nei.org

Fusion Energy

Nuclear Binding Energy

http://www.euronuclear.org/info/encyclopedia/n/nuclearenergy.htm

Fission vs. Fusion

http://encarta.msn.com

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nuclear_fusion

Tokamak Fusion Design

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Image:Tokamak_fields_lg.png

JET Tokamak

Extra Slides

Nuclear PP Schematic

http://www.nucleartourist.com/frconten.htm

Nuclear PP Cutaway

http://www.nrc.gov/reading-rm/basic-ref/teachers/nuc-power-plant.html

Pressurized Water Reactor (PWR)

http://www.eia.doe.gov/cneaf/nuclear/page/nuc_reactors/pwr.html

Boiling Water Reactor (BWR)

http://www.eia.doe.gov/cneaf/nuclear/page/nuc_reactors/bwr.htmlc

Next Generation Reactors• Design Highlights

– 1,400 MWe Plant With Simplified Systems

– Passive Safety Features

• Overall Schedule

– Licensing Process Started 2002

– Regulatory Approval Expected 2006

• Key Benefits

– Faster Construction, Lower Costs

– Improved Safety and Security

– Improved O&M Costs

ESBWR Can Meet U.S. Owner’s New NeedsESBWR Can Meet U.S. Owner’s New Needs

Latest US Design

ESBWRESBWR

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http://www.uic.com.au/opinion6.html

http://www.uic.com.au/opinion6.html

http://www.eia.doe.gov/cneaf/nuclear/page/nuc_reactors/pwr.html

Global Power Generation

335 GW Market Potential over Next 4 Years335 GW Market Potential over Next 4 Years35% of Orders Come from China35% of Orders Come from China

2003 – 2006 Orders Forecast2003 – 2006 Orders Forecast

Asia AIM Europe Ltn. Amer. N. Amer.

187

57 50

2815

China

125

Rest of Asia62

Rest of Asia62

Source: EPM S1 Forecast

(GW)(GW)