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Wayne's Word Index Noteworthy Plants
Trivia Lemnaceae Biology 101 Botany
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Economic Plant Illustrations #30
Botany 115 Vegetative TerminologyModified Roots, Stems and Leaves (Part 1)
Go To Vegetative Terminology Part 2
Go To Vegetative Terminology Part 3
Types Of Subterranean Roots
A.Fibrous root system of rip-gut grass (Bromus diandrus). B.Tap root of a
carrot (Daucus carota). C.Fascicled (clustered) storage roots of sweet
potato (Ipomoea batatas). Note: The sweet potato storage root is not a
modified stem as in the potato tuber; however, it is often referred to as a
tuberous root.
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Fascicled storage roots of smilax asparagus (Asparagus asparagoides). The
roots are also referred to as "tuberous" by some botanical authorities.
See The Edible Taproots Of A Carrot
See Storage Roots Called Sweet Potatoes
Adventitious Roots Arising From Stems
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Left:Red mangrove (Rhizophora mangle) growing in seawater along the
shoreline of St. John (U.S. Virgin Islands). The adventitious prop roots help
to support and securely anchor this shrub in the mud and loose sand of tidal
waters. Right:Close-up view of prop roots showing numerous pores called
lenticels which provide gas exchange and an additional source of oxygen forthe submersed roots.
Mangroves survive in seawater with a salinity that would be lethal to most
trees and shrubs. Like celery or carrot sticks placed in saltwater, the roots of
most plants rapidly lose water if they are suddenly emersed in seawater.
Halophytes (salt-loving plants) such as mangroves generally have a lower
concentration of water molecules (lower water potential) in their root cells
so they can take in water. They maintain lower water potentials in their roots
by having higher internal salt concentrations than seawater and by losing
water at the leaf surface. Since high internal salt concentrations can be lethalto plant cells, some species such as the black mangrove and white mangrove
(Laguncularia racemosa) can excrete excess salt through special glands in
their leaf blades and petioles. Red mangroves have root cell membranes
which prevent the absorption of excess salt.
Left:The creeping fig (Ficus pumila), a remarkable Asian vine that is
commonly cultivated in southern California. There are two distinct types of
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stem growth: Young, juvenile branches and older, mature branches. The
juvenile branches (with smaller leaves) produce aerial roots that adhere to
concrete, stucco, masonry and even glass windows. Without pruning, a
single plant can envelop a four-story building. The aerial roots secrete a
clear, gummy latex that works like rubber cement. This remarkable adhesivewas first described in detail by Charles Darwin in his book The Movements
and Habits of Climbing Plants(1876). Older, mature branches with larger
leaves produce fleshy, flower-bearing syconia. In fact, this species has been
crossed with the edible fig (F. carica) to produce a hybrid vine (F. x
pumila-carica) with edible syconia.Right:Close-up view of the aerial roots
(red arrow) that develop at the nodes on juvenile branches. The roots secrete
a gummy adhesive that adheres to concrete, masonry and glass. This species
is commonly planted in southern California to cover the monotanous
concrete walls of buildings and freeways.
Grass Jelly From Creeping Fig & Mesona (Lamiaceae)
In China, the syconia of creeping figs are picked ripe and placed in a porous
bag to squeeze out the juice. The juice is cooked and then cooled into a
gelatinous consistency called "pai-liang-fen." This jellylike material is
cubed, mixed with water, syrup and flavorings and consumed as a refreshing
drink. It is canned and sold in Asian markets as "grass jelly" of "ai-yu jelly."
According to Cornucopia IIby S. Facciola (Kampong Publications, 1998),
boiled plants of Mesona chinensisin the mint family (Lamiaceae) are also
made into cubes of grass jelly. In fact, cans of grass jelly often list this
species on the labels.
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Aerial roots of the strangler fig (Ficus citrifolia) wrapped around the trunk
and limbs of a swamp tree called "wing-nut" (Pterocarpus officinalis) on
the island of Dominica. The Caribbean island of Barbados is supposedly
named for this species of strangler fig whose abundant aerial roots give it a
"bearded" appearance.
See The Many Prop Roots Of Pandanus
See The Adventitious Roots Of Poison Oak
See Aerial Roots Of Strangler Figs & Banyans
Adventitious Stems Forming Giant Aspen Clones
Pneumatophores: Aerial Extensions From Roots
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Black mangrove (Avicennia germinans) along the eastern shore of the
Yucatan Peninsula, Mexico. The slender, erect outgrowths from the roots
are called pneumatophores. The porous pneumatophores enable the water-
logged roots to carry on gas exchange with the atmosphere. Unlike
positively geotrophic roots, the pneumatphores (called "aerial roots") are
negatively geotrophic and grow upward out of the mud and away from
gravity. Black mangrove belongs to the verbena family (Verbenaceae).
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Tea mangrove (Pelliciera rhizophorae) growing along the Pacific coast of
Costa Rica. The buttressed trunk contains numerous lenticels (red circle)
which fascilitate gas exchange with the atmosphere while the roots are
submerged in water-logged mud. The unusual, top-shaped fruit of tea
mangrove (below red circle) is the size of a onion and contains one of the
largest seeds in the world (excluding palms). It floats with the elongate,
embryonic root pointing downward, and readily becomes implanted in soft
mud. This mangrove is a member of the tea family (Theaceae).
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A swamp of bald cypress (Taxodium distichum) in the Florida Everglades.
The erect, woody extensions from the roots are called "cypress knees" or
pneumatophores. Some botanists maintain that pores in the "knees"
fascilitate gas exchange between the water-logged roots and the atmosphere,
although other botanists disagree with this theory. When photographing
cypress knees it is wise to be aware of nearby alligators basking along the
water's edge.
More About The Drift Fruits Of Mangroves
Lignotubers Of Chaparral Shrubs
Many species of dominant shrubs in fire-climax plant communities, such as thechaparral and coastal sage scrub, develop from enlarged, woody, subterranean stems
called basal burls or lignotubers. Adventitious buds embedded in these woody stems
resprout following fire, thus enabling the shrub to survive periodic brush fires. The
presence or absence of a distinct lignotuber is one of the major keys to the
identification of species of manzanita (Arcotostaphylos) in the southern California
chaparral and pine forests. For example, Mexican manzanita (A. pungens), Cuyamaca
manzanita (A. pringleissp. drupacea), Otay manzanita (A. otayensis), and bigberry
manzanita (A. glauca) do not stump sprout from a lignotuber. Peninsular manzanita
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(A. peninsularis) and subspecies of A. glandulosa, including Eastwood manzanita
(ssp. glandulosa), Del Mar manzanita (ssp. crassifolia) and Laguna manzanita
(ssp. adamsii), all resprout from well-developed basal burls.
Left: Lignotuber of chamise (Adenostoma fasciculatum), a common shrub
in the chaparral of southern California. Right: Charred branches of chamisewith bright green resprouts from the subterranean lignotuber. The intense
heat of the fire caused the blackened granodiorite boulders to exfoliate into
thin flakes.
Ashes To Wildflowers: Post-Burn Succession)
Types Of Subterranean Stems
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Two examples of scaly, underground stems called rhizomes. A.Rhizome of
achira (Canna edulis). B.Rhizome of the common sword fern
(Nephrolepis exaltata).
See The Edible Rhizome Of Achira (Canna edulis)
A.Bulb of an onion (Allium cepa). B.Corm of gladiolus
(Gladiolushybrid). The bulb is an upright subterranean stem surrounded by
overlapping, fleshy scales. The corm is an underground stem without
overlapping scales or with only a few scales.
See The Edible Bulbs Of Onions And Leeks
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The root system and tubers of a potato plant (Solanum tuberosum). The
potato tuber is technically a modified underground stem produced at the
tip of a rhizome. The "eyes" of the potato are actually buds.
Go To Wayne's Word Article About Potatoes
See Dioscorea Yam: World's Largest Vegetable
Stolon: A Creeping, Aboveground Stem
A stolon or runner of Bermuda grass (Cynodon dactylon). The stolon is an
above-ground, trailing stem that typically produces roots at the nodes where
leaves and stems arise. This very invasive, perennial grass also produces
creeping, underground stems called rhizomes. Another plant that spreads by
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means of stolons is the strawberry (Fragaria x ananassa).
Gross Stem Anatomy & Leaf Arrangement
Left:Five years of growth on the stem of a deciduous flowering tree. The
vascular bundle scar (trace) is within the leaf scar (place where leaf was
attached). The lateral bud is located just above the attachment scar of the
leaf. Right:Three different leaf arrangements: Alternate (one leaf per node),
opposite (two leaves per node) and whorled (three or more leaves per node).
A node is the place where one or more leaves are attached along the stem.
The area between nodes is called the internode.
Caudiciform Plants With An Enlarged Caudex
In his beautifully illustrated book Caudiciform and Pachycaul
Succulents(1987), Gordon Rowley summarizes three main types of enlarged
stems, including succulent, caudiciform and pachycaul stems. In succulent
stems, the stems are typically photosynthetic and covered with protective
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spines. This adaptation is widespread in the cactus family (Cactaceae) and
euphorbia family (Euphorbiaceae); two classic examples of convergent
evolution where unrelated plants from distant continents have developed very
similar adaptations for living in arid deserts. Caudiciform plants generally have
an enlarged basal caudex or stem axis from which the stems and roots arise.The caudex may extend below the ground, is typically non-photosynthetic and
often gives rise to slender, twining stems. It generally does not include plants
with bulbs, corms, rhizomes or tubers. This ingenious adaptation is well
developed in the gourd family (Cucurbitaceae). In fact, the wild cucumber vine
(Marah macrocarpus) that climbs over shrubs in the chaparral and coastal
sage scrub of California develops from a tuberous, subterranean caudex that
may weigh up to 100 pounds. One of the reasons the wild fig of Baja
California (Ficus palmeri) is able to establish itself on boulders and vertical
canyon walls is its remarkable caudiciform seedling stage. With a food and
water reserve in the bulbous stem base, the roots can grow considerabledistances in search of moisture. The effectiveness of this strategy is readily
apparent when you gaze at the remarkable locations of these figs trees.
With the onset of spring, Jatropha
berlandierisprouts from a large,
globose caudex. This is a
caudiciform plant adapted to
prolonged periods of drought. It
belongs to the diverse euphorbiafamily (Euphorbiaceae).
Caudiciform plants can store water
and survive many months without
rain in hot, arid desert regions.
They include some of the most
remarkable and truly bizarre plants
on earth.
A third category called pachycaul plants includes massive, non-photosynthetic,
spineless trunks tapering upward into stout branches. This category is very evident
in desert regions, especially the elephant tree (Bursera microphylla) and the
remarkable Cyphostemma juttae, a poisonous member of the grape family
(Vitaceae) native to Africa.
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Alula (Brighamia insignis), a rare member of the lobelia family
(Campanulaceae) endemic to steep sea cliffs on the island of Kauai. As of the
year 2000, fewer than 100 of these remarkable pachycaul plants grew in the
wild. Like the California condor, this unique species has been brought backfrom the brink of extinction through breeding programs at botanical gardens.
Alulu is perfectly adapted for living on vertical volcanic cliffs. A single rosette
of leaves arise from the top of a thick, succulent stem, like a cabbage head on a
baseball bat. The rosette varies in size relative to the stem, depending on the
availability of moisture. Roots penetrate the cliffs horizontally, and the base of
the plant is rounded, permitting the plant to rock slightly in the wind. Water
stored in the stem enables the plant to survive periods of drought which may
last days or weeks. Another rare species with white flowers (B. rockii) grows
on sea cliffs along the windward coast of Molokai. Like Hawaii's endemic
silver sword alliance that evolved from an ancestral tarweed (Asteraceae), thealulu is another example of adaptive radiation in the lobeliads. Unlike the
silver swords, the lobeliads evolved from several ancestral introductions rather
than a single ancestral colonization. For more information please refer to
(Hawaii: A Natural History by Sherwin Carlquist (Pacific Tropical Botanical
Garden, 1980).
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The Massive Woody Caudex Of Turtleback Plant
The Massive, Tuberous Caudex Of Wild Cucumber
See The Welwitschia Plant From The Namib Desert
The Massive Pachycaul Trunk Of An Elephant Tree
The Massive Pachycaul Trunk Of The Baobab Tree
Armstrong, W.P. 1999. Make Way For Fat
Stemmed Plants. Zoonooz72 (8): 26-31
Return To Economic Plant Families Page
Return To WAYNE'S WORD Home Page
Return To NOTEWORTHY PLANTS Page
Go To Biology GEE WHIZ TRIVIA Page
Go To The LEMNACEAE ON-LINE Page
All text material & images on these pages copyright W.P. Armstrong
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