new york canal law - c.ymcdn.comc.ymcdn.com/.../handouts/canal_law_(2018)_handouts_(n.pdf · new...

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NewYorkCanalLawTheLawOfficeofLauraE.Ayers,Esq.

223ChurchStreetFultonville,NY12072

(518)922-5086laura@lauraayerslaw.com

HistoryandBackground:ColonialEffortsforInlandNav inNY• 1724Cadwalladar Colden,SurveyorGeneraltotheGovernorofthecolonyofNewYorksenttomakeareportonWesternNY• Hisreportvis-a-vis furtrading:• theMohawkRiverwassuperiortotheSt.LawrenceRiverforinlandnavigationevenwiththeshortportagesnecessarytoreachLakeOntarioandLakeErie.

• 1768Gov.MooreofColonialNYproposedtoimproveinlandnavigationà politicalinfightingcrushedtheidea

HistoryandBackground:EarlyEffortsforaNYCanal• In1777Gouverneur Morriswasnotedfor“talking”aboutcanalsbeingbuilttoimprovecommunicationsandnavigationacrossNYS

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HistoryandBackground:NYEarlyEfforts

• Legislationin1791leadtothecreationof:• WesternInlandLockNavigationCompany• TodeveloptherouteuptheMohawktoLakeOntarioandpossiblytotheFingerLakes

• NorthernInlandLockNavigationCompany• TodevelopapassagefromtheHudsontoLakeChamplainandVermont

Theirpurposewastoimprovethenavigabilityoftheriversandonlyuselockstoby-passrapids

HistoryandBackground:EarlyNYEfforts

• PhillipSchuylerwasappointedpresidentofbothCompanies• Performedtheengineeringhimselfb/c civilengineeringwasanon-existentprofessionintheUS• NavigationontheMohawkbeganinSchenectady• WILNCo.built5locksaroundLittleFalls(onthenorthshore)• Andbuilt2milesofcanalconnectingtheMohawkandWoodCreek

HistoryandBackground:AuthorizationfortheCanal• InMarchof1810JonasPlatt,StateSenatorandJamesEddyoftheWILNCo.presentedtheLegislaturewithaproposalthatCanalCommissionersbeappointed

JonasPlatt

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HistoryandBackground:AuthorizationfortheCanal• TheFirstCanalCommissionincluded:• Gouverneur Morris• StephenVanRensselaer• JamesGeddes,LS,• BenjaminWright,LS,• JonasPlatt,• ThomasEddy• DeWittClinton

• WentonanExpeditioninJuneof1810

StephenVanRensselaer

GovernorDeWittClinton

1790-- ColumbiaUniversitygraduate,lawyer

1790-1795-- Privatesecretarytohisuncle,GeorgeClinton

1797-1798-- NewYorkAssembly

1798-1802-- NewYorkSenate

1802-1803-- UnitedStatesSenate

1803-1815-- MayorofNewYorkCity:Asmayor,Clintonalsoheldofficeasstatesenator(1806-1811)andlieutenantgovernor(1811-1813).

1817-1823-- GovernorofNewYorkState

1810-1824-- NewYorkCanalCommissioner

1825-1828-- GovernorofNewYorkState

1812-- NarrowlylosttheraceforPresidentoftheUnitedStatestoJamesMadison.

HistoryandBackground:AuthorizationfortheCanal• InAprilof1811theCommissionersprovidedtheirreporttotheLegislature• FavoringtheinlandrouteduetofearsthattheSt.LawrenceseawayandthustheFrenchwouldbenefitfromtheCanalmorethanNewYorkers• Alsosupportedanentirelyartificialwaterway• TheLegislaturebeganpassingbillsrelativetothecanal• Appropriating$15,000tofinancetheBd ofCommish.• AddingRobertFulton&RobertLivingstonasCommish.

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HistoryandBackground:AuthorizationfortheCanal• Warof1812highlightedtheneedforbettertransportation• 1815JonasPlattandThomasEddywithMayorDeWittClinton’shelpbeganpushingthecanalagain• Gainedpublicsupport• LegislatureinFebof1816appropriated$20,000forsurveysevenasitdelayedconstruction• Appointed5newcommissioners(Clinton,VanRensselaer,Ellicot,Holley,Young)• Financingof$6millionwasneeded(theactualcostwas$7million,veryclosetotheestimate)

HistoryandBackground:AuthorizationfortheCanal• TheGreatWesternCanalwasdividedinto3sectionscovering363miles• WesternsegmentfromLakeErietotheSenecaRiver• MiddlesegmentfromSenecaRivertoRome• EasternSectionfromRometoAlbany

HistoryandBackground:AuthorizationfortheCanal• Chapter262oftheLawsof1817PassedApril15,1817• Entitled:“AnActrespectingnavigablecommunicationsbetweenthegreatwesternandnorthernlakes,andtheAtlanticocean.”• Preamble:“WHEREASnavigablecommunicationsbetweenlakesErieandChamplain,andtheAtlanticocean,bymeansofcanalsconnectedwiththeHudsonriver,willpromoteagriculture,manufacturesandcommerce,mitigatethecalamitiesofwarandenhancetheblessingofpeace,consolidatetheunion,andadvancetheprosperityandelevatethecharacteroftheUnitedStates.”

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HistoryandBackground:AuthorizationfortheCanal• ConstructionbeganonJuly4,1817inRome,NY• JamesGeddeswasappointedsurveyor/engineerofthewesternportion• BenjaminWrightwasappointedtothemiddlesection• CharlesBroadhead wasappointedtotheeasternsection

BenjaminWright

HistoryandBackground:SummaryoftheCanal

• 363Mileslong,40feetwide,4feetdeep• Completedin1825• WeddingoftheWaters• StartedonthePacketBoatSenecaChiefonOct26,1825inBuffalo,NY• ArrivedatNYConNov.4• TheSenecaChiefReturnedtoBuffaloonNov.23

HistoryandBackground:Summary

• within15yearsNYbecamethebiggestportintheCountrymovinggreatertonnagesthanBoston,BaltimoreandNewOrleanscombined.• Everymajorcityinthestate,exceptBinghamtonandElmirafallsalongthetraderouteofthecanal• 80%ofthepopulationofupstateNYstillliveswithin25milesofthecanalpath• TheCanalwasenlargedseveraltimesin1835,1895and1903• Between1905and1918newtechniqueswereusedto“canalize”theriversandlakesthattheoriginalmanmadecanalhadbeenbuilttoavoid.àBarge Canal

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AcquisitionMethodsUsed

HistoryandBackground

VoluntaryCessationorGrant

• CanalCommissionerswere• “Empoweredtomakeapplicationinbehalfofthisstate….totheproprietorsofthelandthroughwhichsuchnavigationmaybecarriedforcessionsorgrantstothepeopleofthisstate,tobereceivedbysaidcommissionersintheirdiscretion…”• Chap.188Lawsof1811Section3• Chap231oftheLawsof1812Section2

VoluntaryCessation,GrantorDonationofLandormoney• “Saidcommissioners…areherebyauthorised (sic)andrequiredtomakeapplicationinbehalfofthisstate…totheproprietorsofoflandsthroughornearwhichthesaidcanalsoreitherofthemmayormaybeproposedtopass,toallbodiespoliticandcorporate,publicorprivateandallcitizensorinhabitantsofthisoranyotherstateoftheUnitedStatesforcessions,grants,donationsoflandormoneyforthepurposeofaidingintheconstructionorcompletionofbothoreitherofthesaidcanals,accordingtotheseveralgrantorsordonorsandtotaketothepeopleofthisstatesuchgrantsandconveyancesasmaybeproperandcompetenttovestagoodandsufficienttitleinthesaidpeopletothelandssotobecededorgrantedaforesaidforthepurposesabovementioned.”• Chapter237oftheLawsof1816Section4

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VoluntaryCessation,GrantorDonationofLand• Between1816and1821inclusive,approximately200grantsofdonationsofprivateland(knownas“cessions”)weremadetothestateforcanalpurposes

GuardLockforOriginalCanalattheSchoharieCrossing

VoluntaryCessation,GrantorDonationofLand

Issues:§ Descriptionsusedinthecessionsareoftenverygeneralwithoutclearindicationgiven

astotheactualextentofthegrant§ WouldtitlereverttotheoriginalowneroflandscededtotheStatebutneverusedfor

canalpurposes?(waterprivilegesrevertedinsomeinstancesofcanalabandonment)§ VoluntaryGrantswereneverrecordedinthevariousCountyClerk'sofficeswherethe

landssograntedwerelocated§ Unlessanexceptionorotherreferenceismadeinasubsequentconveyancebythe

samegrantor,onewillnotfindrecordofagranttothestateforcanalpurposes.(Rexfordv.Knight)

Chapter262oftheLawsof1817EnablingLegislationforCanal• InSectionIIItheCanalCommissionerswereauthorizedto:• “…bythemselvesandbyanyandeverysuperintendent,agentorengineeremployedbythem,toenterupon,takepossessionof,anduseallandsingularanylands,watersandstreamsnecessaryfortheprosecutionoftheimprovementsintendedbythisact…”

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OriginalCanalLock#20VanAlstein v.Belden,41AD123(4thDept1899)

• “Theiripsedixitseemedallthatwasessential.”• DescribingthepowersoftheCanalCommissionersrelatingtotheaccessionoflandsforcanalpurposes

Chapter262oftheLawsof1817

Chapter262oftheLawsof1817

• SectionIIIfurtherstates:• “…anditshallbethedutyof…appraisers…tomakeajustandequitableestimateoftheappraisalofthelossanddamage,ifany,overandabovethebenefitandadvantagetotherespectiveownersandproprietorsorpartiesinterestedinthepremises,sorequiredforthepurposesaforesaid,byandinconsequenceofmakingandconstructinganyoftheworksaforesaid…• Oftenthebenefitwasdeemedtooutweighthedamagesandnocompensationwaspaid

Chapter262oftheLawsof1817

• SectionIIIfurtherstates:• “…andthecanalcommissionersshallpaythedamagestobesoassessedandappraisedandthefeesimpleofthepremisessoappropriatedshallbevestedinthepeopleofthisstate.”

FortHunter,NY

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Chapter262oftheLawsof1817

• “…madenoprovisionastothemannerinwhichpossessionshouldbetakenortitleacquired.”• VanAlstein v.Belden,41AD123(4th Dept.1899)

Chapter262oftheLawsof1817

• Rogersv.Bradshaw,20Johns,735(1823)• InterpretsChapter262oftheLawsof1817• Issue:CanalemployeeshadcuttimberandrelocatedtheWaterfordandWhitehallturnpikeroadduringimprovementstotheNorthernCanal• TheSupremeCourtheldthatrelocatingaroadwasnotacanalimprovementthereforetheactionsoftheCanalemployeeswerenotexcusedbytheactof1817.

Rogersv.BradshawonChap.262oftheLawsof1817• TheChancellordisagreedwiththeSupremeCourt:• “Surely,astatute,vestinglargepowers restingverymuchfortheirexerciseintheundefineddiscretionandcheckedonlybythegentleadmonitionofdoing“nounnecessarydamage”oughttobeconstruedmorebenignlyandmoreliberally.Especiallyoughtthistobethecasewhenthepowersaretobeappliedtoagreatpublicobject,calculatedtointimidatebyitsnovelty,itsexpenseanditsmagnitude,andwhichdepended,forallitssuccessfulresults,upondecisionofcharacteraswellasuponmaturityofjudgment.”

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Chapter262oftheLawsof1817

• SectionIVstates:• “Thatwhenever,intheopinionofthecanalcommissioners,itshallbefortheinterestofthisstate,fortheprosecutionoftheworkscontemplatedbythisact,thatalltheinterestandtitle(ifany)inlawandequity,oftheWesterninlandlocknavigationcompany,shouldbevestedinthepeopleofthisstate,…”• Whatinterestandtitle(ifany)didtheWILNCo.have?àChapter 49oftheLawsof1793

RevisedStatutes(1827)Chapter9Title9Article1• Section16:• “Intheconstructionofeverycanalcommissionersshallhavethepoweranditshallbetheirdutytomakeallsuchcanals,feeders,locks,damsaqueductsandotherworksastheyshalldeemtheproperconstructionofsuchcanaltorequire’andtheyshallenteron,andtakepossessionofandusealllands,streamsandwatersofwhichtheappropriationfortheuseofsuchcanalsandworksshallintheirjudgmentbenecessary.”

RevisedStatutes(1827)Chapter9Title9Article3• Section48àStatuteofLimitationstoclaimdamages• “Everypersoninterestedinpremisessoappropriated,ifheintendtomakeaclaimfordamages,shall,withinoneyearaftersuchpremisesshallhavebeentakenfortheuseofthestate,exhibittotheappraisersastatementofhisclaim,signedbyhimself….andspecifyingthenatureandextentofhisinterestinthepremisesappropriatedandtheamountofdamages;andeverypersonrefusingorneglectingtoexhibitsuchclaim,withinthetimeprescribed,shallbedeemedtohavesurrenderedtothestatehisinterestinthepremisessoappropriated.”

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CanalBoardDigests

• DigestofClaimsandtheactionthereonbytheLegislatureandtheCanalBoard• WithawardsmadebytheBoardofCanalAppraisers• 1818-1858• 1858,1859,1860• 1860-1865• 1866-1870

• NewYorkStateLibrary

LegislativeAction

RevisedStatutes(1827)Chapter9Title9Article3• Section50• “Aregularentryofeverydeterminationandappraisementmadebytheappraisers,certifiedandsignedbytheappraisersmakingit,andcontaininganaptandsufficientdescriptionofthepremisessoappropriated,thenamesofthepersonsinterested,andthesumsestimatedtoeachforbenefitsanddamages,shallbemadeinabookkeptforthatpurpose,bythecanalcommissioners.”

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RevisedStatutes(1827)Chapter9Title9Article3• Section51• “Atranscriptifeverysuchentry,signedinlikemanner,andacknowledgedorprovedasaconveyanceoflands,shallberecordedintheclerk’sofficeofeachcountyinwhichthepremisesappropriatedshall,inwholeorinpart,besituated.”

EnlargedCanal:EmpireLock,FortHunter,NY

RevisedStatute(1827)Chapter9Title9Article3

• Section52• “Thefeesimpleofallpremisessoappropriated,inrelationtowhich,suchestimateandappraisementshallhavebeenmadeandrecorded,shallbevestedinthepeopleofthisstate.”

EnlargedCanal:EmpireLock#29(1835)

DoubleLocks,firstEnlargementoftheCanalc.1830-1860

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AcquisitionsundertheModernCanalLaw

• CanalLawArticle5:AcquisitionofPropertyfortheCanalSystem• § 40.Acquisitionofproperty• 1.Theacquisitionofpropertynecessaryforpurposesoftheimprovement,use,maintenance,control,managementorrepairofthecanalsystem,shallbepursuanttotheprovisionsoftheeminentdomainprocedurelaw bythecorporationorbythecommissioneroftransportationattherequestofthecorporation.

AcquisitionsundertheModernCanalLaw

• CanalLaw§40(14)• Notwithstandinganyotherprovisionofthissection,thecorporationorthecommissioneroftransportationattherequestofthecorporationshallhavethepowertoacquirebygrantorpurchase,inthenameofthepeopleofthestateofNewYork,anypropertywhichheorthecorporationdeemsnecessaryforanyofthepurposesprovidedforinthissection,andpaymenttherefor,ifany,shallbemadeinthemannerprescribedinthissectionforthepaymentofadjustedappropriationclaims,provided,however,thatnorealpropertyshallbesoacquiredunlessthetitletheretoshallbeapprovedbytheattorneygeneral.

CanalMaps

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Chapter9oftheLawsof1825

• AnActforreprintingtheLawsandotherOfficialDocumentsrelatingtotheErieandChamplainCanals• SectionII• “Anditbefurtherenacted,Thatitshallbelawfulforthejointcommitteeoncanals,onbeingfurnishedbythecanalcommissionerswithcorrectmaps(delineatingtheroutesoftheErieandChamplaincanalsanddesignatingthelandsthroughwhichtheypasswhetherbelongingtoorconveyedbyindividualstothestate,orwhichdamageshavebeenoraretoappraised)todirectthesecretaryofthestatetoprocurethesametobeengraved.”

Chapter9oftheLawsof1825

• SectionIVrequiredcopiestobeprovidedto:

• TheGovernor• TheLt.Governor• TheClerkofeveryCounty• TheSenate• TheAssembly• TheStateLibrary• Restofthecopiestobedistributedtothecommissionersofthecanalfundtobedistributedastheydeemedproper

GeddesMapsof1817

• DescriptionfromtheStateArchives:• ThismapandprofileininkandwatercoloroftheproposedroutefortheErieCanalwasmadebyJamesGeddesin1817.Geddeswasappointedengineerinchargeofthesurveybythecommissionersappointedunderlegislationof1816(Chapter237).Hewasinstructedtosurveyandmaparouteforthecanalwhich,westoftheGeneseeRiver,wassomewhattothenorthoftheroutehehadsurveyedin1808.• Onascaleof10chains=1inch,themapshowsproposedlineofthecanal(ingreen);roads;houses;mills;settlements;streams,ponds,andlakes;steepterrain;swampsandmarshes;townandlotlines;andotherfeaturesadjacenttothecanalroute.

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RevisedStatutes(1827)Chapter9Title9Article1• FIRSTCANALLAWREQUIRINGMAPS• Section4• “Acompletemanuscriptmapandfieldnotes,ofeverycanalthatnowis,orhereaftershallbecompleted,andofallthelandsbelongingtothestateadjacenttheretoorconnectedtherewithshallbemade,onwhichtheboundariesoftheeveryparcelofsuchlands,towhichthestateshallhaveaseparatetitle,shallbedesignatedandthenamesoftheformerownersandthedateofeachtitlebeentered…”

RevisedStatutes(1827)Chapter9Title9Article1• Section5• Everysuchmapshallbecompliedbythecanalcommissioners,whoshall,forthatpurposecauseallnecessarysurveystobemade,whenprepared,itshallbesubmittedtothecanalboardforitsapprobation,andwhensoapprovedshallbesignedbythecanalcommissioners,becertifiedbythemascorrect,andbefiledintheofficeofthecomptroller.

RevisedStatutes(1827)Chapter9Title9Article1• Section6requiredthatacopyofthemaps,fieldbooksandnotesofthesurveysbetransmittedandfiledinthecountyclerk’sofficeofeverycountythecanalintersected

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RevisedStatutes(1827)Chapter9Title9Article1• Section7• Atranscriptfromtheoriginalmap,orfromacopythereof,certifiedascorrect,bytheofficewithwhomsuchmaporcopyshallbefiled,shallbereceivedaspresumptiveevidence,inalljudicialandlegalproceedings.

Chapter451oftheLawsof1837

• Section6• Theoriginalmapsofthecanalsofthisstate,whichpurporttohavebeenmadeandcompletedunderaninvirtueofthefirstarticleoftitleninechapternineofthefirstpartoftheRevisedStatutes;whichsaidmapsarenowfiledintheofficeofthecomptroller;andsuchmapsofsaidcanalsashereaftershallbemade,completed,approved,signed,certifiedandfiledunderandinvirtueoftheactreferredto,areherebydeclaredtobepresumptiveevidencethatthelandsindicatedonsaidmapsasbelongingtothestate,havebeentakenandappropriatedbythestateasandforthecanals;andatranscriptfromanysuchmaps,certifiedasrequiredbytheactreferredto,shallbeofequaleffectwiththeoriginal.

HolmesHutchinsonMapsof1832-1843

• FulfillthemandateofChapter9Title9oftheRevisedStatutes&Chapter451oftheLawsof1837

• ShowstheEriecanalbyeverycounty,includingroads,municipalboundaries,buildings,waterways,bridgesandlandowners• Ink,washandcharcoalmaps• Sized18x26inches• RedLineshowsmetesandboundsoftheinneredgeofthetowpath• Bluelineshowsstateownership

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HolmesHutchinsonMapsof1832-1843

HHMaps:ExplanatoryRemarks

• Theredline,describedalongtheinneredgeofthetowingpath,isthelineuponwhichallthemeasurementsinthedirectionofthelengthofthecanalweremade.— …• Thespaceenclosedbythebluelinesrepresentstheportionembracedwithinthelimitsofthesurveyasbelongingtothestate,andthenamesoftheadjoiningproprietorsgivenastheystoodatthetimeofexecutingthesurvey.Thedistancesareprojecteduponascaleoftwochainstotheinch.

HHMaps:ExplanatoryRemarks

• “thestateclaimsbeyondthebluelines,sofaraswillenableit,inallcases,torepair,maintainanddefend,itsworks: Claimingasofright,inallplaces,notonlythatwhichmaystrictlybeconsideredthecanal,buteverythingfairlyconnectedwithitssafety,beneficialuseandenjoyment.”

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HolmesHutchinsonMapsof1832-1843

• NYSArchiveshomepage• http://www.archives.nysed.gov/aindex.shtml

• Click“Images,AudioandVideo”fromleftmenu• Click“Transportation”fromtopmenuorscrolldown• Click“NewYorkStateCanalSystem1827-1925”• Click“HolmesHutchinsonSurveyMaps1832-1843”• Clickonanyofthefollowing:ErieCanal,ChamplainCanal,ErieandChamplainCanalFeeders,CrookedLakeCanal,CayugaandSenecaCanalorChenangoCanal

Chapter338Laws1894

• Section4• Mapsandfield-notes---Thereshallbekeptonfileintheofficeofthestateengineercompletemanuscriptmapsandfield-notesofeverycanalnoworhereaftertobebuiltandofallthelandsbelongingtothestateadjacenttheretoorconnectedtherewith,inwhichtheboundariesofeveryparceloflandtowhichthestateshallhaveaseparatetitle,shallbedesignated,andthenamesoftheformerownersandthedateofeachtitleentered...• Allsuchmapsandfield- notesapprovedbythecanalboardorcanalcommissionersorcertifiedbysuchboardorcommissionersorbythestateengineertobecorrect,shallbepresumptiveevidenceofthetruthofthefactsthereinstatedandoftheownershipbythestateofthelandsthereindescribed.

Chapter338Lawsof1894

• Section5• RequirescertifiedcopiesoftheMapsandFieldNotestobefiledintheCountyClerk’sofficeasrelatetocanallandswithinthecounty• Thesecopiesweretohavethesameforceandeffectastheoriginals.

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Schillner FieldBook@PortByron

Schillner Mapsof1896

B0253.BargeCanalsectionalmaps("Schillner Maps"),ca.1896.ca.132cu.ft.(71maps)DescriptionFromStateArchives

• Thisseriesconsistsof71manuscriptmapsdepictinglandalongtheErie,Champlain,andOswegocanalsacquiredbytheStateforcanalpurposesupto1896.

Schillner Mapsof1896

• EachsectionalmapprovidesdetailedinformationonState-ownedproperty,depictedastheareabetweentwosolidbluelines.

• Themapsareespeciallyimportantbecausetheyshow,withindottedbluelines,thelocationsofthe1825canalalignmentandtherelatedstructureswhichhadsincebeenobliterated,suchaslocks,slips,dams,bridges,androads.

• Inadditiontheyshowcity,townandcountylines;streams,rivers,bodiesofwaterandislands;propertylines,alongwithnamesofownersandsometimesacreageofland;andstreets,railroadlines,businessesandciviclandmarks(icecompanies,mills,cemeteries,etc.).

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Schillner Mapsof1896

Noscaleisgiven,butfiguresmarkcanalfrontageandsurveymeasurementsbynumberofchains(1chain=66feet).”

Schillner Maps

• Thesemapsarenotpresumptiveevidenceofthestate’sownershipbecausetheywerenotapprovedbythecanalboardorthecanalcommissioners,norcertifiedbytheboard,commissionersorthestateengineer.

• MayconstituteancientrecordswhichareprimafacieevidenceoftheircontentspursuanttoCPLRRule4522solongastheyhavebeenonfileinthestateortheregisterofanycountyanycountyclerk,anycourtofrecordoranydepartmentofthecityofNewYorkformorethan10years

Chap147Laws1903

• Lawsof1903,Chapter147.• Section4• EmpowerstheStateEngineertotakepropertyneededfortheBargecanalimprovementsfortheErie,OswegoandChamplainCanals

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Chap147Laws1903

• Mappingofthelandsappropriatedwasrequired• “…Anaccuratesurveyandmapofallsuchlandsshallbemadebythestateengineerwhoshallannextheretohiscertificatethatsurveythelandsthereindescribedhavebeenappropriatedfortheuseofthecanalsofthestate.Suchmap,surveyandcertificateshallbe.filedintheofficeofthestateengineer,andaduplicatecopythereof,dulycertifiedbythestateengineertobesuchduplicatecopyshallalsobefiledintheofficeofthesuperintendentofpublicworks…”

Chapter147Laws1903

• Thecourtofclaimsshallhavejurisdictiontodeterminetheamountofcompensationforlands,structuresandwaterssoappropriated.

• Theworktoimprovethecanalwasbycontract

• “…Beforeanysuchcontractshallbemadethestateengineershalldividethewholeworkintosuchsectionsorportionsasmaybedeemedforthebestinterestsofthestateincontractingforthesame,andshallmakemaps,plansandspecificationsfortheworktobedoneandmaterialsfurnishedforeachofthesectionsintowhichsaidworkisdivided…”

Chap391Laws1909

• AuthorizedtheBargeCanalImprovementoftheCayugaandSenecaCanals• Section4• BasicallysaysallrequirementssetforthinChapter147oftheLawsof1903fortheErieCanal,OswegoCanalandtheChamplainCanalapplytotheimprovementoftheCayugaandSenecaCanals

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Chap746Laws1911

• AuthoritytoappropriatelandsfortheBargeCanalTerminals• Section8• Requiresaccuratesurveysandmapsofalllands,structuresandwatersforBargeCanalTerminals• StateEngineerhastocertifyonthemapthatthelandsarenecessaryfortheBargeCanalTerminals• Statetopursuepurchaseifpossibleratherthantousecondemnationpower

ResidencyMaps

ResidencyMaps

• AcompilationoftheparcelsappropriatedfortheconstructionoftheBargeCanalorwhatiscalledtodaytheNewYorkStateCanalSystem• Theyalsoshowthelocationofthechannel,structuresandterminalsalongtheSystem.

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Chapter199oftheLawsof1910

• AnActtoprovideforthemappingofcertaincanallandsandthelandsadjacenttheretobelongingtothestate,andmakingappropriationtherefor.• Section1.Thestateengineerandsurveyorisherebydirectedtomakethenecessarysurveys,fieldnotesandmanuscriptmapsofallsuchportionsoftheErie,OswegoandChamplaincanalsthatarenotwithinthelinesoftheimprovedErie,OswegoandChamplaincanals,andofallthelandsbelongingtothestateadjacenttheretoorconnectedtherewithonwhichtheboundarylineor“blueline”ofanyparcelofsuchlandtowhichthestateshallhaveaseparatetitleshallbedesignated,togetherwiththenamesofadjoininglandowners.

Chapter199oftheLawsof1910

• Section2• Everysuchmapwhencompletedshallbesubmittedtothecanalboardforitsapprovalandwhensoapprovedshallbesignedbythemembersofthecanalboard,becertifiedbythemascorrectandfiledintheofficeoftheComptroller.

Chapter199oftheLawsof1910

• Section3• Atranscriptoftheoriginalmaporfromacopythereof,certifiedascorrect,bythecomptrollerorbythestateengineerandsurveyorshallbereceivedaspresumptiveevidenceinalllegalorjudicialproceedings.

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BlueLineMaps

BlueLineMaps

• TheBlueLineMapsbasicallyshowtheStateLandsthatareassociatedwiththeOldCanalindependentofthestatelandsappropriatedfortheBargeCanal.TheBlueLineMapsaredeemedpresumptiveevidenceofthestate’stitletolandswithintheblueline

BlueLineMaps“Methods”

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ModernCanalLawMaps

• CanalLaw§24• Makingandrecordingmaps.• Thereshallbekeptonfileintheofficeofthecorporationcompletemapsofeverycanalnoworhereaftertobebuiltonwhichtheboundariesofeveryparceloflandtowhichthestateshallhaveaseparatetitleshallbedesignatedandthenamesoftheformerowneranddateofeachtitleentered.Allsuchmapsheretoforeapprovedbythecommissioneroftransportationorthecorporation,orcertifiedbysuchcommissioner,corporationorbythestateengineerorhereafterapprovedbythecorporationtobecorrect,shallbepresumptiveevidenceofthetruthofthefactsthereinstatedandoftheownershipbythestateofthelandsthereindescribed….

ModernCanalLawMaps

• CanalLaw§24• OriginalMaponfilewiththeCorporation• CertifiedCopyonfilewiththeDepartmentofState• Thoseonfileinthecountyclerk’sofficeareevidenceofthestate’stitle• ThesearetheResidencyMaps

ModernCanalLawMaps

• CanalLaw§25.Makingandrecordingof"BlueLine"maps.• ThecommissioneroftransportationshallcausethepreparationofmapsoftheErie,Oswego,ChamplainandtheCayugaandSenecacanalsastheyexistedpriortoandindependentoflandsappropriatedforbargecanalpurposesandofalllandsbelongingtothestateadjacenttheretoorconnectedtherewith,andthereshallbedesignatedonsuchmapstheboundariesofthelandstowhichthestateholdstitle,andsofaraspossiblethenamesoftheownersoftheadjoininglands….

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ModernCanalLawMaps

• CanalLaw§25Continued• …Everymapwhencompletedshallbeapprovedandcertifiedtoascorrectbythecommissioneroftransportationandbecertifiedtoascorrectbythechiefengineer….

ModernCanalLawMaps

• Eachofsaidmapssofiledshallberegardedasanoriginalcopy.Ablueorwhiteprintcopyofsuchmaporportionofsuchmapormapsasrelatedorappliestoanyparticularcountyofthestateshallbetransmittedtoandfiledintheofficeoftheclerkofsuchcounty,orintheofficeinsuchcountywhereinconveyancesarerequiredbylawtoberecordedandsuchfilingshallconstituteanoticetoallpersonsofthestate'stitletoandownershipofsaidlands.• Atranscriptofsuchmapscertifiedascorrectbytheofficerwithwhomsuchmapormapsshallbefiledshallbereceivedaspresumptiveevidenceofthestate'stitletothecanallandsasofthedatedesignatedonsuchmapsinalljudicialorlegalproceedings.

PresumptiveEvidenceRule

• Afact[evidence]whichmustbereceivedandtreatedastrueandsufficientuntilandunlessrebuttedbyotherevidence• Presumptiveevidenceisnotconclusiveandmaybeexplainedorcontradicted• Theeffectofthepresumptionistoplacetheburdenontheadversarytocomeforwardwithevidencetorebutthepresumption;• Inordertoovercomethepresumption,theadversarymustproduce"substantial"evidencetothecontrary.

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PresumptiveEvidenceRule:Millerv.State• Millerv.State,164A.D.522(3dDept.1911)aff’d 223N.Y.690(1918)• ControversyoverboundarylineofpropertyalongtheTonawandacreek.• MillersclaimedthattheHolmesHutchinsonMapsdidnotshowthatthepropertyinquestionhadbeenappropriatedbythestate.

PresumptiveEvidenceRule:Millerv.State

• “Inconnectionwiththesemaps,andasapartofthem,thereisawrittennotewhichprovidesthat"Whereanystreamorpondisonthesamelevelwiththewatersofthecanalandthenavigationisconductedinsuchstreamorpond,thestreamorpondisincludedinthecanaltothehigh-watermarkofthestreamwithabermbankoneachsideoffifteenlinkswherenotowingpathisdesignatedonthemap."• RESULT:LandsoutsidethebluelinescanstillbeStateLands

PresumptiveEvidence:Millerv.State• TheStatealsointroducedthefieldnotes,whichthecourtcorrectlydidnotgivethepresumptionaffordedtheofficialmaps,buttheystillconstitutedcompetentproofoftheState’sappropriationoftheCreek.

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PresumptiveEvidenceHolmesHutchinsonMaps

PresumptiveEvidenceRule

Rexfordv.Knight,11N.Y.308(1854)Toprovehisowntitle,thedefendant(Knight)producedmapsofaportionoftheEriecanalasoriginallyconstructed,andofthesameportionasenlarged,

Thesemapswerenotinanywayauthenticated,astheoriginal,orcopiesofanymapsmadebystatutepresumptiveevidence.

Howeverdefendantprovedbyotherevidence,thatsincetheperiodoftheCanal’sEnlargementthepremiseshadbeenusedandoccupiedbyhim(adversepossession).

PresumptiveEvidence

• Carpenterv.CityofCohoes,81N.Y.21(1880).• Plaintiff’shorsefelldownabankleadingtoachangebridgeusedforthepassageofdrafthorsesfromonesideofthecanaltotheother• Thebridgeanditsapproacheswerealsousedbythepublicasahighwayacrossthecanal,incontinuationandaspartofaroadknownastheBoght road.• TheCitydemonstratedwithaStateCanalMapthattheState,nottheCityownedthepropertywheretheaccidentoccurred.• “Thismapwasundertheprovisionsoftheactof1837,chapter451,section6,primafacieevidenceofthetitleoftheState.”

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ModernCanalLaw

Chapter766oftheLawsof1992

• “AnActtoamendthecanallaw,thepublicauthoritieslawandthestatefinancelawinrelationtoexpandingthepowersanddutiesoftheNewYorkStateThruwayAuthority,transferringjurisdictionovertheNewYorkStatecanalsystemtothethruwayauthority,creatingtheNewYorkStatecanalrecreationway commission,andcreatingaNewYorkStatecanalsystemdevelopmentfundandtorepealcertainprovisionsofthecanallawandthepublicauthoritieslawinrelationthereto.”

PublicAuthoritiesLaw§382

• § 382.Canalcorporation• 1.Thereisherebycreatedapublicbenefitcorporationknownasthe"NewYorkstatecanalcorporation"(hereinafterreferredtoasthe"canalcorporation")asasubsidiarycorporationoftheauthority.Thecanalcorporationissolelycreatedto,andshallhaveonlythepowerto,operate,maintain,construct,reconstruct,improve,develop,finance,andpromotetheNewYorkStatecanalsystem….

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PublicAuthoritiesLaw§382

• Section7.Thecanalcorporationshallhavethepowerto:• (a)operate,maintain,construct,reconstruct,improve,develop,finance,andpromotetheNewYorkstatecanalsystemasdefinedinthecanallaw;…• (n)enteronanylands,waters,orpremisesforthepurposeofmakingborings,soundings,andsurveys;…

PublicAuthoritiesLaw§382

• Section9• PermitscanallandsnotneededforcanalpurposeswithintheAdirondackstobetransferredtotheDEC

NYSCanalLaw

• Organizedinto14Articleswithapproximately142Sections(seehandoutfortitlesoftheArticles)• OfinteresttosurveyorsaretheArticlesentitled:• Article1:ShortTitleandDefinitions(seehandouts)• Article3.CanalEngineering.Sections23,24&25(mappingrequirements,seehandout)• Article5.AcquisitionofPropertyfortheCanal• Article6.AbandonmentofCanalLands(nextsection)• Article7.BridgesandHighways• Article10:Permits

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CanalLawArticle1:Shorttitleanddefinitions

• 1."NewYorkStateCanalSystem","CanalSystem"or"BargeCanalSystem"shalleachmeanallthecanals,canallands,feedercanals,reservoirs,canalterminalsandcanalterminallandsofthestateashereinafterdefined.Allgeneralreferenceshereinto"canal"shallbedeemedtomeantheNewYorkstatecanalsystem.• 2."Canals"shallmeanthechannelandadjacentstate-ownedbanksoftheinlandwaterwaysofthestateconstructed,improved,ordesignatedbyauthorityofthelegislatureascanalsandshallincludecanalizedriversandlakes,canalwatersupplyreservoirs,canalwatersupplyfeederchannelsandallappertainingstructuresnecessaryforthepropermaintenanceandoperationofthecanals.

CanalLawArticle1:Shorttitleanddefinitions

• 4."ErieCanal"shallmeantheportionofthecanalsystemconnectingtheHudsonriveratAlbanywiththeNiagarariveratBuffalo,andforthepurposesofarticlethirteen-Aofthischapterandsectionninety-two-u ofthestatefinancelawandsubdivisiontenofsectionthreehundredfifty-oneofthepublicauthoritieslaw,shallbedeemedtoincludethehistoricErieCanalanditswesternterminusinthecityofBuffaloandhistoriclocknumber1inthecityofAlbany.

CanalLawArticle1:Shorttitleanddefinitions

• 8."CanalLands"shallmeanalllandsandwatersformingapartofthecanalsystemtitletowhichwasoriginallyvestedinthestate,acquiredbythestateorwhichmayinthefuturebeacquiredbythestateforcanalpurposes.

• 9."BlueLine"shallmeantheboundaryofcanallandsownedbythestateprevioustotheapprovalofchapteronehundredforty-seven,lawsofnineteenhundredthree.

• 10."OldCanalLands"shallmeancanallandslyingwithintheblueline.

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Article3:CanalEngineering

• § 23.Recordofmeasurements• Thecorporationshallrequireeveryengineeremployedoncanalengineeringtoenterinpermanentfieldbooksacompleterecordofallsurveys,fieldmeasurementsandconstructionnotes.Thesebooksshallbefiledinthecorporationandshallbeavailableforpublicinspectionundersuchconditionsasthecorporationmayestablish.• §24.Makingandrecordingmaps.(ResidencyMaps)• §25.Makingandrecordingof"BlueLine"maps.

Article5:AcquisitionofPropertyfortheCanal

• § 40.Acquisitionofproperty• Subsection1:corporation’senablingpowertouseeminentdomainforcanalpurposes• Subsection2:allowseitherfeeoreasementinteresttobetakenpursuanttoanacquisitionmap(EDPL)

CanalLawArticle5Section40

• Subsection17:allowsthetakingofatemporaryeasementoreasementthatexpiresupontheoccurrenceofaneventorelapseoftime• Atthetimeofexpirationoftheeasementthecorporationhastocreateacertificateinthenatureofareleaseoftheeasementthatextinguishestheeasement• ThatcertificatemustbesenttoDOSwhonotifiesthelandownersviaacopycertifiedbytheattorneygeneral,and• Thecertificateisalsoisfiledinthelandtitlerecordsofthecounty

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CanalLawArticle5

• Section42.Removalofencroachments• Corporationisauthorizedtoremoveencroachmentsfromcanallandsiftheencroachmentsareinterferingwiththecanal’soperation• upon30daysnoticetotheencroacherstovoluntarilyremovetheencroachment• Iftheencroachmentisnotremoved,thestatecanremoveitwithoutliability

BlackRiverCanalLockatRome,1920

CanalLawArticle5

• § 43.Exchangeofproperty• Ratherthanpaying$$toappropriatelandsthecorporationisauthorizedtoexchangeunnecessarycanallandsforlandsneededforthecanal• Propertyacquiredhastohaveequalvaluetothepropertyexchanged• Corporationcanenteranagreementwiththelandownertoexchangeproperty• Propertytobeexchangedhastofirstbedeclaredtobeabandoned

CanalLawArticle5Section43

• AbandonmenthastobeapprovedbytheAttorneyGeneralpursuanttosection50• Corporationisallowedtoexecuteaquitclaimdeed• DeedhastobefiledattheDOSbeforeCo.Clerk• Whenlandsappropriatedexceedthevalueoflandsexchanged,thereshallbeanadjustmentandpaymentwillbemadeaccordingtosection41

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CanalLawArticle7:BridgesandHighways

• § 60.Alterationofcountyroadsortownhighways• CommissionerofTransportationcanelecttomovehighwaysthatinterferewiththeCanal,bydiscontinuingthehighwayintheTownorCountypursuanttotheHighwayLaw• ThentheCommissionerhastofilethedescriptionofthenewroadintheTownorCounty• Discontinuanceoftheoldhighwaycannotoccuruntilthenewhighwayisopened

CanalLawArticle7:BridgesandHighways

• § 62.Maintenancebystateofcertainbridgesoverthecanalsystem• § 63.Maintenancebystateofalterationtocertainhighwaybridgesnotstateowned• § 64.Commutationforbridges• Thecommissioneroftransportationmaycommutewithownersandclaimantsofbridgesoveranycanal,bypayingsuchownerorclaimantsuchsuminlieuofabridgeasmaybeagreedonbetweentheclaimantandthecommissioneroftransportation.

CanalLawArticle7BridgesandHighways

• § 65.Privateroadinlieuoffarmbridges• Ifthecommissioneroftransportationcannotagreewiththeownerofafarmbridgespanningacanalastotheamountofcommutationinanycasewhereheisoftheopinionthatthestateshoulderectsuchbridge,andthecommissioneroftransportationdeterminesthataprivateroadthroughadjoininglandswillsufficientlyaccommodatesuchowner….hemaytakethenecessaryactiontolayoutaprivateroadfortheaccommodationoftheowner,inthemannerprescribedbylawforlayingoutprivateroadsandpaytotheownerofthelandsthroughwhichthesameislaidout,thedamagesassessed.

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CanalLawArticle7:BridgesandHighways

• § 66.Restrictionsontheconstructionoffarmandroadbridges• § 67.Constructionofbridgesbymunicipalcorporations• § 68.Bridgesspanningcanalchannels(cannotinterferewithnavigationonthecanal)• § 69.Damagescausedbyexcessiveloads• § 69-a.Changesinbridgesandhighwaysonorovercanalsandcanallands

CanalLawArticle10:Permits

• § 100.Grantingrevocablepermits• TypesofPermits

• TemporaryuseofCanalLands(solongasdoesnotinterferewithcanalnavigation/purposes)

• TouseCanalStructures• Todivertcanalwatersforsanitary,farmpurposes,orindustrialuse

• tocut,gatherandhaulawayicefromthecanals

• Forstorageatcanalterminals

CanalLawArticle10:Permits

• § 101.Railroadsoperatingovercanals• § 102.Pipelinescrossingcanals• § 103.Tollsforlockandliftbridgepassagebyvesselsanduseoflocksandliftbridges• § 104.Useofdrydocksforrepairs Thisphotographshowspeoplewaitingtotakea

tripontheErieCanalinAuriesville NY,1890.Trainswerebeginningtoreplacecanalsasthepreferredmethodoftransportinggoods.ButatripdowntheErieCanalwasalwaysfun,afinethingtodoonabeautifulsummerafternoon.

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AbandonmentofCanalLands

1821ConstitutionalProhibition

• In1821NYSAmendeditsconstitutiontoprohibitthedispositionofStateownedCanalLands• "thelegislatureshallneversellordisposeof***thesaidnavigablecommunicationsoranypartorsectionthereof,butthesameshallbeandremainthepropertyofthestateforever."• IntheConstitutionof1846,thesameprovisionwasembodiedinsectionsixofarticleseven• Syracusev.Sweet,129N.Y.316(1891)

1894ConstitutionalAmendment

• Addedanexceptiontotheprohibitionofdisposingofcanallandstothosethatwerenolongerusefulornecessaryforcanalpurposes

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NYSConstitutionToday

• TheLegislatureisstillProhibitedfromselling,abandoningorotherwisedisposingofcanallands• Article15Section1oftheNYSConstitution

• EXCEPTthoselandswhichwerenolongerusefulornecessaryforcanalpurposes• Article15Section2oftheNYSConstitution

LegislativeAction

• CanalLandshadtobeabandonedbyLegislativeAct• Theywereusuallyconveyedto• Railroadsà

• Chapter143oftheLawsof1878“AnActrelatingtothedispositionoftheprismandbanksoftheCrookedLakeCanal”tothePennYanandNewYorkRR

• Citiesà• Chapter391oftheLawsof1878“AnActauthorizingthecityofBinghamtontouseaportionoftheChenangocanalforapublicstreet”

LegislativeAction

• ORSOLD• Chapter344oftheLawsof1878“AnActtoamendchapterfourhundredandseventy-seven,entitled“AnActtoprovideforthedispositionandsaleofcertainlateralcanalsofthisstate,andthelands,rightsandotherpropertyconnectedtherewith.”• AdvertiseandselltheCrookedLakeCanal,itsappurtenancesandwaterprivilegesconnected

therewith• AdvertiseandsellthatportionoftheChenangocanaldescribedinsection2oftheact• AlsotheChemungCanalanditsfeeders,branchesappurtenancesandwaterprivileges(water

rightstoreverttooriginalownersortheirsuccessors)• Afterthecloseofnavigationin1878,advertiseandselltheGeneseeValleyCanal,itsfeeders,

branchesandappurtenancesandwaterprivileges

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LegislativeAction

• Chapter344oftheLawsof1878continued:• Citesandvillageshadtherightandoptiontopurchasecanallandsforonequarteroftheirassessedvalue

LegislativeAction

• SometimestheLegislatureauthorizedthecanalboardtodisposeofabandonedcanallands

Chapter50oftheLawsof1909

• Thecommissionerofgeneralservicesmaysellandconveyatpublicorprivatesaletheright,titleandinterestofthestateinandtoanyrealproperty,acquiredforcanalpurposes,whichthecommissioneroftransportationmaydeterminetohavebeenabandonedforsuchpurposes,orastowhichadeterminationofabandonmentshallhavebeenheretoforemadepursuanttolaw.• PublicLandsLawARTICLE4.ABANDONEDCANALLANDSANDSTRUCTURES.Section50Saleofabandonedcanallands

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CanalLawSection50

• In1992theCanalCorporationwasgivenauthoritytoabandonCanalLands• § 50.Authoritytoabandoncanallands• 1.Authorityisherebyconferreduponthecorporationtoabandonanyportionofbargecanallands,bargecanalterminallands,oroldcanallandsandappertainingstructuresconstitutingthecanalsystempriortothebargecanalimprovement,whichhaveormaybecomenolongernecessaryorusefulasapartofthebargecanalsystem,asanaidtonavigationthereon,orforbargecanalterminalpurposes.

CanalLawSection50:Authoritytoabandoncanallands• Thisauthority,however,shallnotincludetheabandonmentofabargecanalterminalunlesssuchterminalhasbeenbyaspecialactofthelegislaturepreviouslydeterminedtohavebecomenolongernecessaryorusefulasapartofthebargecanalsystem,asanaidtonavigationthereon,orforbargecanalterminalpurposes.

CanalLawSection51:MethodtoAbandonCanalLands• PriortoabandonmenttheCorporationhastopublishnoticesinnewspapers1xaweekfor3weeksoftheproposedabandonment• “Suchnoticeshalldescribethelandsproposedtobeabandonedwithsufficientcertaintytoidentifythemandinviteinterestedpartiestofilewrittenstatementseithersupportingoropposingtheproposedabandonment.”• Iftheassessmentforsuchlandsproposedforabandonmentisequaltoorgreaterthanfiftythousanddollars,thecorporationshallholdahearing

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CanalLawSection51:MethodtoAbandonCanalLands• Then,the“corporationmayinitsdiscretiondeclaresuchlandsabandonedforthepurposesofthecanalsystem.• Thecorporationshallthereuponissueanofficialorderabandoningthelandsforcanalpurposestogetherwithamapanddescriptionofthelandsabandonedanddisposeofanyportionofcanallandssoabandoned.• Anymoneyrealizedfromthesaleofsuchlandshallbedepositedintothecanalfund.”

QuestionsonCanalAbandonment

• AllquestionsshouldbedirectedtotheLandRecordContactsoftheCanalCorp.attheirrespectiveDivisions• Albany• Syracuse• Buffalo

• IftheDivisionisunabletohelpyouthencontactDivisionheadquartersinAlbany

CanalAbandonmentProcedure

• FileApplicationrequestingabandonment• Adeterminationismadewhetherthelandsareneededforcanalpurposes/maintenance• App.thensenttotheCanalRecreationalCommissionasanadvisoryboardtogettheirapprovaloftheproposedabandonment• Landmustbesurveyed,standardsforthemapsarethroughtheSeniorLandSurveyor,hemeetsyouinthefield• Surveyiscompleted

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CanalAbandonmentProcedure

• Appraisalofthepropertyisconducted,Corp.hiresappraiser,applicantpays• Thevalueittakentotheboardtocertifythevalue• Applicantistoldtheprice• ThentheapplicationgoestotheOfficeofRealPropertyMgmtforclosingorauction• ProcedureisonCanalCorp.websiteunder• Doingbusiness• RealProperty• BasicsofSalesandPermits

EffectofAbandonment

• NYShassovereignimmunityfromAdversePossessionorPrescriptiveeasementclaimswhenitholdspropertyforapublicorgovernmentalpurpose• However,thatimmunityislostwhenthestateholdspropertyinaproprietarycapacity.• Ifcanallandsareabandoned,theycanbeadverselypossessedandprescriptiveeasementscanbeacquiredagainstthestate.

EffectofAbandonment

• Montfortv.Benedict,199A.D.2d923(3dDept.1993).• “…in1981thelandsweredeclaredtohavebeenabandonedforcanalpurposes(L1981,ch 741).Withoutanyothersovereignorpublicpurpose(see,StateofNewYorkv Case,86Misc2d43,381N.Y.S.2d210),suchabandonedpropertywouldbeheldinaproprietarycapacity.

• WhentheBlueLinelandinquestion wasabandoned,therenolongerexistedastatutoryprohibitiontoalienability;aprescriptiveeasementbyadverseusebecamelegallypossibleatthattime.

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SourcesofInformationCanalCorpNYSArchivesNYSLibraryMuseums

TheEnd SpecialThanksto:uGarretO’Connor,PLS,SeniorLandSurveyor,NYSCanalCorp.uCraigWilliams,CuratorofHistory,NewYorkStateMuseumBibliography:uWeddingoftheWaters,TheErieCanalandtheMakingofaGreatNationbyPeterBernsteinuTheArtificialRiver:TheErieCanalandtheParadoxofProgress,1817-1862byCarolSheriff