mikhail zoshchenko and the serapion brothers by …

MIKHAIL ZOSHCHENKO

AND THE

SERAPION BROTHERS

JUDITH L. BEZEREDI

A.B., U n i v e r s i t y of Michigan, 1966

A THESIS SUBMITTED IN PARTIAL FULFILMENT OF

THE REQUIREMENTS FOR THE DEGREE OF

MASTER OF ARTS

i n the Department of

SLAVONIC STUDIES

We ac c e p t t h i s t h e s i s as conforming to the

r e q u i r e d standard

THE UNIVERSITY OF BRITISH COLUMBIA

September, 1973

In p r e s e n t i n g t h i s t h e s i s i n p a r t i a l f u l f i l m e n t of

the requirements f o r an advanced degree a t the U n i v e r s i t y o f

B r i t i s h Columbia, I agree t h a t the L i b r a r y s h a l l make i t

f r e e l y a v a i l a b l e f o r r e f e r e n c e and study. I f u r t h e r agree

t h a t p e r m i s s i o n f o r e x t e n s i v e copying of t h i s t h e s i s f o r

s c h o l a r l y purposes may be granted by the Head of my

Department or by h i s r e p r e s e n t a t i v e s . I t i s understood t h a t

c o p y i n g o r p u b l i c a t i o n of t h i s t h e s i s f o r f i n a n c i a l g a i n

s h a l l not be a llowed w i t h o u t my w r i t t e n p e r m i s s i o n .

J u d i t h L. B e z e r e d i

Department of S l a v o n i c S t u d i e s

The U n i v e r s i t y o f B r i t i s h Columbia Vancouver 8, Canada

Date September, - 19 73

TABLE OF CONTENTS

ABSTRACT i v

CHAPTER

I. NEW ECONOMIC POLICY — A PARADOX IN MARXIST

RUSSIA 1

I I . THE PERIOD OF RELATIVE ARTISTIC FREEDOM AND

SEARCH FOR GOALS DURING THE N. E. P 12

I I I . THE SERAPION BROTHERS . . 24

IV. MIKHAIL ZOSHCHENKO — THE SERAPION BROTHER.

CONCLUSION 53

BIBLIOGRAPHY 79

ABSTRACT

The purpose of t h i s t h e s i s i s to e x p l o r e the p e r i o d

of r e l a t i v e economic and a r t i s t i c freedom t h a t o c c u r r e d

d u r i n g the time o f the New Economic P o l i c y (1921-1924).

The g e n e r a l f a i l u r e i n a g r i c u l t u r e and i n i n d u s t r i a l

p r o d u c t i v i t y f o r c e d the S o v i e t regime to a l l o w d i v e r s i o n s

from the orthodox M a r x i s t view of s t a t e ownership o f the

t o o l s of p r o d u c t i o n . Because o f the need to s t a r t the

wheels of p r o d u c t i o n t u r n i n g , the minor landowners, s m a l l

manufacturers and p e t t y p r o f i t e e r s took t o the task i n hope

o f f i n a n c i a l g a i n s . T h i s economic environment, u n c o n t r o l l e d

by the Communist P a r t y , r e f l e c t e d i t s e l f i n the r e l a t i v e l y

c h a o t i c " a r t i s t i c scene". Amongst the many l i t e r a r y groups

t h a t appeared d u r i n g the e a r l y 19 20's, I d w e l l mostly upon

the S e r a p i o n B r o t h e r s and the members of t h a t group, s i n g l i n g

out f o r more i n t e n s e study M i k h a i l Zoshchenko: h i s a r t i s t r y

and h i s s t r u g g l e f o r a r t i s t i c freedom.

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

I s h o u l d l i k e t o express my s i n c e r e a p p r e c i a t i o n t o

my a d v i s o r on t h i s t h e s i s , P r o f e s s o r V. Revutsky, and a l s o ,

f o r h i s g e n e r a l encouragement i n my s t u d i e s , t o P r o f e s s o r Z.

F o l e j e w s k i .

CHAPTER I

The c i v i l war ended i n 1921 0 War Communism, as an

economic p o l i c y t o s t a r t p r o d u c t i o n i n the d e v a s t a t e d country

to f e e d i t s p e o p l e , had f a i l e d .

The essence o f [the] p e c u l i a r War Communism was t h a t we a c t u a l l y took from the peasant a l l the s u r p l u s g r a i n — and sometimes even not o n l y s u r p l u s g r a i n but p a r t o f the g r a i n the peasant r e q u i r e d f o r food — to meet the requirements of the army and to s u s t a i n the workers. Most o f i t we took on l o a n , f o r paper money. . . . We were f o r c e d to r e s o r t to War Communism by war and r u i n Q I t was not, nor c o u l d i t be, a p o l i c y t h a t corresponded t o the economic tasks of the p r o l e t a r i a t . . . . The c o r r e c t p o l i c y of the p r o l e t a r i a t which i s e x e r c i s i n g i t s d i c t a t o r s h i p i n a s m a l l - p e a s a n t country i s to o b t a i n g r a i n i n exchange f o r the^ manufactured goods the peasant r e q u i r e s . . . .

Thus L e n i n i n t r o d u c e d the New Economic P o l i c y to

R u s s i a . L e n i n r e a l i z e d t h a t the war-torn country's popula

t i o n needed immediate s h o r t - t e r m i n c e n t i v e s r a t h e r than

communism a t a d i s t a n t f u t u r e . T h e r e f o r e , he was w i l l i n g to

bend h i s orthodox t h e o r i e s and allow ownership, the accumula

t i o n of c a p i t a l and p r i v a t e p r o f i t - t a k i n g on l a b o r . Our p o v e r t y and r u i n are so g r e a t t h a t we cannot

a t one s t r o k e r e s t o r e l a r g e - s c a l e , f a c t o r y , s t a t e s o c i a l i s t production,, T h i s r e q u i r e s t h a t we accumulate l a r g e s t o c k s of g r a i n and f u e l i n the

V. I . L e n i n , S e l e c t e d Works, i n Two Volumes (Moscow: 1950-1952), V o l . I I , p. 539.

2 From here on r e f e r r e d t o as N. E. P.

b i g i n d u s t r i a l c e n t e r s , r e p l a c e the worn-out machines w i t h new ones, and so on. Experience has _ convinced us t h a t t h i s cannot be done a t one s t r o k e 0

L e n i n was w i l l i n g t o a l l o w craftsmen and c e r t a i n s m a l l

i n d u s t r i e s , which d i d not need b i g c a p i t a l investment,

machinery or power ( i . e . , o i l , e l e c t r i c i t y ) f o r o p e r a t i o n ,

to produce and e x i s t as p r i v a t e e n t e r p r i s e s . Peasants were

taxed i n g r a i n and, f o r the f i r s t time s i n c e the R e v o l u t i o n ,

they were allowed to s e l l t h e i r s u r p l u s g r a i n , meat, and

produce on the open market. The hope of p r o f i t - t a k i n g f o r

t h e i r h a r d work gave the peasants i n c e n t i v e t o work harder

and thus they produced more food f o r the s t a r v e d p o p u l a t i o n .

The theory behind the t o l e r a t i o n o f " s m a l l - s c a l e

c a p i t a l i s m " was s i m p l e . The i d e a was t h a t i f the peasant

accumulates cash not needed f o r h i s immediate s u r v i v a l he

w i l l spend t h a t money on consumer goods, or i n v e s t i t i n

machinery, o r b e t t e r h o u s i n g . Thus, he w i l l c r e a t e a

consumer demand f o r i n d u s t r i a l p r o d u c t s ; i n r e t u r n , t h i s

w i l l g i v e jobs and wages t o the urban p r o l e t a r i a t . With

g r e a t e r demand f o r i n d u s t r i a l goods, on the r e t a i n e d p r o f i t

the s t a t e can b u i l d up heavy i n d u s t r y , communication, e t c .

The theory was s i m p l e , but i n r e a l l i f e i t d i d not

work t h a t way. The peasants and the craftsmen took t h e i r

p r o f i t , b ut they d i d not spend i t : the p o l i c i e s of War

L e n i n , S e l e c t e d Works, P a r t I I , p. 5 4 4 .

Communism were s t i l l too v i v i d i n t h e i r memories, where a

man c o u l d be condemned to death, or l a b e l l e d as a k u l a k ,

because he kept h i s household i n good r e p a i r or had a machine

o r a spare h o r s e . As a r e s u l t , homes sta y e d i n d i s r e p a i r .

No peasant went on a b i g spending s p r e e . I f he d i d purchase

some s m a l l machinery, he would h i d e i t from h i s neighbors

f o r f e a r o f i t s b e i n g taken away a t the next p o l i t i c a l change.

Bukharin supported L e n i n ' s New Economic P o l i c y , and

he made no attempt to deny t h a t the development envisaged by

him might g i v e economic power to the group which was con

s i d e r e d the s t r o n g e s t remnant o f c a p i t a l i s m : the k u l a k s ,

s m a l l h o l d e r s , marketeers. "We have to t e l l the whole

p e a s a n t r y , a l l i t s s t r a t a : g e t r i c h , accumulate, develop 4

your economy." In Bukharin*s view the growth of c o o p e r a t i o n

w i t h the k u l a k s would r a i s e the economic l e v e l of the

peasantry as a whole and thus sap the f o u n d a t i o n s o f the

k u l a k ' s power. The gains secured by poor and medium peasants

who had been p r e v i o u s l y , t o a v a r y i n g e x t e n t , dependent on

the v i l l a g e r i c h , would be much g r e a t e r , p a r t i c u l a r l y s i n c e

they would have on t h e i r s i d e the a l l - o u t support of the

s t a t e . The s h a r p l y p r o g r e s s i v e t a x a t i o n would narrow the

"0 n o v o i ekonomicheskoi p o l i t i k e i nashikh zadachakh" — P a r t I I , B o l s h e v i k , June 1, 1925. T h i s formula offended the orthodox M a r x i s t s and soon Bukharin had to r e t r a c t i t t h r e e t imes. However, he d i d not renounce the u n d e r l y i n g i d e a .

income d i f f e r e n t i a l s s t i l l f u r t h e r . P a r t o f the taxes drawn

from the k u l a k s would be saved and used f o r the e s t a b l i s h m e n t

of the s o c i a l i z e d s e c t o r o f the economy and f o r the expansion 5

o f a n a t i o n a l i z e d c r e d i t system. The r e s u l t o f t h i s g r a d u a l

l e v e l l i n g and i n c r e a s i n g dependence on s t a t e - c o n t r o l l e d

economy would be a e u t h a n a s i a of the kulaks a f t e r they had

(very much a g a i n s t t h e i r w i l l ) rendered a yeoman s e r v i c e t o

the s o c i a l i s t economy.

Bukharin put h i s f i n g e r on the c r u c i a l s p o t when he

spoke o f " s e t t i n g i n t o motion the f a c t o r s o f p r o d u c t i o n

which are l y i n g i d l e l i k e a dead weight" and o f m o b i l i z i n g

"the hidden r e s e r v e s o f energy",^ as w e l l as of "more 7

i n t e n s i v e u t i l i z a t i o n o f the u n i t o f c a p i t a l " . T h i s was,

indeed, the b a s i c f a c t from which a l l the r e s t f o l l o w e d .

S o v i e t l a r g e - s c a l e i n d u s t r y , i n the e a r l y y e a r s of the N.E.P.,

c o u l d have i n c r e a s e d i t s output w i t h o u t any expansion of i t s

p l a n t , because l a r g e r e s e r v e s of unused c a p a c i t y were

a v a i l a b l e . However, w i t h o u t s t e p p i n g up the volume o f

p r o d u c t i o n as w e l l as improving the e f f i c i e n c y o f the l a b o r

" I f we are w a l k i n g around naked, the kulak w i l l conquer us e c o n o m i c a l l y , and i f he i s a d e p o s i t o r i n our banks, he won't conquer us. We are h e l p i n g him, but he i s h e l p i n g us, too . . ." B o l s h e v i k , A p r i l 30, 1925.

6 B o l s h e v i k , November 5, 1924, p. 30. 7 B o l s h e v i k , January 15, 1925, p. 56 „

f o r c e employed o p e r a t i n g these p l a n t s and i n c r e a s i n g the

food s u p p l i e s , the e x e c u t i o n o f t h i s p l a n was i m p o s s i b l e .

( A l s o , i mportant branches of the p r o c e s s i n g i n d u s t r i e s c o u l d

not be put i n t o o p e r a t i o n w i t h o u t raw m a t e r i a l o f a g r i c u l

t u r a l o r i g i n . ) To i n c r e a s e the food s u p p l i e s , the s t a t e had

to d e a l w i t h the peasants' demand f o r immediate i n c e n t i v e s .

By o f f e r i n g the peasants b e t t e r terms of t r a d e than a

c o n s i s t e n t l y " m o n o p o l i s t i c " p r i c e p o l i c y would have p e r m i t t e d ,

the urban i n d u s t r y would have b e n e f i t e d i n the long run —

i t would have had a t i t s d i s p o s a l l a r g e r amounts o f a g r i c u l

t u r a l p r o d u c t s . T h i s , i n t u r n , would have made i t p o s s i b l e

t o s t e p up the u t i l i z a t i o n of the i d l e i n d u s t r i a l c a p a c i t y

s t i l l f u r t h e r and thereby s t a r t new c y c l e s of o v e r - a l l

i n c r e a s e s . S i m i l a r l y , the i m p o s i t i o n of curbs on "easy

m o n o p o l i s t i c p r o f i t s " would have put the managers o f s t a t e

e n t e r p r i s e s under s t r o n g p r e s s u r e to minimize t h e i r c o s t s by

i n t r o d u c i n g o r g a n i z a t i o n a l and t e c h n o l o g i c a l improvements.

There c o u l d be no doubt t h a t the " f o r c e d n o r m a l i z a t i o n " i n

the v i l l a g e s , and the c e s s a t i o n of u n c e r t a i n t y which had

been weakening the peasants * i n c e n t i v e t o apply s u p e r i o r

methods o f production,, would have operated i n the same

d i r e c t i o n .

B u k h a r i n , who, f o u r years e a r l i e r , had o f f e r e d the

most p o l i s h e d and t h e o r e t i c a l l y s o p h i s t i c a t e d defence of War

Communism, now h a i l e d the "normalcy" of the N. E. P. as the

s u r e s t r o u t e to economic re c o v e r y from the r u i n s of a

r e v o l u t i o n and a c i v i l war.

During the f i r s t months of the r e v o l u t i o n , L e n i n t r i e d

t o c o n f i n e n a t i o n a l i z a t i o n t o the more v i t a l branches of

i n d u s t r y , and t r i e d t o smooth the t r a n s i t i o n from the o l d

o r d e r to the new by u t i l i z i n g the managerial s k i l l s o f

former c a p i t a l i s t s and bourgeois s p e c i a l i s t s . These e f f o r t s

q u i c k l y r e v e a l e d themselves as a b o r t i v e . C a p i t a l i s t s and

managers abandoned t h e i r p l a n t s i n l a r g e numbers, and many

o t h e r s were d r i v e n out by workers i n t e n t on avenging p a s t

g r i e v a n c e s . The workers assumed t h a t the f a c t o r i e s now

belonged t o them, and they sought to operate them i n t h e i r

own i n t e r e s t . The r e s u l t s were d i s a s t r o u s . L a c k i n g mana

g e r i a l t r a i n i n g and t e c h n i c a l s k i l l , and unable to impose

d i s c i p l i n e on t h e i r own members, the f a c t o r y committees

f r e q u e n t l y brought t h e i r e n t e r p r i s e s to a s t a n d s t i l l . T h e i r

problems were g r e a t l y aggravated by f a i l u r e s o f communications

and t r a n s p o r t , as w e l l as shortages of raw m a t e r i a l s .

D e s p i t e L e n i n ' s strenuous e f f o r t s t o improve the

a d m i n i s t r a t i v e e f f i c i e n c y of the n a t i o n a l i z e d e n t e r p r i s e s ,

i n d u s t r i a l d i s o r g a n i z a t i o n was endemic. The c i t i e s s u f f e r e d

from c o l d and hunger; workers abandoned the f a c t o r i e s i n

l a r g e numbers. S u p p l i e r s were cu t o f f ; i n d u s t r i a l produc

t i o n d e c l i n e d c a t a s t r o p h i c a l l y . The output of those f a c t o r i e s

t h a t c o n t i n u e d to operate was r e s e r v e d almost e n t i r e l y f o r

the Red Army. Amongst the p o p u l a t i o n s t r i c t p r i c e c o n t r o l

and r a t i o n i n g o f goods were i n t r o d u c e d . Shortages soon

became so extreme as to render p r i c e and r a t i o n i n g c o n t r o l s

meaningless. Money l o s t a l l v a l u e . Workers had to be p a i d

i n k i n d , and a r a p i d l y expanding b l a c k market l a r g e l y

d i s p l a c e d the o f f i c i a l channels o f t r a d e . The b l a c k

marketeers f l o u r i s h e d on the proceeds of i l l i c i t t r a d e .

D e s p i t e a l l these h a r d s h i p s , to those who b e l i e v e d i n

the Communist cause, the r e v o l u t i o n and the f o l l o w i n g c i v i l

war appeared as a l i b e r a t i n g a c t which brought the working

masses t o the f o r e f r o n t o f w o r l d h i s t o r y . I t aroused hopes

and dreams o f a w o r l d to be remade i n the image of b r o t h e r

hood, e q u a l i t y and j u s t i c e .

The c i v i l war p e r i o d and the p e r i o d s h o r t l y f o l l o w i n g

was an e r a o f c o n s i d e r a b l e s o c i a l e x p e r i m e n t a t i o n . During

t h i s time the new regime was f e e l i n g i t s way i n t o the f u t u r e .

The overthrow o f the o l d regime was accompanied by a r e b e l

l i o n a g a i n s t the f a m i l y and t r a d i t i o n a l moral v a l u e s , by the

l o o s e n i n g of m a r i t a l t i e s and a new emphasis on the emanci

p a t i o n of women, by the i n c r e a s e d a u t h o r i t y of youth, by

e d u c a t i o n a l i n n o v a t i o n s , and by a r e l a t i v e l y u n f e t t e r e d

ferment o f l i t e r a r y and a r t i s t i c p r o d u c t i v i t y . Amidst the

grimness of the r u i n s of War Communism, the r e b e l s a g a i n s t

the o l d s o c i e t y l u x u r i a t e d i n t h e i r new freedom. The

domination o f the P a r t y by i t s c e n t r a l organs was not y e t

complete. T h i s was indeed the romantic p e r i o d o f the

r e v o l u t i o n . P a r t y d i s c u s s i o n s were l i v e l y and u n i n h i b i t e d .

The c r i t i c i s m o f the l e a d e r s h i p was not equated w i t h t r e a s o n .

U t o p i a n dreams o f the r u l e o f the masses s t i l l tempered the

r e a l i t i e s o f d i c t a t o r s h i p .

The peasants d u r i n g t h i s p e r i o d were caught up i n

c r o s s c u r r e n t s . They d i d not harbor l o v e f o r communism, but

as l o n g as the B o l s h e v i k s s t o o d as the o n l y b a r r i e r which

p r e v e n t e d the l a n d l o r d s from r e c l a i m i n g t h e i r e s t a t e s , many

peasants were prepared t o g i v e the B o l s h e v i k s a t l e a s t

p a s s i v e support.**

L e f t - w i n g i n t e l l e c t u a l s who were a t odds wit h the

B o l s h e v i k s found themselves drawn t o the S o v i e t cause because

the p o l i c i e s espoused by the Whites were even more repugnant

to them.

To keep o r o b t a i n the l o y a l t y o f the workers and

pea s a n t s , c o n c e s s i o n s had to be made immediately. These

co n c e s s i o n s were made by the almost t o t a l abandonment of

heavy i n d u s t r y i n f a v o r o f the consumer i n d u s t r y . (For

example: the mining i n d u s t r y i n 1920 produced 33% of i t s

1912 o u t p u t j t h i s f e l l f u r t h e r t o 30% i n 19 21, and rose t o

p "The l a n d s e t t l e m e n t adopted and r e l u c t a n t l y b l e s s e d

by the B o l s h e v i k s was a c t u a l l y deeply repugnant to them, s i n c e i t i n t r o d u c e d the 'Trojan h o r s e 1 o f p r i v a t e p r o p e r t y i n t o the very m i d s t o f the communist c i t a d e l and r a i s e d u l t i m a t e dangers of c o u n t e r - r e v o l u t i o n . " Merle F a i n s o d , How R u s s i a i s Ruled, p. 96 (see Bibliography)„

o n l y 36% i n 1922. In the m e t a l l u r g i c a l i n d u s t r y , the output

i n 1920 was no more than 6% o f t h a t of 1912, r i s i n g t o 9% i n

1921, and d e c l i n i n g t o 7% i n 1922.) 9

A c c o r d i n g t o a statement a t the t w e l f t h p a r t y congress i n A p r i l 19 23, i n d u s t r y as a whole, i n s p i t e o f severe measures taken, was s t i l l working a t 30% o f c a p a c i t y . 1 0

The peasants* o r i g i n a l r e l u c t a n c e to p a r t w i t h t h e i r

p r o f i t s eased up, and an i n c r e a s i n g spending-spree swept

through the c o u n t r y s i d e . The peasants l e a r n e d how to d r i v e

a hard b a r g a i n f o r i n d u s t r i a l goods. The demand f o r food

s u p p l i e s was so acute t h a t p r i c e s moved i n f a v o r of a g r i c u l

t u r a l p r o d u c t s . To a c t as go-between, a new c l a s s emerged:

the Nepman,— some o f them once r e p u t a b l e , o t h e r s not so

r e p u t a b l e . Some of them emerged from the underworld where

they had l i v e d s i n c e the r e v o l u t i o n , o t h e r s were newcomers

t o the scene who q u i c k l y adapted themselved to the new t r i c k s

o f the t r a d e . T h e i r s t r e n g t h l a y i n t h e i r success i n making

themselved i n d i s p e n s a b l e t o s t a t e t r a d i n g i n s t i t u t i o n s and

to the i n d u s t r i a l t r u s t s . They r e c e i v e d p r i v i l e g e d t r e a t

ment everywhere. T h e i r p r o f i t s were d o u b t l e s s l a r g e enough

t o enable them to r e s o r t to d i r e c t or i n d i r e c t forms of

X I I S'ezd R o s s i i s k o i Kommunisticheskoi P a r t i i ( B o l ' s h e v i k o v ) , 1923, p. 339 — quoted by E. H. C a r r , A H i s t o r y o f S o v i e t R u s s i a . The B o l s h e v i k R e v o l u t i o n 1917-1923, Volume I , p. 311.

• 1 0 I b i d .

c o r r u p t i o n . Moscow, under N.E.P., became a c i t y o f l u x u r y

f o r p r i v a t e agents o f the new s t a t e c a p i t a l i s m .

The l a p s e o f time had brought f o r g e t f u l n e s s o f the

f e a r f u l c r i s i s which n e c e s s i t a t e d the i n t r o d u c t i o n o f N.E.P.,

and some o f i t s l e s s a g r e e a b l e i m p l i c a t i o n s had become

n o t o r i o u s . Complaints a g a i n s t i t began t o be w i d e l y heard.

The R.S.F.S.R. 1 1 had e n t e r e d the N.E.P. p e r i o d w i t h o u t any

o f f i c i a l machinery f o r the conduct o r r e g u l a t i o n o f i n t e r n a l

t r a d e .

The p h i l o s o p h y of N.E.P., w h i l e i t encouraged s t a t e i n s t i t u t i o n s t o engage i n t r a d e , i n s i s t e d t h a t t r a d e s h o u l d be conducted on market p r i n c i p l e s w i t h o u t s t a t e i n t e r f e r e n c e ; i t was, t h e r e f o r e , as i n i m i c a l as the p r a c t i c e o f war communism had been, though f o r a d i f f e r e n t reason, to the c r e a t i o n o f any s u p e r v i s o r y organ. Complete o f f i c i a l 1_ detachment c o u l d not, indeed, be maintained.

The need f o r some c e n t r a l p l a n n i n g was obvio u s . S t a l i n

s t a r t e d w i t h the assumption t h a t a program o f r a p i d i n d u s

t r i a l i z a t i o n was i m p e r a t i v e and t h a t n o t h i n g s h o r t o f a

who l e s a l e r e c o n s t r u c t i o n o f S o v i e t a g r i c u l t u r e c o u l d

guarantee the g r a i n r e s e r v e s t o c a r r y i t forward. The

S t a l i n i s t p l a n , which was borrowed i n many of i t s aspects

from the p r o p o s a l s o f the L e f t O p p o s i t i o n , i n v o l v e d the

p r e l i m i n a r y a p p l i c a t i o n o f "emergency measures". These

Ru s s i a n S o c i a l i s t F e d e r a l S o v i e t R e p u b l i c .

E. H. C a r r , Op. c i t . , Volume I , p. 343.

measures were a g a i n s t the k u l a k s , i n o r d e r to e x p r o p r i a t e

the s u r p l u s e s which they were a l l e g e d l y h o a r d i n g , and subse

q u e n t l y t o l i q u i d a t e the kulaks as c l a s s enemies. By h e r d i n g

the a g r i c u l t u r a l p o p u l a t i o n i n t o s t a t e and c o l l e c t i v e farms,

the regime would be a b l e to operate through a r e l a t i v e l y

l i m i t e d number o f c o n t r o l l e d c o l l e c t i v e u n i t s i n s t e a d of

d e a l i n g i n d i v i d u a l l y w i t h m i l l i o n s of peasant households.

While the advocates of t h i s p l a n p r o f e s s e d to b e l i e v e t h a t

r a p i d i n d u s t r i a l i z a t i o n c o u l d be combined w i t h an i n c r e a s e

i n consumption as the r e s u l t of the a p p l i c a t i o n of modern

t e c h n i c a l methods to a g r i c u l t u r e , i n p r a c t i c e , t h i s hope was

soon shown to be i l l u s o r y . S t r i p p e d o f i t s propaganda

v e r b i a g e , the S t a l i n i s t program foreshadowed a profound

e x t e n s i o n o f the scope of t o t a l i t a r i a n power. The peasantry

was to be brought to h e e l and t i e d t o s t a t e ends. The

s u r p l u s e s e x t r a c t e d from the peasantry were to p r o v i d e the

means o f c r e a t i n g a powerful i n d u s t r i a l s t r u c t u r e which

would r e n d e r the S o v i e t s t a t e impregnable. Thus the e r a o f

N.E.P., of p r i v a t e e n t e r p r i s e s , o f supply and demand market

p r i n c i p l e s , gave way to the e r a o f the " Five-Year P l a n s " :

the e r a of complete s t a t e - c o n t r o l l e d economy.

CHAPTER I I

D u r i n g the e r a o f N.E.P., l i t e r a r y p o l i c y was s u b j e c t

t o the same compromise which was i n h e r e n t i n a l l the p o l i c i e s

o f the r u l i n g p a r t y : l a c k of c e n t r a l c o n t r o l . T h i s compara

t i v e freedom can be e x p l a i n e d by the g r e a t p o l i t i c a l s t r u g g l e

f o r complete power, between r i v a l groups behind the scenes.

As l o n g as no one group had a b s o l u t e power over the p a r t y

and thus over the country, the c o n t r o l of l i t e r a t u r e seemed

t o be o f secondary importance, even though T r o t s k y , L e n i n ,

and Bukharin were con s c i o u s of the f a c t t h a t l i t e r a t u r e was

the b a t t l e g r o u n d of s o c i a l and p o l i t i c a l o p i n i o n . During

t h i s p e r i o d an embarrassingly l a r g e number o f l i t e r a r y

groups mushroomed a l l over the c o u n t r y , but most i n t e n s i v e l y

i n L e n i n g r a d and Moscow.

The c l a s h of opposing o p i n i o n s was mounting. On the

L e f t , a number of l i t e r a r y groups and movements claimed to 12

be speaking i n the name of the p a r t y and the r e v o l u t x o n .

They r e j e c t e d the h e r i t a g e of" the bourgeois p a s t . On the

o p p o s i t e wing were the s o - c a l l e d " f e l l o w t r a v e l l e r s "

The p a r t y view on t h i s , i n May 19 24, was as f o l l o w s : " C o n s i d e r i n g t h a t no one l i t e r a r y t r e n d , s c h o o l or group can, or s h o u l d be allowed to speak i n the name of the p a r t y , the congress emphasizes the importance of r e g u l a t i n g the q u e s t i o n of l i t e r a r y c r i t i c i s m and of throwing the f u l l e s t p o s s i b l e l i g h t on p a t t e r n s of b e l l e s - l e t t r e s i n the pages of the S o v i e t p a r t y p r e s s . " VKP(B) v R e z o l y u t s i y a k h (1941), i . 602.

13 13 ( P o p u t c h i k i ) who accepted the Russian l i t e r a r y and a r t i s t i c

t r a d i t i o n as a v a l i d f o u n d a t i o n on which a new S o v i e t

l i t e r a t u r e c o u l d be b u i l t . In e f f e c t , L e n i n and T r o t s k y

were both on the s i d e o f the f e l l o w - t r a v e l l e r s . T h e i r works

were f r e e l y p u b l i s h e d i n l i t e r a r y j o u r n a l s , r e c e i v i n g p r a i s e

from Bukharin as w e l l as T r o t s k y .

Heated debates and statements on the p o s i t i o n the

p a r t y s h o u l d take i n r e g a r d t o l i t e r a t u r e were f r e q u e n t , but

not b i n d i n g . Bukharin d e s c r i b e d h i s p o s i t i o n as "very

r a d i c a l " . He f e l t the p a r t y should impose i t s i d e o l o g y on

a l l f i e l d s , "even on mathematics", but i t would be wrong t o

"crush peasant l i t e r a t u r e " or to e l i m i n a t e "the w r i t e r from

the S o v i e t i n t e l l i g e n t s i a " . T r o t s k y gave the l o n g e s t and

b e s t - r e a s o n e d speech i n defence o f the f e l l o w - t r a v e l l e r s ,

b u t by t h i s time h i s p o s i t i o n i n the p a r t y , s i n c e the " T h i r

t e e n t h P a r t y Conference" (January, 1924), was s e r i o u s l y

compromised.

The main o p p o s i t i o n to the f e l l o w - t r a v e l l e r s was the

N o n - p r o l e t a r i a n and non-communist w r i t e r s who, i n t h e i r own way, had accepted the r e v o l u t i o n , mainly f o c u s i n g t h e i r a r t i s t i c a t t e n t i o n on i t s p r o c e s s e s . Even the m a j o r i t y of the S e r a p i o n Brothers,- d e s p i t e t h e i r i n s i s t e n c e on b e i n g f r e e t o choose t h e i r s u b j e c t s , i n f a c t wrote almost e x c l u s i v e l y about the r e v o l u t i o n . A l l these w r i t e r s who, w i t h o u t b e i n g communists, vaguely sympathized w i t h the r e v o l u t i o n and were c e r t a i n l y h o s t i l e to i t s ' e n e m i e s , were dubbed " f e l l o w - t r a v e l l e r s " . The name was f i r s t used by T r o t s k y i n one o f the essays i n h i s book, L i t e r a t u r a i R e v o l u t s i y a , — as s t a t e d by Gleb S t r u v e .

"On-Guardist" (Na postu) group. O r i g i n a l l y t h i s group broke

away from the "Smithy" (Kuznitsa) group, by f i r s t p u b l i s h i n g

t h e i r r i v a l j o u r n a l October (Oktyabr) and then c a l l i n g t h e i r

group by the same name. They had a hundred per cent

communist membership. T h e i r aims were to develop i d e o l o g i

c a l l y pure p r o l e t a r i a n l i t e r a t u r e and to c r u s h any oth e r

l i t e r a t u r e , such as t h a t o f the peasantry and the i n t e l l i

g e n t s i a , as n o n - r e p r e s e n t a t i v e o f the r e v o l u t i o n a r y masses.

In June 1923 they began i s s u i n g t h e i r new j o u r n a l , On Guard.

The e d i t o r i a l m anifesto appeared i n the f i r s t i s s u e , and

demanded a break w i t h the p a s t :

We s h a l l stand f i r m l y on guard over a s t r o n g and c l e a r communist i d e o l o g y i n p r o l e t a r i a n l i t e r a t u r e . In view of the r e v i v a l ever s i n c e the b e g i n n i n g o f N.E.P. of the a c t i v i t y o f bourgeois l i t e r a r y groups, a l l i d e o l o g i c a l doubts are a b s o l u t e l y i n a d m i s s i b l e , and we s h a l l make a p o i n t o f b r i n g i n g them to l i g h t .

14 We s h a l l f i g h t those Manilovs who d i s t o r t and

s l a n d e r our r e v o l u t i o n by the a t t e n t i o n they pay to the r o t t e n f a b r i c o f the f e l l o w - t r a v e l l e r s * l i t e r a r y c r e a t i o n i n t h e i r attempt to b u i l d an a e s t h e t i c b r i d g e between the p a s t and the present.15

Among the l i s t of c o n t r i b u t o r s i n the second i s s u e of

the j o u r n a l were Kamenev, Radek and Y a r o s l a v s k y . T h i s

M anilov: the complacent land-owner i n Gogol's Dead S o u l s .

15 . . . G. R. Reavey and M. Slonim, S o v i e t L i t e r a t u r e : An

Anthology (1933), p. 405. 16

T h i s might not be as s i g n i f i c a n t as i t seems, as i t was a common p r a c t i c e o f p a r t y l e a d e r s to l e n d t h e i r names

meant t h a t the j o u r n a l and the group had support i n p a r t y

c i r c l e s . T h i s support gave them c o n f i d e n c e t o wage an

a l l - o u t b a t t l e a g a i n s t the very popular group o f f e l l o w -

t r a v e l l e r s .

P r o l e t a r i a n l i t e r a t u r e i n the S o v i e t Union has bu t one aim b e f o r e i t : t o se r v e the cause of worl d p r o l e t a r i a n v i c t o r y , to f i g h t r u t h l e s s l y a l l the enemies of the R e v o l u t i o n . P r o l e t a r i a n l i t e r a t u r e w i l l conquer bourgeois l i t e r a t u r e , - ^ f Q r the prol e t a r i a n r e v o l u t i o n w i l l i n e v i t a b l y d e s t r o y c a p i t a l i s m . 1 8

T r o t s k y answered t h e i r a t t a c k i n h i s book, L i t e r a t u r e

and R e v o l u t i o n (1923):

I f we should e l i m i n a t e P i l n i a k , the Serap i o n Brotherhood, Mayakovsky, E s e n i n , what w i l l remain o f a f u t u r e p r o l e t a r i a n l i t e r a t u r e except a few d e f a u l t e d promissory notes?

The p r o l e t a r i a n w r i t e r s w i l l have t o win t h i s war "by h i g h -

grade p r o d u c t i v e n e s s r a t h e r than by m a n i f e s t o s " ; "the i s s u e

between bourgeois and p r o l e t a r i a n l i t e r a t u r e depends on

q u a l i t y . " As a matter o f f a c t , a l l the l e a d i n g poets of the

p e r i o d emerged from o t h e r than p r o l e t a r i a n backgrounds:

Mayakovsky and Blok from the n o b i l i t y , Pasternak from the

to a new j o u r n a l w i t h o u t any s e r i o u s i n t e n t i o n of w r i t i n g f o r them.

17 Gorky was tagged by them as "the d a r l i n g of Western

b o u r g e o i s i e " ; A l e x i s T o l s t o y and Ehrenburg as "pseudo-r e v o l u t i o n a r i e s " . Mayakovsky, E s e n i n , P i l n i a k , the Se r a p i o n B r o t h e r s , Polonsky were accused o f b e i n g " l i b e r a l s who pamper o l d t i m e r s and NEPmen".

Zvezda ( S t a r ) , No. I (1925), e d i t o r i a l .

i n t e l l i g e n t s i a , E s e n i n from the pe a s a n t r y .

Another s t r o n g i n f l u e n c e on the l i t e r a r y scene was the

F u t u r i s t movement. Russian F u t u r i s m developed p a r a l l e l t o

the I t a l i a n F u t u r i s t movement of M a r i n e t t i , b ut i d e o l o g i c a l l y

independent o f i t . From the very b e g i n n i n g the movement was

not homogeneous: i t s p l i t i n t o many f a c t i o n s , such as the

E g o - F u t u r i s t s , C u b o - F u t u r i s t s and o t h e r s . T h e i r common aim

was t o e l i m i n a t e the c o n v e n t i o n a l form, b a l a n c e , and rhythm

i n a l l types o f a r t . In "western" a r t and l i t e r a t u r e , t h i s

was j u s t another movement to welcome the new age o f the

machines. In R u s s i a the Symbolist movement s t i l l dominated

the l i t e r a r y scene, and the F u t u r i s t movement was a r e v o l t

a g a i n s t the Sy m b o l i s t t r e n d toward i n v e s t i n g p o e t r y w i t h

r e l i g i o u s or p h i l o s o p h i c a l meaning.

In S o v i e t R u s s i a the movement gained some s t r e n g t h

mainly due t o the e f f o r t s o f V. Mayakovsky, but i t s beginnings 19

went back to 1910. T h e i r j o u r n a l was L e f p u b l i s h e d by Gos-20

i z d a t . The j o u r n a l ' s name was s i g n i f i c a n t , as the F u t u r i s t s

s t i l l i d e n t i f i e d l i t e r a r y i n n o v a t i o n s w i t h " L e f t i s m " . They

hoped t o e s t a b l i s h p r o l e t a r i a n c r e d e n t i a l s , and to a t t a c k the

f e l l o w - t r a v e l l e r s . T r o t s k y , i n an essay on "Futurism", gave Seven i s s u e s , i n a l l , appeared between March 1923

and March 1925. 20 Gosudarstvennoye I z d a t e l ' s t v o (State P u b l i s h i n g

House).

very q u a l i f i e d a p p r o v a l to the e f f o r t s o f t h i s group. In

h i s essay on "Party P o l i c y i n A r t " , he argued t h a t , j u s t as

the S o v i e t s t a t e under N.E.P. t o l e r a t e d the p a r a l l e l

e x i s t e n c e o f d i f f e r e n t forms of economic p r o d u c t i o n , by no

means a l l o f them s o c i a l i s t , so i t must t o l e r a t e d i f f e r e n t 22

forms o f l i t e r a r y and a r t i s t i c p r o d u c t i o n .

Mayakovsky and h i s F u t u r i s t f r i e n d s o r g a n i z e d the

L e f t F r o n t o f A r t i n 1923, and began p u b l i s h i n g the magazine

L e f . T h e i r purpose was s t a t e d i n the f o l l o w i n g p o i n t s : 1. To a i d i n the d i s c o v e r y o f a Communist path

f o r a l l v a r i e t i e s o f a r t . 2. To re-examine the theory and p r a c t i c e o f

s o - c a l l e d " l e f t " a r t , f r e e i n g i t from i n d i v i d u a l i s t i c d i s t o r t i o n s and d e v e l o p i n g i t s v a l u a b l e Communist a s p e c t s .

3. To s t r u g g l e w i t h decadence and a e s t h e t i c m y s t i c i s m , as w e l l as w i t h s e l f - c o n t a i n e d formalism, i n d i f f e r e n t n a t u r a l i s m , and f o r the a f f i r m a t i o n o f tendentious r e a l i s m , based on the use o f the t e c h n i c a l d e v i c e s developed i n a l l the r e v o l u t i o n a r y s c h o o l s o f a r t . 2 ^ •

A f t e r a f o u r - y e a r i n t e r v a l , Mayakovsky launched a hew j o u r n a l

the "New L e f " . I t s t h e o r e t i c i a n s were Chuzhak, B r i k , and

Tretyakov. V i c t o r Shklovsky a l s o c o n t r i b u t e d r e g u l a r l y ; he

L. T r o t s k y , L i t e r a t u r a i R e v o l y u t s i a (19 23), pp. 159-168.

2 2 I b i d . , pp. 91-116. 23 E. J . Brown, Russian L i t e r a t u r e S i n c e the R e v o l u t i o n ,

p. 58.

advocated " l i t e r a t u r e o f f a c t " . In 1929 a c o l l e c t i o n of

a r t i c l e s w r i t t e n d u r i n g the p a s t two years was e d i t e d and

p u b l i s h e d by Chuzhak. The t i t l e o f the volume was L i t e r a t u r e 24

of F a c t . Most of the a r t i c l e s spoke of the death o f

f i c t i o n and o f p l o t l i t e r a t u r e . L e n i n r e f e r r e d t o r e l i g i o n ,

Chuzhak t o f i c t i o n , as "opium f o r the people", and they saw

f a c t u a l l i t e r a t u r e as an a n t i d o t e f o r i t . The aim of the

New L e f was t o s h i f t . t h e importance i n the a r t s from human

emotions t o the o r g a n i z a t i o n o f s o c i e t y . In Chuzhak's

o p i n i o n , n o t h i n g c o u l d be le a r n e d from r e a d i n g the c l a s s i c s

as they were thoroughly i n d i v i d u a l i s t i c and i d e a l i s t i c . A r t

was a matter of s k i l l and d i d not r e q u i r e a r t i s t i c i n s p i r a

t i o n . "Factography", a c c o r d i n g t o Chuzhak and h i s f o l l o w e r s

(amongst them M. Gorky), was the h i g h e s t form of l i t e r a r y

a c t i v i t y : i t was f a c t u a l r e p o r t i n g of the w r i t i n g of d i a r i e s ,

t r a v e l notes, b i o g r a p h i e s . The w r i t e r ' s concern should be

wi t h w r i t i n g f a c t s . H is t o p i c should be what h i s " c l i e n t "

demands. F o l l o w i n g t h i s p r i n c i p l e , V. Shklovsky p u b l i s h e d a

number of s t i m u l a t i n g and o r i g i n a l s t u d i e s i n the New L e f , among them, " T o l s t o y ' s War and Peace, a Formal S o c i o l o g i c a l

25 Study"; Furmanov wrote "Chapayev"; Mayakovsky, "How to

L i t e r a t u r a f a k t a . Pervy s b o r n i k m a t e r i a l o v r a b o t -n i k o v LEF-a ( e d i t e d by N. Chuzhak).

25 B. B. IUKJIOBCKHK , „MaTepHaji H CTHJIB B poMaHe JlbBa

TojicToro Boa Ha H Mnp" (MocKBa, „Oeflepai;HH", 1928).

W r i t e P o e t r y " . 2 6

The New L e f never enjoyed the p o p u l a r i t y o r the

support t h a t L e f had. They l i m i t e d the j o u r n a l ' s e d i t i o n to

f i f t e e n hundred c o p i e s , as Osip B r i k f e l t t h a t t h e i r l i t e r a r y

adventures were i n the e x p e r i m e n t a l phase and should not be

read i n t h i s "green" s t a t e by m i l l i o n s : " I t i s a mistake,"

he s a i d , " t o demand t h a t every c u l t u r a l work be m u l t i p l i e d

and d i s t r i b u t e d i n the hundreds of thousands." Under p o l i

t i c a l p r e s s u r e , Mayakovsky r e s i g n e d from the e d i t o r s h i p o f

New L e f i n the summer o f 1928, g i v i n g as h i s reason l a t e r

t h a t t i n y l i t e r a r y " f a c t i o n l e t s " had o u t l i v e d themselves, and

i n s t e a d o f o r g a n i z i n g groups l i t e r a r y men should t r a n s f e r

t h e i r a c t i v i t i e s t o mass o r g a n i z a t i o n s c a r r y i n g on a g i t a

t i o n a l work: newspapers, " a g i t p r o p s " , commissions, e t c .

In 19 29 Mayakovsky and some of h i s f e l l o w - w r i t e r s

abandoned L e f and formed a new group which they c a l l e d the

R e v o l u t i o n a r y F r o n t o f A r t (REF). They claim e d t h a t t h e i r

aim was t o c a r r y on a s t r u g g l e a g a i n s t " a - p o l i t i c a l tenden

c i e s " . From t h e i r abandonment of L e f , i t must f o l l o w t h a t

they a l s o r e j e c t e d the theory o f " f a c t u a l l i t e r a t u r e " . The

independent e x i s t e n c e of t h i s group was s h o r t ; i t ended by

merging w i t h a l a r g e r group of p r o l e t a r i a n w r i t e r s , the

B. MaHKOBCKHfi, „KaK nenaTB CTHXH" (1927) , ItoJiHoe coSpaHHe co^HHeHHft B 13-MH TOMax (MocKBa, 1959), T. X I I , pp. 81-117.

Russian A s s o c i a t i o n o f P r o l e t a r i a n W r i t e r s (RAPP).

L e f and the New L e f , as w e l l as RAPP, were ardent

opponents o f the f e l l o w - t r a v e l l e r s . At the f i r s t A l l - U n i o n

Conference o f P r o l e t a r i a n W r i t e r s i n January 19 25, they

p r e s s e d f o r the " l i c e n c e " t o become the organ of the p a r t y

d i c t a t o r s h i p i n l i t e r a t u r e . In h i s r e p o r t , V a r d i n d e c l a r e d

t h a t

. . . . the supremacy of the p r o l e t a r i a t i s incom-. p a t i b l e w i t h the supremacy o f a n o n - p r o l e t a r i a n i d e o l o g y and, consequently, of a n o n - p r o l e t a r i a n l i t e r a t u r e .

What was r e q u i r e d was "the s e i z u r e of power by the p r o l e -27

t a r i a t i n the f i e l d o f a r t " . B u k h a n n , who c o u l d not be

accused o f T r o t s k y i s m , through h i s p o l i t i c a l maneuvers

became the most a c t i v e champion o f the peasants i n the

c o u n c i l s o f the p a r t y , and t h i s l o g i c a l l y a l i g n e d him with

the f e l l o w - t r a v e l l e r s i n l i t e r a t u r e . He accused RAPP of

wanting t o e s t a b l i s h a monopoly, and e x p l a i n e d t h a t "our

r e l a t i o n t o the f e l l o w - t r a v e l l e r s i s determined by our

g e n e r a l r e l a t i o n t o s o c i a l - p o l i t i c a l forms sympathetic to

us." In c o n c l u s i o n , i n h i s appeal f o r t o l e r a t i o n f o r many

l i t e r a r y movements, he showed how l i t t l e the p a r t y l e a d e r s

wanted to be compelled t o take s i d e s i n t h i s thorny i s s u e :

V. Polonsky, O c h e r k i L i t e r a t u r n o g o D v i z h e n i y a R e v o l y u t s i o n n o i Epokhi (2nd ed., 1929), pp. 173-174. A l s o p u b l i s h e d i n Pravda, February 1, 19 25.

L e t t h e r e be 1000 o r g a n i z a t i o n s , l e t t h e r e be 2000 o r g a n i z a t i o n s . L e t t h e r e be s i d e by s i d e w i t h MAPP and VAPP as many groups and o r g a n i z a t i o n s as you please.28

Other p r i n c i p a l speakers a t the c o n f e r e n c e , such as

L e n i n and Frunze, argued "the n e c e s s i t y of a l l o w i n g , w i t h i n

c e r t a i n l i m i t s , c a p i t a l i s t accumulation i n the c o u n t r y s i d e " .

They p o i n t e d t o the t o l e r a t i o n o f s i m i l a r non-party elements

i n l i t e r a t u r e . "Face t o the c o u n t r y s i d e " c a r r i e d w i t h i t an

o b l i g a t i o n f o r the On-Guardist group t o a c c e p t , or a t l e a s t 29

t o l e r a t e the f e l l o w - t r a v e l l e r s .

The r e s o l u t i o n of the c e n t r a l committee of June 18,

1925, p r o c l a i m e d t h a t i n a c l a s s s o c i e t y t h e r e c o u l d be no

n e u t r a l a r t , and t h a t l e a d e r s h i p i n the f i e l d o f l i t e r a t u r e

belongs t o the working c l a s s as a whole. However, at t h i s

time t h e r e was no hegemonic group of p r o l e t a r i a n w r i t e r s and

the p a r t y recommended t h a t t o l e r a n c e and a t a c t f u l a t t i t u d e

s hould be adopted toward the f e l l o w - t r a v e l l e r s , as they were 30

" q u a l i f i e d s p e c i a l i s t s i n l i t e r a r y t e c h n i q u e " . The con

t r o v e r s y d i d not end w i t h t h i s q u a l i f y i n g statement from the

p a r t y , but c o n t i n u e d i n the pages of the p a r t y j o u r n a l The conference of January 19 25 had r e s u l t e d i n the

c r e a t i o n of a new Russian A s s o c i a t i o n of P r o l e t a r i a n W r i t e r s (RAPP), which took the p l a c e of the former VAPP. MAPP was i t s Moscow branch.

M. Frunze, Sobranie S o c h i n e n i i , i i i (1927), 150-155. 3 0 P r a v d a , J u l y 1, 1925.

B o l s h e v i k .

A f t e r shedding T r o t s k y as t h e i r main s u p p o r t e r , the

f e l l o w - t r a v e l l e r s found a new champion of t h e i r cause i n

Bukh a r i n . The e n t h u s i a s t s f o r p r o l e t a r i a n l i t e r a t u r e —

n o t a b l y V a r d i n , L e l e v i c h and Rodov — l o g i c a l l y j o i n e d

Z i n o v i e v ' s L e n i n g r a d o p p o s i t i o n , and a t t a c k e d Bukharin's

peasant o r i e n t a t i o n . These new alignments a l s o produced a

s p l i t i n RAPP. 3 1

Auerbakh, u s i n g h i s o p p o s i t i o n t o the f e l l o w - t r a v e l

l e r s as an excuse, s e t h i m s e l f a g a i n s t L e l e v i c h 1 s group as

w e l l . He managed t o keep the j o u r n a l On Guard, which he

renamed On L i t e r a r y Guard (Na l i t e r a t u r n o m p o s t u ) . Through

h i s a t t a c k s h i s former c o l l e a g u e s appeared, l i k e Z i n o v i e v i n

the p a r t y s t r u g g l e , as the f a c t i o u s d i s s i d e n t s who had

broken p a r t y u n i t y . V a r d i n and h i s f o l l o w e r s d i d not see

the t r a p , and by t h e i r own m i s c a l c u l a t i o n they s e a l e d t h e i r

own d e f e a t . Auerbakh emerged as the r i s i n g s t a r i n the

l i t e r a r y c o n s t e l l a t i o n . Through h i s " i n t u i t i o n " he d i s s o

c i a t e d h i m s e l f i n time from both the f e l l o w - t r a v e l l e r s o f

the R i g h t and the p r o l e t a r i a n e x t r e m i s t s o f the L e f t . Thus

Auerbakh u t i l i z e d the same t a c t i c s which S t a l i n so b r i l l i a n t l y

L i t e r a t u r n a y a E n t s i k l o p e d i y a , i x (1935), p. 521, a t t r i b u t e s the s p l i t d i r e c t l y t o the r e s o l u t i o n o f June 18, 1925. A f t e r the s p l i t L e l e v i c h claimed t h a t he, V a r d i n and Rodov had the ap p r o v a l of the m a j o r i t y i n the Len i n g r a d s e c t i o n o f RAPP. (B o l s h e v i k Nos. 9-10, May 30, 1926, p. 91).

a p p l i e d i n the p a r t y s t r u g g l e . Auerbakh's v i c t o r y was not

complete over the A l l - R u s s i a n Union of W r i t e r s ; he had to

a c c e p t a compromise: both p r o l e t a r i a n w r i t e r s and f e l l o w -

t r a v e l l e r s he e q u a l l y admitted to membership.

However much the p r o l e t a r i a n w r i t e r s p r e s s e d the p a r t y

to take an o f f i c i a l s tand, the p a r t y l e a d e r s h i p remained

r e l u c t a n t t o take s i d e s i n these d i s p u t e s . T h e i r p o l i c y and

d e s i r e was t o t o l e r a t e a l l c o n f l i c t i n g groups o r s c h o o l s ,

s u b j e c t o n l y t o the c o n d i t i o n of l o y a l t y to the regime.

Auerbakh and a group of young p r o l e t a r i a n w r i t e r s

were t r y i n g to convince the p a r t y l e a d e r s h i p t h a t t h i s

l i t e r a r y i s s u e was e s s e n t i a l l y a p o l i t i c a l and i d e o l o g i c a l

i s s u e as w e l l . They branded t h e i r l i t e r a r y opponents as

a s s o c i a t e s of the p o l i t i c a l o p p o s i t i o n . They sought to

persuade the p a r t y to extend i t s e x c l u s i v e patronage t o them

and to e n t r u s t to them the f u n c t i o n s of l i t e r a r y d i c t a t o r s h i p .

A f t e r c o n s i d e r a b l e s t r u g g l e the p a r t y had been o b l i g e d to

renounce an a t t i t u d e o f n e u t r a l i t y i n l i t e r a r y a f f a i r s and

t o take d e c i s i o n s about them. T h i s was a s t e p i n the

d i r e c t i o n d e s i r e d by Auerbakh, and a v i c t o r y f o r the view

t h a t a r t and l i t e r a t u r e were i n s e p a r a b l e from p o l i t i c s .

CHAPTER I I I

F a i t h f u l t o the vogue of the e r a , the h a n d f u l o f

young l i t e r a r y e n t h u s i a s t s who met f o r the f i r s t time on 32

February 1, 1921, e s t a b l i s h e d a l i t e r a r y c i r c l e . They 33

c a l l e d themselves the Serapion B r o t h e r s . The d e c i s i v e

d i f f e r e n c e between t h i s group o f w r i t e r s and most of the

ot h e r s was t h e i r c a s u a l , f r e e , not c o n f i n i n g a s s o c i a t i o n .

Whereas the o t h e r groups f o r g e d a l l i a n c e t o r e s t r i c t p a r t i

c i p a t i o n t o , f o r example, a common p r o l e t a r i a n background

among the members, or to advocate a common s t y l e , , t o p i c , o r i d e o l o g y , Lev Lunc's "manifesto", "Why We Are the Se r a p i o n

B r o t h e r s " , s t a t e s t h a t the s t r e n g t h o f t h e i r a l l i a n c e l a y

i n t h e i r mutual l o v e o f l i t e r a t u r e and i n t h e i r freedom o f

s e l f - e x p r e s s i o n : The S e r a p i o n Brothers i s a novel by Hoffmann.

W e l l then, we w r i t e i n i m i t a t i o n of Hoffmann, so

M. Slonimsky, "Serapionovy B r a t ' y a o sebe", L i t e r a -turnye z a p i s k i , 3 (August 1, 1922) .

33 . T h e i r members were: Lunc, F e d i n , V s e v o l o d Ivanov,

K a v e r i n , Gruzdyov, N i k i t i n , Tikhonov, Slonimsky, Shklovsky, Pozner, E l i z a v e t a Polonskaya and M. Zoshchenko. P r o f e s s o r Struve quotes V. Pozner as w r i t i n g about twelve S e r a p i o n B r o t h e r s ; F e d i n i n h i s book on Gorky speaks o f t e n , e x c l u d i n g Shklovsky and Pozner, although g i v i n g Shklovsky c r e d i t f o r h i s c o n t r i b u t i o n to t h e i r l i t e r a r y debates.

34 Lev Lunc, "Pochemu my Serapionovy B r a t ' y a " , L i t e r a -

turnye z a p i s k i , 3 (August 1, 1922), pp. 30-31. T r a n s l a t i o n i s taken from H. O u l a n o f f , The Serap i o n B r o t h e r s , Theory and P r a c t i c e , pp. 26-28.

we are a s c h o o l of Hoffmann.

T h i s c o n c l u s i o n i s drawn by any person who has heard of us. And he too, having read through our c o l l e c t i o n or separate s t o r i e s by the b r o t h e r s , i s a t a l o s s : What do they have from Hoffmann? S u r e l y , g e n e r a l l y speaking, they do not have a s i n g l e s c h o o l , a s i n g l e t r e n d . Everyone w r i t e s i n h i s own way!

Yes, i t i s so. We are not a s c h o o l , not a t r e n d , not a s t u d i o i n i m i t a t i o n o f Hoffmann.

And t h a t i s why we named o u r s e l v e s S e r a p i o n B r o t h e r s .

We have named o u r s e l v e s S e r a p i o n B r o t h e r s , because we do not want compulsion or boredom, we do not want everyone to w r i t e i d e n t i c a l l y , even i f i t were i n i m i t a t i o n of Hoffmann.

Each of us has h i s own p e r s o n a l i t y and h i s own l i t e r a r y t a s t e s . In each of us i t i s p o s s i b l e to f i n d the most d i v e r s e l i t e r a r y i n f l u e n c e s . "Everyone has h i s own drum," s a i d N i k i t i n a t our f i r s t meeting.

35 The s i x S e r a p i o n B r o t h e r s are not a s c h o o l

Reference to the s i x b r o t h e r s i n Hoffmann's n o v e l . "At the f i r s t meeting f o u r f r i e n d s were p r e s e n t — L o t h a r , Theodor, C y p r i a n , and Ottomar — w h i l e S y l v e s t e r and Vincenz were d i s c u s s e d as p r o s p e c t i v e members at the t h i r d meeting and appeared a t the f o u r t h . L o t h a r , Theodor and C y p r i a n r e p r e s e n t , g e n e r a l l y speaking, d e l i c a t e l y graded aspects of Hoffmann's own p e r s o n a l i t y : L o t h a r i s more r e a l i s t i c i n h i s views and i s somewhat i n c l i n e d to s k e p t i c i s m ; Theodor i s Hoffmann the m u s i c i a n , and C y p r i a n i s an out-and-out romantic and m y s t i c . Ottomar i s Hoffmann's o l d f r i e n d H i t z i g , more of a r e a l i s t , more s k e p t i c a l than L o t h a r ; he i s ever c a l l i n g h i s companions back to e a r t h . Vincenz i s a l i v e l y and sparkl i n g p a r t i c i p a n t i n d i s c u s s i o n s . S y l v e s t e r i s showing s p e c i a l c a r e i n s e l e c t i n g s t o r i e s of h i s own i m a g i n i n g which might be a p p r o p r i a t e to the l i t e r a r y t e n dencies and p r e j u d i c e s o f h i s f r i e n d s , perhaps w i t h a b i t of m a l i c i o u s humour." Harvey W. Hewett-Thayer, Hoffmann: Author of T a l e s ( P r i n c e t o n , N.J.:

or a t r e n d e i t h e r . They a t t a c k one another, e t e r n a l l y d i s a g r e e w i t h one another, and t h e r e f o r e we have named o u r s e l v e s S e r a p i o n B r o t h e r s .

In February o f the year 1921, i n the p e r i o d of the most s t r i c t r e g u l a t i o n s , r e g i s t r a t i o n s and b a r r a c k - l i k e o r d e r i n g , when everyone was g i v e n one i r o n - c l a d and b o r i n g s e t of r u l e s , — we d e c i d e d t o gathe r without any r u l e s or chairmen, w i t h o u t e l e c t i o n s or v o t i n g . Together w i t h Theodor, Ottomar and C y p r i a n we b e l i e v e d t h a t the c h a r a c t e r o f the f u t u r e meetings would take shape by i t s e l f , and we undertook the vow of be i n g f a i t h f u l t o the end to the r u l e s of hermit S e r a p i o n .

We b e l i e v e i n the r e a l i t y o f our f i c t i o n a l heroes and f i c t i o n a l events. There l i v e d Hoffmann, a man, th e r e a l s o l i v e d N u t c r a c k e r , a d o l l , i t l i v e d i t s s p e c i a l , but a l s o r e a l l i f e . 3 6

Lunc expresses h i s d i s l i k e f o r the "monotony" and

" s t i f f n e s s " o f Russian l i t e r a t u r e . W r i t e r s ' f a n t a s i e s ,

i m a g i n a t i o n s i n today's S o v i e t l i t e r a t u r e are banished.

We are pe r m i t t e d to w r i t e s t o r i e s , n o v e l s and te d i o u s dramas, e i t h e r i n the o l d orthography or i n the new o n e , — but without f a i l on everyday l i f e and without f a i l on contemporary themes.

We gathered i n the days o f r e v o l u t i o n , i n the

P r i n c e t o n U n i v e r s i t y P r e s s , 1948), pp. 101-102 [abridged by J . L . B . ] .

The "hermit S e r a p i o n " i s an acquaintance o f C y p r i a n . He was Graf P. — nobleman, di p l o m a t , poet — who disappeared i n t o the T y r o l e s e mountains. When f o r c i b l y r e t u r n e d t o h i s home he became a madman. He i n s i s t e d t h a t he was the monk Se r a p i o n , who s u f f e r e d martyrdom under the Emperor Decius. The mad herm i t had amazing i n t e l l e c t u a l v i g o r . He outmatched C y p r i a n i n l o g i c a l d i a l e c t i c . Ottomar d i s c o v e r e d t h a t the day o f t h e i r f i r s t meeting happened t o be S t . Serapion's Day, and they took the s a i n t f o r t h e i r p a t r o n .

36 Abridged p o r t i o n o f Lunc's "Pochemu my Serapionovy

B r a t ' y a ? " , p a r t s 1 and 2.

days of powerful p o l i t i c a l s t r a i n . "Who i s not wi t h u s . i s a g a i n s t us," they s a i d to us on the r i g h t and on the l e f t . "So w i t h whom are you, Ser a p i o n B r o t h e r s ? With the Communists o r a g a i n s t the Communists? F o r the r e v o l u t i o n or a g a i n s t the r e v o l u t i o n ? "

So w i t h whom are we, S e r a p i o n B r o t h e r s ?

We are w i t h h e r m i t S e r a p i o n .

So, w i t h no-one? Slough? An i n t e l l i g e n t s i a i d l y i n d u l g i n g i n beauteousness? Without i d e o l o g y , w i t h o u t c o n v i c t i o n , the d e v i l may care?

Each o f us has an i d e o l o g y , p o l i t i c a l c o n v i c t i o n s ; everyone p a i n t s h i s hut i n h i s own c o l o r . So i t i s i n l i f e . And so i t i s i n s t o r i e s , t a l e s , dramas. But we t o g e t h e r , we — a brotherhood — demand one t h i n g : t h a t the v o i c e s h o u l d not be f a l s e ; That we should b e l i e v e i n the r e a l i t y o f l i t e r a r y work whatever i t s c o l o r may be.

So w i t h whom are we, S e r a p i o n B r o t h e r s ?

We are w i t h hermit S e r a p i o n . We b e l i e v e t h a t l i t e r a r y chimeras are a s p e c i a l r e a l i t y , and we do not want any u t i l i t a r i a n i s m . We are w r i t i n g not f o r propaganda. A r t i s r e a l as l i f e i t s e l f . And, as l i f e i t s e l f , i t i s wi t h o u t aim and wit h o u t meaning: i t e x i s t s because i t cannot h e l p e x i s t i n g .

B r o t h e r s !

To you my l a s t word.

There i s s t i l l something t h a t u n i t e s us, t h a t cannot be proved o r e x p l a i n e d , — our b r o t h e r l y l o v e .

We are not f e l l o w members o f a c l u b , not c o l leagues, not comrades, but B r o t h e r s 137

Abridged p o r t i o n o f Lunc's "Pochemu my Serapionovy B r a t ' y a ? " , p a r t 3.

C o n s i d e r i n g the c h a r a c t e r o f r e l a t i v e r e l a x a t i o n i n

the N.E.P. e r a , Lunc's a r t i c l e was a courageous p l e a f o r

freedom o f e x p r e s s i o n i n the a r t s , and a p r o t e s t a g a i n s t the

made-to-order l i t e r a t u r e of the time. He renounced the i d e a

t h a t l i t e r a t u r e ' s o n l y purpose i s t o d e l i v e r p a r t y propaganda

to the p l e b s . In h i s a r t i c l e s t h a t f o l l o w e d 38

the p r e v i o u s l y quoted "manifesto" he had to defend h i s

p o s i t i o n . The o l d M a r x i s t c r i t i c , P. S. Kogan, i n h i s

a r t i c l e "0 m a n i f e s t e 1Serapionovykh b r a t ' y e v ' " , charged them 40

w i t h d e v o t i o n to " a r t f o r a r t ' s sake". Jury Sobolev

compared the S e r a p i o n B r o t h e r s ' t r e n d to c h i l d h o o d measles:

they w i l l get over i t , and i t i s not too dangerous. The

m a j o r i t y of the M a r x i s t c r i t i c s took i t much more s e r i o u s l y

and made a p o l i t i c a l and i d e o l o g i c a l i s s u e o f i t . V a l e r i a n

Polyansky c a l l e d i t a "cheap, outmoded theory, taken from

the a r c h i v e s of h i s t o r y . " Behind t h i s facade the Serapions

were t r y i n g t o h i d e t h e i r " p e t t y - b o u r g e o i s p r e j u d i c e s " . I r e f e r t o h i s a r t i c l e , "Pochemu my Serapionovy

B r a t ' y a ? " , as h i s m a n i f e s t o , a d m i t t i n g t h a t he h i m s e l f denied t h a t i t was a m a n i f e s t o . A c c o r d i n g to Lunc t h i s was h i s p e r s o n a l view o f why he was a member of the group. Having a m a n i f e s t o to f o l l o w and l i v e by would have been a g a i n s t the brotherhood's p h i l o s o p h y .

39 P. S. Kogan, "O manifeste Serapionovykh b r a t ' y e v " ,

Krasnaya Gazeta, No. 215 (1368), Sept. 23, 1922. ^ J u r y Sobolev, review of N i k i t i n " s "Amerikanskoe

s c h a s t i e " and "Rvotnyy f o r t " , Krasnaya Nov', No. 1 (1923), pp. 326-329.

U s i n g G. V. P l e k h a n o v ' s ^ a n a l y s i s of a r t f o r a r t ' s

sake essay, which he gave i n P a r i s i n 1912, Kogan wrote h i s

r e p l y t o Lunc:

Plekhanov b e a u t i f u l l y demonstrated t h a t w r i t e r s who p r o c l a i m a r t to be n o n - i d e o l o g i c a l and non-s o c i a l are a l s o e x p r e s s i n g a s p e c i f i c s o c i a l i d e a . "Pure" a r t a t t e s t s to the f a c t t h a t t h e r e are s o c i a l groups which, because o f t h e i r s o c i a l s i t u a t i o n , f i n d i t necessary to a v o i d the i n t e r e s t s o f s o c i e t y , and "pure" a r t i s n o t h i n g e l s e than t h e i r i d e o l o g i c a l expression.42

Both Kogan and Polyansky a t t a c k e d the S e r a p i o n

B r o t h e r s f o r t h e i r r e f u s a l to take p o l i t i c a l s i d e s i n t h e i r

l i t e r a t u r e . Lunc maintained t h a t as f a r as i t i s a d i c t a t e d

i d e o l o g y they w i l l c o n t i n u e t o r e j e c t i t . Polyansky

condemned the Serapions f o r h a ving t h e i r work p u b l i s h e d i n

G. V. Plekhanov, " I s k u s s t v o i obshchestvennaya z h i z n ' " , l e c t u r e g i v e n i n P a r i s , November 10, 1912. The main i d e a o f the a r t i c l e i s expressed i n t h i s paragraph:

The tendency of a r t i s t s and those concerned w i t h a r t t o adopt an a t t i t u d e of a r t f o r a r t ' s sake a r i s e s when a hopeless c o n t r a d i c t i o n e x i s t s between them and t h e i r s o c i a l environment. . . The s o - c a l l e d u t i l i t a r i a n concept of a r t , t h a t i s , the tendency t o r e g a r d the f u n c t i o n of a r t as a judgment on the phenomena o f l i f e and r e a d i n e s s to p a r t i c i p a t e i n s o c i a l s t r u g g l e s , develops and becomes e s t a b l i s h e d when a mutual bond o f sympathy e x i s t s between a c o n s i d e r a b l e s e c t i o n of s o c i e t y and those more o r l e s s a c t i v e l y i n t e r e s t e d i n a r t i s t i c c r e a t i o n .

T r a n s l a t e d f o r " C r i t i c s Group S e r i e s " , No. 3 (New York, 1937) t i t l e : " A r t and S o c i e t y " .

^ P . S. Kogan, "Ob i s k u s s t v e i p u b l i c i s t i k e " , Krasnaya Gazeta, No. 274 (1425), December 2, 1922.

n o n - p r o l e t a r i a n j o u r n a l s and t h e i r l a c k o f p r i n c i p l e t h a t

undermines the working c l a s s ' c o n f i d e n c e i n t h e i r a r t . He

s a i d t h a t the p r o l e t a r i a t i s l o o k i n g f o r a l e a d e r i n t h e i r

w r i t e r s "with whom they are u n i t e d i n thought and a c t i o n " ,

and not f o r some s e l f i s h "playboys".

Lunc's o r i g i n a l theory became a very h o t l y debated

i s s u e f o r the f o l l o w i n g s i x months. Every c r i t i c who was of

any importance had a statement, a r t i c l e , speech on the t o p i c .

The most remarkable point i n the dissension v;as t h a t i t appeared

i n l i t e r a r y as w e l l as p a r t y newspapers w i t h o u t c e n s o r s h i p .

T h i s e x p r e s s i o n o f i d e a l i s m c o u l d o n l y be e x p l a i n e d by the

u n s e t t l e d p o l i t i c a l c l i m a t e o f the country or by the i d e a l

ism o f these young, t a l e n t e d people; or by the m i x t u r e of

b o th. Kogan i n v i t e d them to see the r e v o l u t i o n through the

eyes o f the workers whether they were w i t h i n the p a r t y or on

the o u t s i d e . He p r e s s e d t h e i r s o c i a l o b l i g a t i o n s , a t t a c k i n g

t h e i r " a r t f o r a r t ' s sake" t h e o r y .

. . . A t r u l y a r t i s t i c work always serves s o c i a l purposes, i t always o r g a n i z e s the thoughts and f e e l i n g s of one c o l l e c t i v e or another and guides i t s w i l l i n a s p e c i f i c d i r e c t i o n . L e t the enthus i a s t i c " B r o t h e r s " not become angry. In these words t h e r e i s no attempt upon t h e i r independence, upon t h e i r freedom o f i n s p i r a t i o n . P r e c i s e l y because they a r e t a l e n t e d , they a l r e a d y e x e r t s o c i a l i n f l u e n c e . And i t does not matter whether they want t h i s or not.

I t i s s t r a n g e t h a t w r i t e r s should c o n s i d e r i t a d i s g r a c e f o r t h e i r works to i n f l u e n c e s o c i e t y . I t was long ago demonstrated t h a t the f r e e r a w r i t e r ' s i n s p i r a t i o n i s , the more powerful i s h i s

i n f l u e n c e ; t h a t crude tendentiousness a c h i e v e s e x a c t l y the o p p o s i t e e f f e c t ; t h a t a work o f a r t stamped by such tendentiousness i n s p i r e s d i s g u s t f o r those v e r y i d e a s which i t aims a t spreading.^3

Looking back a t these developments f i f t y y e a r s a f t e r

t hese events took p l a c e , one must come t o the c o n c l u s i o n

t h a t t h e i r b o l d c l a i m to s t a y a p o l i t i c a l , not i n v o l v e d i n a

d i c t a t e d i d e o l o g y , and i n t e r p r e t events of the times through

i t s beauty as the a r t i s t sees i t — does g i v e the i m p r e s s i o n

o f s u p e r f l u i t y . Those were v e r y d i f f i c u l t times and w r i t e r s

o f the e r a had a duty e i t h e r t o support the new regime or

take a c t i v e p a r t a g a i n s t i t . The S e r a p i o n B r o t h e r s chose

n e i t h e r . Why? P r e c i s e l y f o r the same reason as the o t h e r

group o f s o c i e t y , the peasants, the i n t e l l i g e n t s i a d i d not

a c t i v e l y f i g h t a g a i n s t the r e v o l u t i o n : i t was t h e i r r e v o l u

t i o n , b ut t h i s r e v o l u t i o n d i d not f u l f i l l t h e i r needs or

hopes. The t s a r i s t regime was r e p u l s i v e and the new regime

shortchanged them. Where does one t u r n when t h e r e are no

more cards l e f t t o p l a y ? The f a c t t h a t they s t a t e d t h a t

t h e i r a r t i s t i c independence was of the g r e a t e s t v a l u e to

them,— they d i d take up t h e i r share of s o c i a l p r o t e s t .

The S e r a p i o n B r o t h e r s ' i n s i s t e n c e on a r t i s t i c i n d e

pendence met w i t h the utmost c r i t i c i s m and had f a r - r e a c h i n g

consequences. In August, 19 34, the new Union of S o v i e t

Kogan, "0 m a n i f e s t e 'Serapionovykh b r a t ' e v ' " .

W r i t e r s had i t s f i r s t Pan-Soviet Congress i n Moscow. The

p a r t y ' s p o l i c y on l i t e r a t u r e had been s t a t e d by A. Zhdanov:

t h e r e w i l l be no room f o r o t h e r forms o f a r t than the one

t h a t r e f l e c t s "upon the l i f e and e x p e r i e n c e o f the men o f

Dneprostroy and M a g n i t o s t r o y . . ." The p r o l e t a r i a t i s the

o n l y h e i r t o the b e s t t r e a s u r e s o f the w o r l d and o f Russian

l i t e r a t u r e . Zhdanov c a l l e d upon S o v i e t w r i t e r s to " c o l l e c t ,

study, and c r i t i c a l l y d i g e s t " the l i t e r a r y h e r i t a g e "squan

dered" by the b o u r g e o i s i e . Under the d i c t a t o r s h i p o f the 44

p r o l e t a r i a t , l i t e r a t u r e must become "Party-minded". And I t h i n k t h a t every S o v i e t man o f l e t t e r s

can say t o any thickheaded b o u r g e o i s , to any p h i l i s t i n e , t o any bourgeois w r i t e r who w i l l t a l k of the t e n d e n t i o u s n e s s of our l i t e r a t u r e : "Yes, S o v i e t l i t e r a t u r e i s t e n d e n t i o u s , and we are proud of i t s t e n d e n t i o u s n e s s , because our tendency c o n s i s t s i n l i b e r a t i n g the workers, the whole of mankind from the yoke of c a p i t a l i s t s l a v e r y . " 4 5

V s e v o l d d Ivanov, a S e r a p i o n B r o t h e r , who had e a r l i e r

p r o t e s t e d a g a i n s t " t e n d e n t i o u s n e s s " i n S o v i e t l i t e r a t u r e ,

r epented a t the Congress, s t a t i n g t h a t he now r e a l i z e d t h a t

" B o l s h e v i k t e n d e n t i o u s n e s s " was an i n d i s p e n s a b l e weapon i n

the hands of S o v i e t w r i t e r s .

The f a r - r e a c h i n g consequence of Zhdanov's purge among

44 L e n i n had p r e t t y w e l l s t a t e d the same aim i n

a r t i c l e s as e a r l y as 1905. " S o v i e t L i t e r a t u r e — The R i c h e s t i n Ideas, the

Most P r o g r e s s i v e L i t e r a t u r e i n the World", A. Zhdanov's address t o the Congress.

S o v i e t w r i t e r s reached M. Zoshchenko i n 1946. He was

accused o f

. . . s p e c i a l i z i n g i n w r i t i n g empty, fatuous and v u l g a r s t u f f , and i n p r e a c h i n g r o t t e n l a c k o f i d e a s [ b e z i d e y n o s t 1 ] , v u l g a r i t y , and a p o l i t i c a l n e s s , designed to l e a d our youth a s t r a y and to p o i s o n i t s consciousness.46

Zoshchenko was d e s c r i b e d as "scum of l i t e r a t u r e " . His s h o r t

s t o r y , "The Adventures o f a Monkey" (p u b l i s h e d i n Zvezda,

No. 5-6, 1946) was s i n g l e d out f o r a t t a c k . (Zhdanov's

p e r s e c u t i o n o f Zoshchenko w i l l be d i s c u s s e d i n more d e t a i l

i n Chapter IV.)

The i d e a l i s t i c , s o u l - s e a r c h i n g , b a l a n c e - s e e k i n g

p e r i o d i n l i t e r a t u r e had ended. Now, even t h e i r former

s u p p o r t e r , L. T r o t s k y , turned a g a i n s t them:

The most dangerous t r a i t of the Serapions i s t h a t they g l o r y i n t h e i r l a c k of p r i n c i p l e s . T h i s i s s t u p i d i t y and thickheadedness. As i f an a r t i s t c o u l d ever be "without a tendency", w i t h o u t a d e f i n i t e r e l a t i o n t o s o c i a l l i f e , even though unformulated or unexpressed i n p o l i t i c a l terms. I t i s t r u e t h a t the m a j o r i t y o f a r t i s t s form t h e i r r e l a t i o n t o l i f e and i t s s o c i a l forms d u r i n g o r g a n i c p e r i o d s , i n an u n n o t i c e a b l e and m o l e c u l a r way and almost w i t h o u t the p a r t i c i p a t i o n of c r i t i c a l r e a son. The a r t i s t takes l i f e as he f i n d s i t , c o l o r i n g h i s r e l a t i o n to i t w i t h a k i n d o f l y r i c tone. He c o n s i d e r s i t s f o u n d a t i o n s to be immovable and approaches i t as u n c r i t i c a l l y as he does the s o l a r system, and t h i s p a s s i v e c o n s e r v a t i s m o f h i s forms the unseen p i v o t o f h i s work.

R e s o l u t i o n o f the C e n t r a l Committee o f the Communist P a r t y , August 14, 1946.

C r i t i c a l p e r i o d s do not a l l o w an a r t i s t the l u x u r y o f an automatic and i r r e s p o n s i b l e e l a b o r a t i o n of s o c i a l p o i n t s of view. Whoever boasts o f t h i s , whether i n s i n c e r e l y o r even w i t h o u t p r e t e n s e , i s masking a r e a c t i o n a r y tendency or has f a l l e n i n t o s o c i a l s t u p i d i t i e s or i s making a f o o l o f h i m s e l f . . .

The n o v e l i s t s and poets who were born of the R e v o l u t i o n and who are s t i l l v e ry young, b e i n g almost i n t h e i r swaddling c l o t h e s , t r y , i n t h e i r s e a r c h f o r t h e i r a r t i s t i c i n d i v i d u a l i t i e s , t o g e t away from the R e v o l u t i o n which has been t h e i r environment and i n which m i l i e u they have y e t to f i n d themselves. From t h i s come the t i r a d e s o f " a r t f o r a r t ' s sake" which seem very s i g n i f i c a n t and b o l d to the S e r a p i o n s , but which are, i n f a c t , a s i g n of growth a t b e s t and of immaturity i n any c a s e . I f the Serapions should get away from the R e v o l u t i o n e n t i r e l y , they would r e v e a l themselves at once as a second-rate or t h i r d - r a t e remnant o f the d i s c a r d e d p r e - r e v o l u t i o n a r y l i t e r a r y s c h o o l s . I t i s i m p o s s i b l e to p l a y w i t h h i s t o r y . Here the punishment f o l l o w s immediately upon the crime.47

The a r t i s t i c freedom t h a t Lunc sought a f t e r became a

b i t t e r i d e o l o g i c a l f i g h t . V i c t o r Shklovsky presented an

i n d i r e c t defense of h i s f e l l o w Serapions i n a w i t t y chapter 48

of The Knight's Move. In t h i s he t o l d the s t o r y of the

m i l l i p e d e , which f o r some time managed to walk q u i t e w e l l

u n t i l one day a t u r t l e admired h i s l e g s f o r t h e i r wonderful

c o o r d i n a t i o n . T h i s compliment made him conscious of h i s

movements and he h i m s e l f began to marvel: j u s t how d i d he

manage so w e l l ?

47 L. T r o t s k y , L i t e r a t u r e and R e v o l u t i o n (New York,

1925), pp. 70.71. (Quoted from the E n g l i s h t r a n s l a t i o n . ) 48 V i c t o r Shklovsky, Khod Konya (Moscow-Berlin, 1923).

He e s t a b l i s h e d c e n t r a l i z a t i o n , r e d tape, and bureaucracy, and by t h a t time he c o u l d not move a s i n g l e l e g .

. . . " C i t i z e n s and comrades!" s a i d the m i l l i pede, "look a t me and you w i l l see what super-o r g a n i z a t i o n leads t o . P o s t r e v o l u t i o n a r y comrades, postwar comrades, l e a v e a r t f r e e , not on i t s own account, b ut because we must not r e g u l a t e what i s unknown."49

M a r x i s t s , i n c l u d i n g L e n i n and T r o t s k y , had some

awareness of the n e c e s s i t y o f freedom to c r e a t e good a r t ,

but t h e i r i n t e r p r e t a t i o n of t h i s freedom d i f f e r e d from t h a t

of the Serapions.. "The important p o i n t f o r the M a r x i s t s was

t h a t the w r i t e r s h o u l d accept h i s unfreedom so w i l l i n g l y 50

t h a t he a c t u a l l y f e l t f r e e w i t h i n i t s l i m i t a t i o n s . "

The M a r x i s t s were i n the advantageous p o s i t i o n o f

having a d o c t r i n e which they c o n f i d e n t l y a p p l i e d t o a r t as

w e l l as t o a l l o t h e r human a c t i v i t i e s . With the h e l p of

Plekhanov's essay on " a r t f o r a r t ' s sake', they were ab l e t o

c l a s s i f y the Brotherhood. To c o u n t e r a t t a c k t h e i r seasoned

c r i t i c s , the Serapions l a c k e d e x p e r i e n c e , they were too

young and " s u f f e r e d the disadvantage o f p o s s e s s i n g no ready-51

made p h i l o s o p h y " . Lunc t r i e d to q u a l i f y h i s former

49 ^ I b i d . , p. 17. 50 W. Edgerton, "The Serap i o n B r o t h e r s : An E a r l y

S o v i e t C o n t r o v e r s y " , The American S l a v i c and E a s t European Review, V I I I , p. 60.

5 1 I b i d .

statement, by which the Serapions were branded as a group

a d v o c a t i n g " a r t f o r a r t ' s sake", by ar g u i n g t h a t he d i d not

mean " a r t f o r a r t ' s sake" i n the crude sense o f t h a t phrase.

But h i s argument f o r l o v e o f l i t e r a t u r e and f o r g r e a t

d e v o t i o n t o a r t c o n t a i n e d many h o l e s , even f o r a non-Marxist.

F o r example, to s t a t e the case i n terms t h a t a r e meaningful today, l e t any Western democratic s u r v i v o r o f the second World War t r y to imagine h i m s e l f r e a d i n g a s k i l l f u l l y w r i t t e n n o v e l o f N a z i i d e o l o g y p u r e l y f o r the a e s t h e t i c p l e a s u r e i t might o f f e r . 5 2

The moderate M a r x i s t c r i t i c and e d i t o r o f Krasnaya

Nov', Voronsky, came t o the defense o f the Serapions and

made a much b e t t e r job of i t than they themselves had managed, 53

The main p o i n t o f h i s a r t i c l e l a y i n the va l u e o f both a r t

and s c i e n c e t o s o c i e t y and how i t s v a l u e depends on i t s

f a i t h f u l n e s s i n r e v e a l i n g o b j e c t i v e t r u t h . A s o c i a l o r d e r

t h a t attempts t o f r u s t r a t e o r r e s t r i c t the development o f

the a r t s o r s c i e n c e s "does i t a t i t s own p e r i l " . The fundamental task i s to keep s u b j e c t i v i s m ,

i d e o l o g y , and propaganda from d i s t o r t i n g the w r i t e r ' s works of a r t ; h i s s u b j e c t i v e a t t i t u d e s must correspond t o the nature o f the o b j e c t . . .

Voronsky d e f i n e d the v a l u e o f a r t as "the way i t renders

5 2 I b i d . , pp. 60-61. 53

A. K. Voronsky, " I s k u s s t v o , kak poznanie z h i z n i " , Krasnaya Nov', No. 2 (August-September, 1923), pp. 347-384.

5 4 I b i d . , p> 352.

o b j e c t i v e r e a l i t y " . And " o b j e c t i v e r e a l i t y " can be found i n

the c l a s s i c s as w e l l as i n l i t e r a t u r e w r i t t e n by p r o l e t a r i a n s

o r by f e l l o w - t r a v e l l e r s . T h i s p r i n c i p l e enabled Voronsky, 55

not o n l y t o r e f u t e F r i c h e ' s nonsensical a r t i c l e i n which he

r e j e c t e d the contemporary v a l u e o f the c l a s s i c s (such as

Shakespeare), b ut a l s o t o h o l d up one common s t a n d a r d by

which a l l the new S o v i e t l i t e r a t u r e c o u l d be judged, "whether

w r i t t e n by p r o l e t a r i a n s , peasants, or p e t t y - b o u r g e o i s i n t e l

l e c t u a l s " . F o l l o w i n g through w i t h h i s p r i n c i p l e s as the

e d i t o r o f Krasnaya Nov', he i n v i t e d a l l the w r i t e r s o f the

S o v i e t Union, of whatever background or p o l i t i c a l a f f i l i a t i o n , 5 6

t o compete f o r a p l a c e w i t h i n the journal's pages. It i s not a matter o f s l y i n t r i g u e r s t a k i n g i n

the "good-natured" B o l s h e v i k s , but o f the f a c t t h a t 95 p e r c e n t o f Russians are s t i l l f e l l o w t r a v e l l e r s o f the Communists, and t h a t cannot h e l p b e i n g r e f l e c t e d i n the f o r t u n e s of the new l i t e r a t u r e . Our j o u r n a l s are not opening t h e i r doors t o the f e l l o w t r a v e l l e r s because as a r e s u l t o f NEP they have a p e c u l i a r and c r i m i n a l enthusiasm f o r them, b u t because contemporary Russian l i t e r a t u r e cannot c o n f i n e i t s e l f to Demyan Bednyj and L i b e d i n s k y ' s t a l e "The Week". I t i s a f a c t t h a t we f i n d the 1

most b r i l l i a n t t a l e n t s i n the persons o f Ivanov, T i k h o n o v , 5 ? and the o t h e r f e l l o w t r a v e l l e r s , t h a t i t was they who f i r s t spoke l i v i n g words about the l i v i n g people o f our R e v o l u t i o n , i f you exclude

V. F r i c h e , "Nuzhno l i ? " , Krasnaya Gazeta, No. 215 (1368), September 23, 1922.

5 6 K r a s n a y a Nov' was c o n s i d e r e d t o be the l i t e r a r y j o u r n a l o f the f e l l o w - t r a v e l l e r s .

57 Both S e r a p i o n B r o t h e r s .

("The Twelve") Blok ( a l s o a f e l l o w t r a v e l l e r ) , Demyan Bednyj, t h e r e w i l l be very few o t h e r t a l e n t s l e f t . L e t us g i v e honor and a p l a c e t o the communist w r i t e r s and the p r o l e t a r i a n w r i t e r s , but i n p r o p o r t i o n to t h e i r t a l e n t s and i n p r o p o r t i o n to t h e i r c r e a t i v e c a p a c i t y . A P a r t y c a r d i s a g r e a t t h i n g , but i t i s not proper t o wave i t about a t the wrong t i m e s . ^ 8

Who were these h e r e t i c s who managed t o s t i r up such

an i d e o l o g i c a l b a t t l e on the l i t e r a r y scene?

Lev Natanovich Lunc was a teenager (nineteen years old)

i n 1920, a Romance philology major from the U n i v e r s i t y o f P e t r o -

grad, s p e c i a l i z i n g i n Spanish l i t e r a t u r e . He had a happy

but somewhat s h e l t e r e d c h i l d h o o d i n a h i g h l y c u l t u r e d Jewish

i n t e l l i g e n t s i a f a m i l y . A f t e r the outbreak of the r e v o l u t i o n

h i s p a r ents emigrated to Germany. He h i m s e l f was supposed

to go to Spain on a s c h o l a r s h i p t o continue graduate s t u d i e s

i n l i t e r a t u r e . Lunc had a deep "romantic" involvement w i t h

Western l i t e r a t u r e . One of h i s f a v o r i t e w r i t e r s was Conan

Doyle.

As a f e l l o w S e r a p i o n B r o t h e r i n h i s c r i t i c a l works he

o f t e n a t t a c k e d the " s t a t i c " , d u l l t r a d i t i o n s of Russian

l i t e r a t u r e i n f i c t i o n as w e l l as i n drama. In h i s a r t i c l e 59

"To the West" (which twenty years l a t e r s erved as a

5 8 Voronsky, " I s k u s s t v o , kak poznanie z h i z n i " , p. 352.

Quoted from Edgerton, The S e r a p i o n B r o t h e r s , p. 63. 59

"Na zapad!" F i r s t read by Lunc a t a meeting of the S e r a p i o n s . P u b l i s h e d i n Gorky's Beseda, No. 3 (1923), pp. 259-274.

f o u n d a t i o n f o r a t t a c k by A. Zhdanov a g a i n s t former S e r a p i o n

B r o t h e r s ) , he suggested t h a t the Russians might l e a r n " p l o t

c o n s t r u c t i o n " and "dynamic n a r r a t i v e " , o r how to a c h i e v e and

h o l d suspense from the West. (This "Western tendency" was

a l s o f o l l o w e d by K. Fedin.)

Lunc looked upon h i s audience as a group o f people

who had c e r t a i n l i k e s f o r entertainment and a good w r i t e r ' s

duty was more t o p l e a s e h i s readers than to educate them.

In t h i s r e s p e c t he and h i s f e l l o w Serapions found themselves

out of f a v o r w i t h most of the communist c r i t i c s .

L u n c 1 s importance to Russian l i t e r a t u r e was not

c o n f i n e d t o h i s championing of the "freedom of a r t " on

b e h a l f o f the Brotherhood, he a l s o c o n t r i b u t e d t o i t : "The

Outlaw" (Vne zakona, 19 21), "The Apes Are Coming" (Obezyany

i d u t , 1921), "Bertrand de Born" (1922). His p l a y , "The C i t y

o f T r u t h " , was p u b l i s h e d posthumously by M. Gorky i n Beseda.

He j o i n e d h i s parents i n Germany i n 19 23 t o seek a

cure f o r a c h r o n i c i l l n e s s . He never r e c o v e r e d and d i e d

t h e r e s h o r t l y a f t e r h i s t w e n t y - t h i r d b i r t h d a y .

K o i i s t a n t i n A l e x a n d r o v i c h F e d i n was the o l d e s t member

o f the group (twenty-nine i n 1921). He was c l o s e l y a s s o c i

a t e d w i t h the r e v i v a l of the Russian n o v e l and of n i n e t e e n t h

century R u s s i a n l i t e r a r y t r a d i t i o n s .

F e d i n was born i n the V o l g a r e g i o n ; h i s f a t h e r was o f

peasant s t o c k and h i s mother of noble background. He was

educated a t the Commercial I n s t i t u t e of Moscow. During the

f i r s t World War he was i n Germany. A f t e r h i s r e t u r n i n 1918

to the S o v i e t Union, he served i n the Red Army.

Fe d i n ' s l i t e r a r y debut was i n the S e r a p i o n s ' Almanac.

On Gorky's recommendation he was accepted f o r "membership"

i n the S e r a p i o n Brotherhood. His f i r s t s h o r t s t o r i e s were

w r i t t e n under obvious s t y l i s t i c i n f l u e n c e from Chekhov and

Bunin. " S t i l l n e s s " ( T i s h i n a , 1924) conveys the tragedy of

an o l d d i s p o s s e s s e d s q u i r e ; "The Peasants" (Muzhiki, 1924)

i s a s t o r y which r e l a t e s many episodes of v i l l a g e l i f e w i t h

i t s c r u e l t y and harshness, very much l i k e Bunin's s t o r i e s .

H i s f i r s t n o v e l , C i t i e s and Years (Goroda i gody) was pub

l i s h e d i n 1924, a long n a r r a t i v e t h a t combined " p s y c h o l o g i c a l

r e a l i s m of c h a r a c t e r i z a t i o n w i t h a p l o t o f adventure and

s u s p e n s e " . ^ The theme of the n o v e l i s the p e r s o n a l tragedy

o f a member o f the i n t e l l i g e n t s i a i n the t i d e o f the r e v o l u

t i o n . The hero i s a modern v a r i a n t of the n i n e t e e n t h century

s u p e r f l u o u s man. In "The Orchard" (Sad), F e d i n r e t u r n s to

h i s f a v o r i t e theme, the c l a s h o f the o l d and the new i n the

R e v o l u t i o n . The o l d gardener who served the former master

so f a i t h f u l l y cannot a c c e p t the new "masters" and burns down

the manor house.

M. Slonim, Modern Russian L i t e r a t u r e (New York, 1953), p. 307.

In the S e r a p i o n Brotherhood, F e d i n took a u n i q u e l y

p e r s o n a l p o s i t i o n . He d i d not s u b s c r i b e to Lunc's p h i l o s o p h y 61

"To the West!", nor d i d he w h o l l y belong to the " E a s t e r n "

or S c y t h i a n wing o f the movement. His main i n t e r e s t was

c o n c e n t r a t e d on the r e l a t i o n s h i p o f R u s s i a and Europe, and

the problems o f the i n d i v i d u a l i n h i s t o r y , the f a t e o f the

" s u p e r f l u o u s man" i n modern R u s s i a .

F e d i n drew c r i t i c i s m from time t o time f o r h i s c l o s e

r e l a t i o n s h i p w i t h the S e r a p i o n s , but managed to s u r v i v e a l l

the purges. Now he i s an honored doyen of S o v i e t l i t e r a t u r e ,

a l e a d i n g f i g u r e i n the Union o f W r i t e r s and former e d i t o r

o f the most important l i t e r a r y magazine i n the S o v i e t Union,

the New World (Novyj M i r ) .

Vsevolod V y a c h e s l a v o v i c h Ivanov was the son o f a

S i b e r i a n v i l l a g e s c h o o l - t e a c h e r and drunkard. His f a t h e r

was a c c i d e n t a l l y k i l l e d by one o f h i s sons when Ivanov was

o n l y f i f t e e n y e a r s o l d , a f t e r which he promptly l e f t h i s

home. Although he was the p r o d u c t o f a p r o v i n c i a l i n t e l l e c

t u a l m i l i e u , h i s biography i s very s i m i l a r t o t h a t of Gorky.

L i k e Gorky, he l i v e d as a k i n d of tramp on the lower l e v e l

o f l i f e . He had numerous o c c u p a t i o n s : s a i l o r , clown, p o e t r y

r e a d e r , sword swallower, d e r v i s h , m u s i c i a n . He had some

The e x p r e s s i o n of "Western" and " E a s t e r n " wing was used by E. Zamyatin, "Serapiony B r a t ' y a " , L i t e r a t u r n y e z a p i s k i , No. 1 (May, 1922).

doubt as t o h i s sympathies d u r i n g the C i v i l War: he fought

under A d m i r a l Kolchak w i t h the Whites and l a t e r j o i n e d the

Red Army.

Ivanov*s f i r s t s h o r t s t o r y was p r i n t e d i n 1916 i n a

l o c a l S i b e r i a n paper. Encouraged by h i s s u c c e s s , he sent

some s t o r i e s t o Gorky f o r p u b l i c a t i o n i n L e t o p i s ' . Gorky

encouraged him and urged him t o study, t o read . A c c o r d i n g

to Ivanov's autobiography, i n two years he read more books

than i n the r e s t of h i s l i f e . H i s r e a d i n g d i d not i n c l u d e

p o l i t i c a l l i t e r a t u r e , and when the R e v o l u t i o n broke out, i n

h i s n a i v e t e he j o i n e d both the S o c i a l - D e m o c r a t i c and the

S o c i a l - R e v o l u t i o n a r y p a r t i e s .

His f i r s t book of s h o r t s t o r i e s was p r i n t e d and

p u b l i s h e d by h i m s e l f i n 1919 i n S i b e r i a . With Gorky's h e l p

he came to P e t r o g r a d . "The P a r t i s a n s " ( P a r t i z a n y ) was

p u b l i s h e d i n 1921, a l o n g s t o r y based on h i s experiences

d u r i n g the C i v i l War. In the n o v e l , Skyblue Sands (Golubye

p e s k i ) , we f i n d most o f the c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s o f Ivanov's

e a r l y works: ornamental language f u l l o f d i a l e c t i c i s m s ,

l y r i c a l r e f r a i n s , human joys and sorrows, obvious Russian

f o l k l o r e i n f l u e n c e , c r u e l S i b e r i a n nature and g r e a t s t r e s s

on the c r u e l a spects o f the R e v o l u t i o n . His t o p i c s i n c l u d e

the people o f mid-Asia, the A l t a y and S i b e r i a . P s y c h o l o g i

c a l l y h i s s t o r i e s plough deeply i n t o the b a r b a r i c , sense

l e s s l y c r u e l n ature o f human beings (e.g., "The C h i l d " ) . In

43 h i s s h o r t n o v e l , The Return o f Buddha (Vozvrashchenie Buddy,

1 9 2 3 ) , h i s language was much l e s s ornamental, had l e s s

l o c a l i z e d i n t e r e s t s , and had a p l o t o f adventure. H i s book

of s t o r i e s o f v i l l a g e l i f e , Mystery o f M y s t e r i e s (Taynoye

taynykh, 1 9 2 7 ) , r e c e i v e d a mixed r e c e p t i o n from S o v i e t

c r i t i c s . In h i s l a t e r w r i t i n g s Ivanov took a s t e p toward

p s y c h o l o g i c a l r e a l i s m . His s t y l e became l e s s ornamental and

he developed the psychology o f h i s c h a r a c t e r s w i t h g r e a t

c a r e .

In the 1 9 3 0 ' s Ivanov made the 1 8 0 ° s w i t c h , he became

an e n t h u s i a s t i c s u p p o r t e r o f the i n d u s t r i a l achievements

under S t a l i n . H is s t y l e i n Parkhomenko ( 1 9 3 8 ) and i n The

F a l l o f B e r l i n ( 1 9 4 5 ) was n e a t l y t a i l o r e d t o p a r t y l i n e

requirements, b ut l a c k e d the s t y l i s t i c beauty o f h i s e a r l i e r

works.

Veniamin A l e x a n d r o v i c h K a v e r i n (pseudonym o f Veniamin

A l e x a n d r o v i c h Z i l b e r g ) came from an i n t e l l e c t u a l , m u s i c a l l y -

g i f t e d f a m i l y . To f o l l o w f o u r g e n e r a t i o n s o f m u s i c a l

t r a d i t i o n i n the f a m i l y , he h i m s e l f f i r s t s t u d i e d music. At

the U n i v e r s i t y o f P e t r o g r a d he s t u d i e d O r i e n t a l languages,

h i s t o r y and l i t e r a t u r e . A t the age of f i f t e e n he sent h i s

f i r s t s h o r t s t o r y , "The E l e v e n t h Axiom", to Gorky. S t i l l a

teenager when he j o i n e d the S e r a p i o n s , K a v e r i n — and h i s

b e s t f r i e n d , Lunc — r e p r e s e n t e d the " W e s t e r n i z i n g " tendency

i n the Brotherhood. In h i s autobiography, he i s c y n i c a l o f

the R u s s i a n t r a d i t i o n among w r i t e r s :

. . . so f a r I have not had time to make f o r : myself a biography f i t f o r a Russian w r i t e r . I have t r i e d n e i t h e r t o shoot myself nor t o hang myself, nor have I once gone mad.62

Kav e r i n ' s f i r s t major work, The End o f a Gang (Konets

khazy, 1926), i s an e x c i t i n g s t o r y o f a gang of a n a r c h i s t s

and underworld c h a r a c t e r s i n L e n i n g r a d . H i s s t y l e i n t h i s

s t o r y shows the i d e n t i f i a b l e i n f l u e n c e o f R. L. Stevenson.

G o g o l i a n grotesque r e a l i s m i s mingled i n the s t o r y "Diamond

S u i t " (Bubnovaya mast, 1927). " R e v i z o r " i s a parody of

Gogol's "The Nose", w i t h an obscene t w i s t .

"Nine-Tenths of F a t e " (Devyat' desyatykh sud'by, 1926)

f o l l o w e d the t r e n d o f p s y c h o l o g i c a l r e a l i s m . The main theme

i s the p l a c e o f the i n t e l l i g e n t s i a i n the, R e v o l u t i o n . I t i s

r e m i n i s c e n t o f F e d i n ' s C i t i e s and Years, but much l e s s

developed and s u p e r f i c i a l . K a v e r i n ' s " A r t i s t Unknown" — i n

theme v e r y much l i k e Olesha's Envy — i s a contemporary myth.

I t s hero, the a r t i s t Arkhimedov, i s a modern Don Quixote, an

o l d - f a s h i o n e d romantic i d e a l i s t who f i g h t s a l o n e l y , l o s i n g

b a t t l e a g a i n s t the new s o c i e t y i n the name of f o r g o t t e n

moral v a l u e s , o f a r t i s t i c freedom and independence. His

l a t e r works (The F u l f i l l m e n t of D e s i r e s , 1935; Two C a p t a i n s ,

" P i s a t e l i o sebe", Na l i t e r a t u r n o m p o s t u , XVII-XVIII (1927), p. 109. "0 vremeni i o sebe", S o v e t s k i e " ~ p i s a t e l i . A v t o b i o g r a f i i v dvukh tomakh. V o l . I , Moscow, 19 59.

1939) show a marked improvement: they are w e l l - w r i t t e n and

n i c e l y - c o n s t r u c t e d s t o r i e s , w i t h j u s t enough of the r e q u i r e d

i d e o l o g i c a l element t o make them p u b l i s h a b l e i n the S o v i e t

Union.

N i k o l a y N i k o l a e v i c h N i k i t i n was born i n the n o r t h o f

R u s s i a i n a merchants* f a m i l y . He spent most of h i s c h i l d

hood and s c h o o l y e a r s i n P e t e r s b u r g . He fought i n the C i v i l

War, but on which s i d e i s not known. N i k i t i n ' s f i r s t s t o r y

was p u b l i s h e d i n 19 22, a f t e r he had met Gorky, Shklovsky and

Zamyatin. C o l l e c t i o n s o f h i s works were p u b l i s h e d i n 19 28

under the t i t l e s , F o r t Vomit (Rvotny F o r t ) and F l i g h t ( P o l y o t ) .

L i k e most young authors he a l s o experimented wi t h many

d i f f e r e n t s t y l e s o f w r i t i n g .

I t i s not d i f f i c u l t t o see the i n f l u e n c e of Remizov, Zamyatin, and P i l n y a k on N i k i t i n . To t h i s l i s t can a l s o be added e i t h e r as d i r e c t or as i n d i r e c t i n f l u e n c e s the names of Leskov and Gogol, and, as o c c a s i o n a l i n f l u e n c e s , those o f Dostoyevsky and Andrey Bely.^3

In h i s s t o r i e s he used the "author's p e r s o n a l i n t e r v e n t i o n s " ;

t o s u b s t a n t i a t e h i s hero's c l a i m s he used documentations,

q u o t a t i o n s . H i s t o r i c a l l a n d s c a p e s , i n t e n s e e r o t i c i s m , a

v a r i e t y o f spoken d i a l e c t s , i n t o n a t i o n s , anecdotes, f o l k l o r e

elements made h i s "skaz" come a l i v e . Many o f h i s s t o r i e s

d e a l w i t h the C i v i l War — i n the North, i n the South and

Gleb S t r u v e , S o v i e t R u s s i a n L i t e r a t u r e 1917-1950, p. 62.

E a s t . I t was not so much the romanticism of the r e v o l u t i o n

t h a t i n t e r e s t e d him, but the e f f e c t on the l i f e o f the

remote Ru s s i a n v i l l a g e s , where the o l d and the new c l a s h e d .

S o v i e t c r i t i c s d i d not f a i l t o p o i n t out t h a t N i k i t i n was

concerned not so much w i t h the new as w i t h the o l d : the

r e s i s t a n c e o f the o l d a g a i n s t the new.

Of a l l the S e r a p i o n s , perhaps, no one aimed so

p e r s i s t e n t l y a t s t r a n g e , p a r a d o x i c a l e f f e c t s as d i d N i k i t i n .

In i t s most c o n s i s t e n t form, the method of " o s t r a n e n i e "

(making strange) i s a p p l i e d by him i n "Daisy", the s t o r y o f

a young t i g r e s s i n c a p t i v i t y and o f her u l t i m a t e escape.

G r a d u a l l y , maybe under i n c r e a s i n g o f f i c i a l p r e s s u r e ,

N i k i t i n e v o l v e d toward a more r e a l i s t i c treatment o f h i s

themes.

V l a d i m i r Pozner was born i n P a r i s , r e c e i v e d h i s h i g h

s c h o o l e d u c a t i o n i n P e t r o g r a d and i n Moscow, and h i s u n i v e r

s i t y e d u c a t i o n a t the Sorbonne. His f i r s t poems were p r i n t e d

i n Epopeia (1923). H i s f i r s t book was p u b l i s h e d i n France

i n 1929: The Panorama o f Contemporary Russian L i t e r a t u r e

(Panorama de l a l i t t e r a t u r e r u s s e contemporaine). He took

up the h e r o i c themes o f the C i v i l War and t r e a t e d them i n

the form of b a l l a d s . In t h i s the i n f l u e n c e of E n g l i s h p o e t r y ,

and more p a r t i c u l a r l y of K i p l i n g , can be seen. A f t e r the

mid-twenties he r e t u r n e d t o France, where he became an

a c t i v e c r i t i c o f c a p i t a l i s t i c (mainly American) v a l u e s . H i s

views d i d not prevent him from s e e k i n g r e f u g e i n the U.S.A.

d u r i n g World War I I . H i s l a t e s t n o v e l , S p a i n , My F i r s t Love

(Espagne, premier amour, 1965, t r a n s l a t e d i n t o R u ssian i n

1967) , emphasized the romanticism of the Spanish C i v i l War.

E l i z a v e t a G r i g o r ' e v n a Polonskaya was the o n l y " s i s t e r "

i n the group. She was born i n Warsaw, Poland. To escape

p o l i c e s u r v e i l l a n c e she went t o France, where she attended

m e d i c a l s c h o o l a t the Sorbonne from 1907 to 1914. A f t e r her

r e t u r n from France, she t r i e d her hand at w r i t i n g p o e t r y .

Her f i r s t c o l l e c t i o n o f poems, F l a g s , was p u b l i s h e d i n 19 21,

mostly her p e r s o n a l f e e l i n g s , joys and sorrows i n c o n n e c t i o n

w i t h the R e v o l u t i o n and the C i v i l War.

Polonskaya was one o f the seven young w r i t e r s who

formed the nucleus of the S e r a p i o n Brotherhood. L a t e r i n

the t w e n t i e s , she wrote e x c l u s i v e l y poems f o r c h i l d r e n : Baby

Rabbits (1923) , Guests (1924), Hours (1925). In her c a p a c i t y

as a correspondent f o r the L e n i n g r a d Pravda i n the t h i r t i e s ,

she t r a v e l l e d w i d e l y i n the S o v i e t Union. On her experiences

she wrote a book of s h o r t s t o r i e s , People of S o v i e t Weekdays

(1934). In the f i f t i e s she found g r e a t success w i t h her

t r a n s l a t i o n s of Hugo, M o l i e r e , Shakespeare, K i p l i n g , G a r c i a

L o r c a .

M i k h a i l L e o n i d o v i c h Slonimsky came from a very h i g h l y

c u l t u r e d Jewish f a m i l y : h i s f a t h e r was e d i t o r o f the magazine

H e r a l d of Europe ( V e s t n i k E v r o p y ) , and h i s mother was the

s i s t e r of a famous p r o f e s s o r . "My c h i l d h o o d , " he wrote,

"passed i n an atmosphere permeated by l i t e r a t u r e and music."

A f t e r the war he began t o a t t e n d l e c t u r e s r e g u l a r l y a t the

House o f A r t s . His f i r s t l e c t u r e r s were Shklovsky and

Zamyatin.

The c o l l e c t e d volume o f h i s f i r s t s t o r i e s , The S i x t h

L a ncers (Shestoy s t r e l k o v y ) was p u b l i s h e d i n 1922 and showed

a very s t r o n g i n f l u e n c e o f Zamyatin's manner and s t y l e :

e c c e n t r i c , odd c h a r a c t e r s i n v o l v e d i n strange s i t u a t i o n s

where r e a l i t y and f a n t a s y i n t e r m i n g l e d i n dramatic i n c i d e n t s .

In 1923 Slonimsky e d i t e d the miners' paper i n the

Donets c o a l b a s i n . One of the s t o r i e s he wrote t h e r e , "The

Emery Machine" (Mashina Emery), marked a new d e p a r t u r e from

h i s former themes. His hero i s an i d e a l i s t Communist,

O l e y n i k o v , f o r whom p e r s o n a l l i f e i s completely overshadowed

by h i s sense of duty toward the c o l l e c t i v e . Slonimsky f a i l e d

to make h i s p o r t r a i t of a Communist v i s i o n a r y ; i n s t e a d ,

O l e y n i k o v i s not r e a l and human, but remains an a b s t r a c t i o n .

H i s f i r s t n o v e l , The Lavrovs (Lavrovy), d e p i c t s the

d i s i n t e g r a t i o n o f an i n t e l l i g e n t s i a f a m i l y . The n o v e l i s

o b v i o u s l y a u t o b i o g r a p h i c a l and documentary. I t c e n t r e s

around the f i g u r e of B o r i s Lavrov, who through h i s e x p l o i t s

i s t r y i n g to become a u s e f u l member of S o v i e t s o c i e t y . At

one p o i n t he t h i n k s t h a t i n s i d i n g w i t h the R e v o l u t i o n he

has a t t a i n e d f u l l freedom, but l a t e r he r e a l i z e s t h a t t h e r e

i s no freedom anywhere on t h i s e a r t h , not i n a s i n g l e c o rner

o f i t , and t h a t of a l l the a v a i l a b l e unfreedoms he had

chosen the one i n which h i s wishes and a c t i o n s c o i n c i d e d .

Foma Kleshnyov was p u b l i s h e d i n 1931, f i v e y e ars

a f t e r The Lavrovs; the hero i s a model communist a t work. As

a n o v e l t h i s book i s a f a i l u r e .

N i k o l a y Semyoriovich Tikhonov was born i n t o a lower-

m i d d l e - c l a s s f a m i l y . A f t e r s t u d y i n g a t a t r a d e s c h o o l , he

e n l i s t e d i n the army. He fought w i t h a Hussar regiment

d u r i n g World War I, and l a t e r w i t h the Red Army i n the C i v i l

War. L i k e Vsevolod Ivanov, he a l s o t r i e d h i s hand a t v a r i o u s

p r o f e s s i o n s . He j o i n e d the S e r a p i o n B r o t h e r s i n 19 21, and a

year l a t e r h i s f i r s t c o l l e c t i o n o f poems was p u b l i s h e d : The

Horde (Orda). I t s p r i n c i p a l theme was the war. The i n f l u e n c e

of the Acmeists i s q u i t e obvious i n i t . His v e r s e has a

noble s i m p l i c i t y , t h e r e are no i n n o v a t i o n s f o r n o v e l t y ' s

sake, and h i s c h o i c e of words i s p r e c i s e .

Tikhonov*s second book of v e r s e was Mead (Braga), i n

which themes o f the C i v i l War predominated. Most o f h i s

poems i n t h i s c o l l e c t i o n were w r i t t e n i n the form o f b a l l a d s

i n the E n g l i s h t r a d i t i o n . L i k e K i p l i n g , he used O r i e n t a l

s e t t i n g s f o r h i s unrhymed b a l l a d , "Sami".

Tikhonov experimented w i t h language and metre. In

t h i s p e r i o d (1924) the i n f l u e n c e o f Gumilyov and the Acmeists

gave p l a c e t o t h a t of the F u t u r i s t s : of Mayakovsky and of

Pasternak. L a t e r he experimented w i t h prose w r i t i n g : The

Venturesome Man (1927) and An Oath i n the Fog (1933). While

i n h i s p o e t r y he tended to become l e s s o f a romantic and

more o f a r e a l i s t , i n h i s prose he moved i n the o p p o s i t e

d i r e c t i o n : C aucasian s e t t i n g w i t h unusual c h a r a c t e r s , the

"drowsy E a s t " .

I I ' y a A l e x a n d r o v i c h Gruzdyov was born i n P e t e r b u r g .

He a l s o r e c e i v e d h i s e d u c a t i o n t h e r e . In 1918 he graduated

from the U n i v e r s i t y of P e t r o g r a d w i t h a degree i n p h i l o l o g y .

Gruzdyov was one of the o r i g i n a l seven founding

members of the S e r a p i o n Brotherhood. From 1914 he wrote

l i t e r a r y c r i t i c i s m and t r i e d t o w r i t e f e u i l l e t o n s . He

became b e s t known f o r h i s b i o g r a p h i c a l book on M. Gorky,

Gorky and H i s Time (1938), which i n c l u d e d p e r s o n a l c o r r e s

pondence between h i m s e l f and Gorky.

V i c t o r B o r i s o v i c h Shklovsky, one of the most important

f i g u r e s i n the h i s t o r y of S o v i e t l i t e r a t u r e , was o f mixed

Jewish-German-Russian descent. His l i t e r a r y c a r e e r began i n

1914, w h i l e s t u d y i n g a t the U n i v e r s i t y o f P e t r o g r a d . He

became one o f the l e a d e r s of the F o r m a l i s t movement, which

had c l o s e l i n k s w i t h the F u t u r i s t movement i n l i t e r a t u r e .

In 1920 he was appointed p r o f e s s o r a t the I n s t i t u t e

of the H i s t o r y of A r t , where among h i s students were s e v e r a l

S e r a p i o n B r o t h e r s . His i n f l u e n c e and a u t h o r i t y upon them

was such t h a t he immediately became a l e a d e r among them.

The S e r a p i o n s ' d i s l i k e o f bureaucracy and o f o r g a n i z a

t i o n a l f o r m a l i t i e s was so g r e a t t h a t o n l y the date of t h e i r

f i r s t meeting i s d e f i n i t e . The exact number o f t h e i r member

s h i p i s a l s o i n doubt. Some l i t e r a r y h i s t o r i a n s and one of

the B r o t h e r s (Gruzdyov) accept ten members, ot h e r s i n c l u d e

Shklovsky and Pozner. Whether the l a t t e r two were " o f f i c i a l l y "

members or not i s r e a l l y unimportant. Shklovsky's ideas

were c e r t a i n l y s t i m u l a t i n g , even when they were demonstrably

wrong o r f a n t a s t i c .

In the 1920's Shklovsky became a c l o s e f r i e n d of

Mayakovsky. When the Moscow P r o l e t a r i a n W r i t e r s ' A s s o c i a t i o n

(MAPP) and members of L e f demanded the e x p u l s i o n of Shklovsky

and Pasternak, Mayakovsky defended him: ". . . even V i c t o r ' s

dubious n o t i o n s w i l l l a t e r e nter i n t o the h i s t o r y of Russian 64

l i t e r a t u r e . "

Shklovsky's f i r s t important book was p u b l i s h e d i n

B e r l i n i n 1923, a f t e r he had l e f t R u s s i a . I t s t i t l e was

S e n t i m e n t a l Journey (Sentimentalnoye p u t e s h e s t v i e ) . In i t ,

h i s approach to the R e v o l u t i o n and the C i v i l War and t h e i r

h o r r o r s i s as c o o l , as detached, and as m a t t e r - o f - f a c t as

t h a t of h i s p u p i l s , the S e r a p i o n s , who undoubtedly l e a r n e d

t h e i r detachment from him. His second t r y a t another book,

Yury L i b e d i n s k y , Sovremenniki, Moscow, 1958, p. 165. Quoted i n E. J . Brown, Russian L i t e r a t u r e S i n c e the R e v o l u t i o n , p. 97.

Zoo, o r L e t t e r s Not 'About Love (Zoo, i i i pis'ma ne o l y u b v i ) ,

showed a p e r s o n a l d i g r e s s i o n . Shklovsky's Knight's Move

(Khod konya) was a s m a l l volume o f s h o r t essays about a r t

and l i t e r a t u r e , — uneven, but mostly i n t e r e s t i n g and w i t t y .

A f t e r h i s r e t u r n to R u s s i a he p u b l i s h e d another volume o f

" a u t o b i o g r a p h i c a l fragments", The T h i r d F a c t o r y ( T r e t y a

f a b r i k a , 1926).

When, i n 1929, Formalism was pr o c l a i m e d a dangerous

d o c t r i n e , Shklovsky devoted h i m s e l f to l i t e r a r y h i s t o r y and

d r a m atic f i l m c r i t i c i s m . He l o s t the f i r e and r e c a n t e d the

h e r e s i e s of h i s youth and managed t o carve out a long c a r e e r

i n S o v i e t l i t e r a t u r e .

CHAPTER IV

M i k h a i l M i k h a i i o v i c h Zoshchenko was the c h r o n i c a l l y

depressed and most humorous S e r a p i o n B r o t h e r . His s t o r i e s

enjoyed immense p o p u l a r i t y i n R u s s i a . He was p o p u l a r not

o n l y among those readers who p r e f e r r e d to read l i g h t ,

u n s o p h i s t i c a t e d l i t e r a t u r e , but a l s o among those who as a

r u l e read mostly c l a s s i c s and d i d not f o l l o w contemporary

l i t e r a t u r e . His f i r s t s t o r i e s t o appear i n the West were

p u b l i s h e d as e a r l y as 1929. 6^

He was born i n P o l t a v a , August 10, 1895, i n t o a

f a m i l y of- a r t i s t s : h i s f a t h e r was a p a i n t e r of modest fame,

h i s mother was an a c t r e s s . He was the youngest i n a f a m i l y

of t h r e e , w i t h two o l d e r s i s t e r s . A f t e r g r a d u a t i n g from

gymnasium (high school) i n 1913, he c o n t i n u e d h i s s t u d i e s

i n the f a c u l t y o f law a t the U n i v e r s i t y of P e t r o g r a d .

Without g r a d u a t i n g from law s c h o o l he v o l u n t e e r e d f o r

m i l i t a r y s e r v i c e i n 1915, and was sent to the f r o n t as an

e n s i g n . He fought f o r two y e a r s , was wounded many times. A

German g a s - a t t a c k l e f t him i n poor h e a l t h f o r the r e s t o f h i

l i f e , b u t i t d i d not stop him from v o l u n t e e r i n g f o r the Red

M i k h a i l Zoshchenko, Four Sketches, t r a n s l a t e d and e d i t e d by C a r g i l l Sprietsma and Georges N a z a r o f f , "Reprinted from the B u l l e t i n of the American Women's Club,- 19 29" ( P a r i s 1929?).

Army i n 1917. On account of h i s f a i l i n g h e a l t h he l e f t the

Red Army, t r i e d a number o f o c c u p a t i o n s . In 1920, when he

was working as a c l e r k f o r the m i l i t a r y P o r t A u t h o r i t y o f

P e t r o g r a d , he began to w r i t e . In 1921 h i s f i r s t c o l l e c t i o n

o f s t o r i e s was p r i n t e d by " E r a t o " p u b l i s h e r s , P e t r o g r a d .

His l i t e r a r y c a r e e r took an upward t u r n from 19 21, a f t e r he

j o i n e d the S e r a p i o n s ' l i t e r a r y group. K. F e d i n d e s c r i b e s

him i n the f o l l o w i n g manner:

Zoshchenko i s b l a c k - h a i r e d and q u i e t . He i s handsome i n person. In war he had been poisoned by gases; he has a h e a r t d i s e a s e . That's what makes him q u i e t . He i s a man who i s not s e l f -c o n f i d e n t ; he never knows how he w i l l w r i t e next? He began to w r i t e w e l l a l r e a d y a f t e r the s t u d i o a t the "Serapions". His " S t o r i e s by Nazar I l ' i c h , Mr. Sinebryukhov" are very good. "6

I t was customary a t the time to ask p o p u l a r w r i t e r s

and a r t i s t s to p u b l i s h a u t o b i o g r a p h i e s i n which they were to

s t a t e t h e i r p e r s o n a l f e e l i n g s on popular i s s u e s . Zoshchenko 6 7

p u b l i s h e d a w i t t y parody on h i s f e l l o w S e r a p i o n s , i n which

he made fun of the " p r e c i s e i d e o l o g y " demanded of w r i t e r s by

M a r x i s t c r i t i c s : . . . b e i n g a w r i t e r i s s o r t of hard. . . Take i d e o l o g y — these days a w r i t e r has got to have i d e o l o g y .

K. F e d i n , "Gorky s r e d i nas: dvadcatye gody" ( K a r t i n y l i t e r a t u r n o y z h i z n i ) . T r a n s l a t e d q u o t a t i o n from H. O u l a n o f f , The S e r a p i o n B r o t h e r s , p. 10.

M. Zoshchenko, "Druzheskie p a r o d i i " , L i t e r a turny e z a p i s k i , No. 2 (June 23, 1922), pp. 8-9.

Here's Voronsky now (a good man) who w r i t e s : " . . . I t i s necessary t h a t w r i t e r s s h o u l d have a more p r e c i s e i d e o l o g y . "

Now t h a t ' s plumb d i s a g r e e a b l e ! T e l l me, how can I have a " p r e c i s e i d e o l o g y " when not a s i n g l e p a r t y among them a l l appeals to me?

I don't hate anybody — t h e r e ' s my p r e c i s e i d e o l o g y . . .

In t h e i r g e n e r a l swing the B o l s h e v i k s are c l o s e r to me than anybody e l s e . And so I'm w i l l i n g to b o l s h e v i k around w i t h them. . . But I'm not a Communist (or r a t h e r not a M a r x i s t ) , and I t h i n k I never s h a l l be.68

T h i s a r r o g a n t show of p o l i t i c a l and a r t i s t i c indepen

dence went unpunished i n 1922, but was never f o r g o t t e n , and

i n 194 6 he probably wished many times t h a t he had not made

t h a t statement.

With g r e a t care Zoshchenko g r a d u a l l y developed h i s

own manner o f w r i t i n g . His s t y l e became l i k e a s i g n a t u r e :

i n s t a n t l y r e c o g n i z a b l e . I t was based on "skaz", which was a

p o p u l a r form i n the e a r l y 1920's, but by the mid-twenties

had gone out of f a s h i o n . Zoshchenko not o n l y remained f a i t h

f u l to the "skaz" form, but p e r f e c t e d i t and put i t t o new

The "skaz", as an a r t i s t i c t e chnique, demands d i r e c t

speech. In h i s speech the n a r r a t o r r e v e a l s h i s s o c i a l back

ground, h i s e d u c a t i o n , h i s temperament, h i s p r e j u d i c e s . The

W. Edgerton, The S e r a p i o n B r o t h e r s , p. 63.

skaz form f r e q u e n t l y accentuates c o m i c a l e f f e c t s . Zoshchenko,

the grand master o f c o m i c a l skaz, e x c i t e s l a u g h t e r by the

manner i n which the n a r r a t o r , 'Nazar I l ' i c h , gospodin S i n e -

bryukhov," t e l l s h i s s t o r i e s . His n a r r a t o r ' s f i g u r e i s a

compound o f many c h a r a c t e r s . H is view o f h i s surroundings

i s simple, the events t h a t take p l a c e are grotesque, the

s i t u a t i o n s are f a n t a s t i c .

Zoshchenko's c h a r a c t e r s never develop t o s u f f i c i e n t

depth to become ug l y and h a t e f u l . He achi e v e s grotesque

e f f e c t not n e c e s s a r i l y through the world he d e s c r i b e s i n h i s

s t o r i e s , b u t mostly w i t h the unusual t w i s t t h a t he give s to

the language i n h i s s t o r i e s . Not o n l y do h i s c h a r a c t e r s not

develop depth and dimension, but h i s "skaz" u n f o l d s on a

s i n g l e p l a n e : t h a t o f the n a r r a t i v e "skaz" o f anecdotes.

The grotesque i n "Nazar I l ' i c h gospodin Sinebryukhov" i s

not h i s world, but the r e p r e s e n t a t i o n of h i s spontaneous,

muddled o r a l n a r r a t i o n :

H TaKofi ^eJiOBeK, I T O Bee Mory. . . XoMeuib — Mory 3eMjiHiiiKy o6pa6oTaTb no cnoBy nocJieflHeii TeXHHKH, XO^eUIB KaKHM HH Ha eCTb pyKOMechoM 3a£iMyc&,— Bee y MeHH B pyKax KHFIHT H BSPTHTCH .

A *ITO no OTB.ne'yeHHbix npeflMeTOB,— TaM, MOJKeT 6biTb, paccKa3 paccKa3aTb,. HJIH KaKoe-H«6yflb TOHeHbKoe flejibue BbiHCHHTb, — nosajiyfiCTa: 3TO RJIH.

MeHH o^eHb flaace npocTO H BexiHKOJienHo.^

MnxaHJi 3omeHKo: H3 6paHHbie npOH3BeneHHH B flByx TOMax, CTp. 51.

His language i s f u l l o f d i s t o r t i o n s and d e v i a t i o n s . Even

h i s name i s c o m i c a l : i n s t e a d of "Gospodin N.I.S." the

"gospodin" i s i n s e r t e d between h i s patronymic and h i s f a m i l y

namej t h i s o f f e r s a c a n o n i c a l t w i s t to h i s name. T h i s , i n

i t s e l f , might not be p a r t i c u l a r l y funny, but w i t h the

f a r c i c a l f a m i l y name f o l l o w i n g , i t has a h i l a r i o u s e f f e c t on

the r e a d e r .

The primary c h a r a c t e r i s the n a r r a t o r , who breaks up

i n t o two opposing c h a r a c t e r s : Nazar I l ' i c h and Gospodin

Sinebryukhov. Nazar I l ' i c h i s a very s e r i o u s p e r s o n a l i t y :

"I am such a man, t h a t I can do e v e r y t h i n g , " he can do

e v e r y t h i n g a c c o r d i n g to the l a t e s t t e c h n i q u e s . T h i s s e r i o u s

c h a r a c t e r ' s double i s the f a r c i c a l Gospodin Sinebryukhov, i n

whose hands " e v e r y t h i n g b o i l s and turns around." His peasant

l o v e o f the land shows i n h i s c h o i c e o f the word "zemlishka".

Such words as "tonen'koe d e l ' c e " are used on l y i n c o l l o q u i a l

spoken language. They support the o r a l n a r r a t i v e dominant

i n t h i s q u o t a t i o n . From the above e x c e r p t we can f i n d out

many t h i n g s about the n a r r a t o r : he i s a happy-go-lucky

f e l l o w , he has s u p e r f i c i a l knowledge and very l i t t l e e d u c a t i o n .

He i s a l s o impressed by the t e c h n o l o g i c a l c r a z e t h a t swept

over R u s s i a i n the 19 20's — "po s l o v u posledney t e k h n i k i " ,

m i s u s i n g the s l o g a n , "po poslednemu s l o v u t e k h n i k i " . The

n a r r a t o r r e v e a l s h i s emotional a t t i t u d e and h i s p e r s o n a l

f e e l i n g s toward the o b j e c t o f h i s communication. With t h i s

s t y l i s t i c d e v i c e - t h e author makes h i s hero i n t o a l i v i n g

p e rson. But the w r i t e r has t o be c a r e f u l not t o exceed the

q u a n t i t y of v e r b a l means necessary to c h a r a c t e r i z e h i s

n a r r a t o r . He would contravene the p r i n c i p l e u n d e r l y i n g the

"skaz" t e c h n i q u e : one type of phraseology — one p o i n t of

The speech t h a t the c h a r a c t e r s o f the "skaz" use i s

never t h e i r own, but t h a t o f . t h e n a r r a t o r . The speech of

the c h a r a c t e r s goes through the n a r r a t o r ' s i n t e r p r e t a t i o n .

To g i v e an example, the raven, f o r the l a c k of human

language, d i s p l a y s the same a t t i t u d e , t h i n k i n g and speech as

Nazar I l ' i c h gospodin Sinebryukhov:

. . . TOJibKo, cMOTpw — cBepxy Ha MeHH BOPOH cnycKaeTCH.

9L Jiejicy JKHBOH, a OH ayMaeT, MTO na.na.nB, H cnycKaeTCH.

H Ha Hero THXOHBKO UIHKaio:

— d a , — roBopK) — noineJi, npoBaji Te6n BQ3BMH!

Mamy pyKofl, a OH, MoaceT 6biTb, He BepuT H npHMO Ha MeHH HaceflaeT.TD"

In Nazar I l ' i c h ' s i n t e r p r e t a t i o n the raven i s u s i n g

the same p h i l i s t i n e d i c t i o n as he does. The c h a r a c t e r s do

not possess any depth or i n d i v i d u a l i t y of e x p r e s s i o n other

than t h a t o f the n a r r a t o r .

M. 3oineHKO: H36paHHbie npon3BeaeHHfl B flByx TOMax. TOM I. nBHKTOpHH Ka3HMHpOBHa", d p . 69.

Zoshchenko's presence i s very seldom f e l t i n h i s

s t o r i e s ; he p r e f e r s to l e a v e a l l the communication t o h i s

n a r r a t o r s . Leskov, whose s t y l i s t i c i n f l u e n c e on Zoshchenko

was very s t r o n g , sometimes sweeps away t h i s i l l u s i o n o f an

autonomous n a r r a t o r and he, the author, takes over as the

s t o r y - t e l l e r : the n a r r a t o r ' s speech becomes a humorous

q u o t a t i o n i n the author's speech. When the w r i t e r takes

over as n a r r a t o r the l i m i t a t i o n s of the "skaz" technique

b e t r a y themselves. With o n l y one p o i n t of view, one d i c t i o n ,

the c h a r a c t e r of the n a r r a t o r can be q u i t e l i f e - l i k e . As

soon as the author i n t r o d u c e s h i s own p o i n t of view, the

v a l i d i t y o f h i s c a r e f u l l y - c o n s t r u c t e d c h a r a c t e r s u f f e r s , o r

sometimes i s d e s t r o y e d . The reader w i l l no l o n g e r b e l i e v e

t h a t the o r a l n a r r a t i v e flows from the mouth o f a l i v i n g

n a r r a t o r . Thus the n a r r a t o r i s not the s t o r y - t e l l e r any

more, but o n l y h e l p s the author to t e l l the s t o r y h i m s e l f .

Zoshchenko c o n s i s t e n t l y uses the "skaz" technique:

one phraseology — one p o i n t of view. The n a r r a t i o n i s

communicated o n l y through h i s u n s o p h i s t i c a t e d hero. The

c o m p l e x i t i e s o f r e l a t i o n s h i p s he cannot comprehend, every

t h i n g f i l t e r s i n t o h i s mind s i m p l i f i e d . T r i v i a l n o t i o n s

t h a t t r i g g e r h i s e m o t i o n a l i t y become abs u r d l y exaggerated.

In both cases the mechanism remains the same: h i s n a i v e

n a r r a t o r ' s mind d i s t o r t s the proper s c a l e of t h i n g s . F o r

example, i n "The A r i s t o c r a t " the n a r r a t o r , G r e g o r i i Ivanovich,

i s p r e o c c u p i e d f i r s t w i t h the plumbing and the t o i l e t , l a t e r

w i t h the p a s t r i e s . There i s no o t h e r s i d e t o h i s c h a r a c t e r .

Not o n l y does the n a r r a t o r have no depth o f v e r b a l

communication, but the o t h e r c h a r a c t e r s are a l s o shallow

( l i k e the n a r r a t o r ) . Here the humour i s e s t a b l i s h e d through

the "mask" of the n a r r a t o r : he i s masquerading as a gentleman

u n t i l the s i t u a t i o n i s too demanding and h i s mask f a l l s o f f .

In "The Bathhouse" the a b s u r d i t y o f the s i t u a t i o n i s

a naked man w i t h a paper c l a i m s - t i c k e t ; the manageress i n a

men's bathhouse. T h i s c r e a t e s the humour. The naked bather

s i t u a t i o n i s repeated f o u r times. The e x p r e s s i o n "you're

not i n the t h e a t r e " i s used out of c o n t e x t t h r e e times and

i t ! a c h i e v e s f a r c i c a l humour:

He iiapcKHft, roBopjo, pe»HM-uiafiKaMH nnnaTB. 3roH3M, roBopio, KanoK. Hano »e, roBopjo, H npyr-HM noMUTBCH . He B T e a T p e , roBopio. 71

In the above q u o t a t i o n Zoshchenko uses the pure form

of "skaz" w i t h the n a r r a t o r r e p e a t e d l y r e a s s u r i n g the reader

t h a t i t i s not a d i a l o g u e , but a monologue h e - i s r e a d i n g :

"roBopio". The c o n v e r s a t i o n w i t h the bath at t e n d a n t i s the

same d e v i c e : the n a r r a t o r t a l k s f o r both o f them:

rpaacfiaHe, roBopio. Ha MOHX, r o B o p i o , TyT nbipna SbiJia. A Ha 3THX SBOH rp,e?

A 6aHiiiHK r o B o p H T :

3omeHKo: noB ecTH H paccKaabi. New York, 1952.

MH, roBopHT, 3 a fltapKaMH H e n p H C T a B J i e H b i . He B TeaTpe, roBopHT.7 2

The-comedy here i s i n the d u a l nature of the " h o l e " ' (ntipKa) :

f i r s t , i t i s the means of i d e n t i f y i n g the o b j e c t ; second, i t

becomes an o b j e c t of n e c e s s i t y ( t h a t i s , w i t h o u t the h o l e

the pants l o s e t h e i r former w o r t h ) .

N a r r a t i v e techniques conform i n v a r y i n g degrees t o e i t h e r of the two f u n c t i o n a l l y d i f f e r e n t types of n a r r a t i o n : 1, s c e n i c n a r r a t i o n , 2, n a r r a t i o n proper.73

In " s c e n i c n a r r a t i o n " the n a r r a t i o n serves more or l e s s as a

b i n d i n g m a t e r i a l to keep the elements of the d i a l o g u e

t o g e t h e r . I t prevents a g i v e n l i t e r a r y work from t u r n i n g

i n t o a pure drama.

In " n a r r a t i o n proper" the o r a l n a r r a t i o n forms the

dominant component o f the l i t e r a r y work. The reader l e a r n s

the s t o r y from the mouth of the n a r r a t o r . The "skaz"

technique u t i l i z e s t h i s d e v i c e w e l l . The author uses "skaz"

t e c h n i q u e w i t h a view to s e t t i n g the " o r a l n a r r a t i o n " of the

p erson who communicates the s t o r y . F o r t h i s purpose the

author s e l e c t s the p r o per l e x i c a l means, he construes the

a p p r o p r i a t e s y n t a c t i c a l combinations and he s e t s the i n t o n a

t i o n i n harmony w i t h t h a t of the supposed n a r r a t o r . T h i s

supposed n a r r a t o r i s the s u b j e c t whose consciousness —

7 2 I b i d . , p. 144. 73

V. Eikhenbaum, "Leskov i sovremennaya proza " , L i t e -r a t u r a , T e o r i y a , K r i t i k a , Polemika (Leningrad, 1927), p. 210.

whatever the degree o f i t s e x p l i c i t n e s s may be — both

r e c o r d s l i t e r a r y r e a l i t y and i n t e r p r e t s i t s meaning, estimates

i t and imparts to i t the t o n a l i t y agreeable t o the under

s t a n d i n g o f t h i s c o n s c i o u s n e s s .

The s e l e c t i o n of a n a i v e and s o c i a l l y humble n a r r a t o r

was not unique t o Zoshchenko; i n f a c t i t had a l o n g - e s t a b

l i s h e d l i t e r a r y t r a d i t i o n : Pushkin's Ivan P e t r o v i c h B e l k i n ,

the p r o v i n c i a l s q u i r e ; Gogol's Rudyj Pan'ko, the beekeeper;

Leskov's nameless n a r r a t o r of w o r k i n g - c l a s s background, i n

"Levsha"; Babel's Kurdyukov, the simple s o l d i e r who w r i t e s

home to h i s mother.

The pure "skaz" form i s even more s u c c e s s f u l i n

s m a l l e r genres, such as i n anecdotes. Zoshchenko succeeds

b e s t i n h i s s h o r t anecdotes, where the n a r r a t o r ' s c o n n e c t i o n

t o each anecdote i s o n l y f o r m a l .

Besides Zoshchenko, Vsevolod Ivanov and N i k o l a y

N i k i t i n , both S e r a p i o n B r o t h e r s , a l s o wrote s h o r t s t o r i e s

w i t h the use o f "skaz" t e c h n i q u e . What d i d Zoshchenko t h i n k

about h i s own s t y l e ?

H nHiuy oieHb cacaTO. $pa3a y MeHH K o p o T K a n . flocTynHaa 6eflHUM.

MoweT 6hiTB nosTOMy y MeHH MHOTO ^CHTaTenea.

In h i s s t o r i e s he always r e l i e s on the "one phraseology

— one p o i n t o f view" t e c h n i q u e . T h e r e f o r e he has no need

M. 3omeHKO, „0 ce6e, o KpHTHKax H O CBoefi pa6oTe", OraTBH H MaTepjiajiHi, CTP. 11.

t o develop i n t r i c a t e l y complex p l o t s . The s i m p l e r the

motive, the g r e a t e r can the c o n t r a s t be i n the manner the

h e r o - n a r r a t o r s o l v e s i t . Zoshchenko h i m s e l f i s o n l y a

detached o b s e r v e r o f the c o n f l i c t ; he does not take s i d e s .

H i s themes a r e r e p e t i t i o u s . He does not w r i t e about the

c o r r u p t i o n o f morals, but o f the b r u t e energy and awkward

d e s i r e t o conform, to understand and to s t a y a l i v e i n the

changing t i m e s .

H i s s t o r i e s are supposed to have a moral a t the

o u t s e t , but through the n a r r a t i o n of h i s n a i v e hero, the

p o i n t gets l o s t . The hero l o s e s s i g h t o f the moral o r the

main i s s u e and o f t e n a r r i v e s a t a completely unexpected

c o n c l u s i o n .

The s i t u a t i o n s t h a t p r o v i d e "raw m a t e r i a l " f o r

Zoshchenko*s t a l e s are the everyday l i f e o f the average

S o v i e t c i t i z e n : the i n e f f i c i e n c y o f consumers' s e r v i c e s (The

K i t t e n and P e o p l e ) , the housing shortage (Pushkin), the

s c a r c i t y of consumer goods (Economy Campaign), bureaucracy

and r e d tape (The R e c e i p t ) , bad roads, the j u x t a p o s i t i o n of

backwardness and the new i d e o l o g y . These are not merely a

s e t t i n g f o r h i s s t o r i e s : Zoshchenko i n t e n d s t o expose the

f r u s t r a t i o n s o f h i s fellow-men. P e r s o n a l problems and g r i e f s

are reduced i n s c a l e or e n l a r g e d t o . t h e absurd. " I t i s n ' t

f i d e l i t y o r i n f i d e l i t y i n marriage t h a t counts, but the

64 75 a v a i l a b i l i t y o f an apartment." The c h a r a c t e r s t r y t o g i v e

the i m p r e s s i o n o f t h e i r g r e a t e r importance, but t h e i r

a c t i o n s and language c o n s i s t e n t l y b e t r a y them.

Zoshchenko has a whole g a l l e r y of " s m a l l " men f o r h i s

heroes. Nazar I l ' i c h gospodin Sinebryukhov i s a f a i l u r e , so

are h i s a s s o c i a t e s : the m i l l e r who d i e s from an a c c i d e n t a l

s t r a y b u l l e t ; the P o l i s h beauty, V i k t o r i a Kazimirovna, who

gets h e r e n s i g n , the o l d p r i n c e and h a p p i l y s e t t l e s f o r a

peasant.

Nazar I l ' i c h has no s t r o n g i d e n t i t y : he i s a peasant,

h i s w i f e and h i s home are i n the v i l l a g e , but he i s a l s o a

s o l d i e r i n the t s a r ' s army, he "knows e v e r y t h i n g by the

l a t e s t t e chnology".

For the p r e d e c e s s o r s of Zabyeshkin, the u n f o r t u n a t e

p e t t y c l e r k , we do not have to look f a r i n the novels of

Gogol o r Dostoevsky. He i s the same f a i l u r e i n l i f e as

Nazar I l ' i c h . In f a c t , they are both s t r i v i n g f o r the same

u n o b t a i n a b l e g o a l : " f i n a n c i a l s e c u r i t y " , a p l a c e to c a l l

home and a woman to look a f t e r them. Nazar I l ' i c h ' s p l a n t o

get the m i l l e r ' s money i s f r u s t r a t e d by a f r e a k a c c i d e n t :

„. .. . a KaK na non c i y n u T , TaK non rpeMHT — 3eMJia K ce6e 7 6

noKOftHHKa Tpe6yeT."

75 Scenes from the Bathhouse and Other S t o r i e s of

Communist R u s s i a by M. Zoshchenko" I n t r o d u c t i o n by Sidney Monas , p~. v i i i .

n c. 3omeHKO, H3'6'pa'HHbie ripOH3BeneriHH B flByx TOMax,CTP.65.

The s e l e c t i o n o f a goat as a symbol o f s e c u r i t y i s a

s a t i r e . The goat i s o f t e n c a l l e d the poor man's cow; i t i s

the most i n s i g n i f i c a n t domesticated mammal one c o u l d own.

Zabyeshkin's modest dreams are a l s o f r u s t r a t e d : he i s not to

have the goat ( t h a t i s , the f u l f i l l m e n t o f h i s wishes f o r

s e c u r i t y and h a p p i n e s s ) .

The " A c t o r " i s a v i c t i m of the u n s t a b l e economic

c l i m a t e i n R u s s i a i n the 19 20's. The drama comes to a

h i g h l i g h t i n r e a l i s m when the " a c t o r " understands t h a t he i s

a c t u a l l y b e i n g robbed i n p u b l i c , on the t h e a t r e stage, and

t h e r e i s n o t h i n g he can do to stop i t . T h i s " v i c t i m " i s i n

k i n s h i p w i t h the n a r r a t o r o f "The C r i s i s " and a l s o with the

hero (Ivan Fedorovich) of "Pushkin". In the two l a t t e r

t a l e s the housing shortage i s so acute t h a t they f a l l

" v i c t i m s " : one s e t t l e s i n a communal bathroom w i t h w i f e ,

c h i l d and mother-in-law; Ivan F e d o r o v i c h i s put out on the

s t r e e t , because n i n e t y years ago Pushkin might have l i v e d i n

h i s new-found room. The i r o n y i n t h i s s t o r y i s t h a t the

o r g a n i z e r s o f the Pushkin a n n i v e r s a r y are more concerned

w i t h s e t t i n g up a s h r i n e f o r the deceased poet than w i t h

l o o k i n g a f t e r the needs o f l i v i n g human b e i n g s .

The s t o r y " K i t t e n and People" conveys the same g e n e r a l

i d e a . The n a r r a t o r ' s stove emits carbon monoxide fumes.

The b u r e a u c r a t s from the housing c o o p e r a t i v e f a i n t from the

poisonous gas, but d e c l a r e the stove s a f e : ". . . n o r e p a i r s .

One can l i v e . " The n a r r a t o r submits to h i s f a t e and when he

comprehends t h a t he i s l e s s s i g n i f i c a n t than a f l e a — "A 77

man i s n ' t a f l e a — he can g e t used to a n y t h i n g " — he i s

c o n t e n t .

The s o c i a l l y conscious c h a r a c t e r of the "new man" i s

another of Zoshchenko's f a v o r i t e heroes. T h i s man i s back

ward, h i s v o c a b u l a r y f u l l of p o s t e r slogans t h a t he uses

f r e e l y and almost always a t the wrong time, f o r the wrong

r e a s o n s . H i s g l o s s a r y i s o f the p r o l e t a r i a t , but h i s i n t o n

a t i o n and emotions b e t r a y h i s peasant background.

During the 19 20's, to cover up f o r desperate s h o r t a g e s ,

the p a r t y master-minded v a r i o u s economy campaigns. The popu

l a t i o n was r e g u l a r l y o r g a n i z e d i n t o " b r i g a d e s " and sent

scavenging around the c o u n t r y s i d e f o r s c r a p metal, paper,

r a g s . Zoshchenko's "Economy Campaign" takes us i n t o a f a c

t o r y , where the workers d e c i d e they w i l l stop h e a t i n g the

t o i l e t because " i t i s n ' t a l i v i n g room." The campaign works

out w e l l d u r i n g the w i n t e r : f i f t y f e e t of p i n e firewood i s

saved. The n a r r a t o r i s a shopkeeper a t h e a r t : "In a hundred

y e a r s you c o u l d e a s i l y save t h r e e c o r d s . In a thousand years 7 8

you c o u l d j u s t open up shop w i t h firewood." To a Zosh

chenko hero, success does not come e a s i l y : nature s t r i k e s a t

Zoshchenko, Scenes from the Bathhouse . . ., p. 45.

I b i d . , p. 35.

the " t s a r i s t p i p e s " and they b u r s t open d u r i n g the s p r i n g

thaw. "In g e n e r a l i t i s necessary to p u l l such p i p e s out by 79

the r o o t s " — the n a r r a t o r i s not c r i t i c a l o f the economy

campaign, he i s good-natured, he t r i e s t o go a l o n g , he wants

to see t h i n g s as he i s t o l d they a r e . But he f e e l s i t might

be a good i d e a to t h i n k i t over c a r e f u l l y : "Otherwise, i t

t u r n s i t s e l f away."

The " l i t t l e men" of Zoshchenko's s t o r i e s never win.

The h e r o i n e o f "No Need to S p e c u l a t e " d e v i s e s a f o o l p r o o f

method of o b t a i n i n g money from l a d i e s who are i n search of a

husband: she i n t r o d u c e s her own husband as an e l i g i b l e

b a c h e l o r , c o l l e c t s the fee and a few days l a t e r the husband

w i l l r e t u r n , the d e a l i s o f f and she w i l l end up having both

husband and money. A scheme l i k e t h i s would deserve t o

succeed 1 But a g a i n the h e r o i n e l o s e s her husband to a lady

d e n t i s t . She a l s o l o s e s p a r t o f her l i v e l i h o o d : she i s not

allowed to d e l i v e r m i l k to the apartment house where her

husband now l i v e s . Zoshchenko here p o r t r a y s the greedy

p h i l i s t i n e (meshchanstvo), who d u r i n g the N.E.P. years made

uncon s c i o n a b l e gains and s o l d anything — or i n t h i s case,

anyone — ' f o r p r o f i t .

In "The A r i s t o c r a t " , G r e g o r i i I v a n o vich, the good-

natured c a r e t a k e r , has h i s t r o u b l e s . His f i r s t encounters

I b i d . , p. 36.

w i t h the " A r i s t o k r a t k a " (whose n o b i l i t y d e r i v e d from having

a g o l d t o o t h and s t o c k i n g s ) are l i m i t e d to c o n v e r s a t i o n on

such t o p i c s as the c o n d i t i o n o f the plumbing. G r e g o r i i

I v a n o v i c h overcomes h i s shyness and i n v i t e s the " l a d y " t o

the t h e a t r e . The c a r e t a k e r l o v e s h i s new s e l f — the

gentleman. Zoshchenko does not allow him t o remain a

"gentleman": the mask i s r i p p e d o f f when he p u b l i c l y o f f e n d s

the " l a d y " f o r e a t i n g too many sweets. G r e g o r i i I v a n o v i c h

cannot f o r g i v e the " A r i s t o k r a t k a " f o r the p u b l i c embarrass

ment. "I don't l i k e a r i s t o c r a t s " — h i s view happens to

c o i n c i d e w i t h the p a r t y ' s view, but h i s reason f o r d i s l i k i n g

" a r i s t o c r a t s " i s p e r s o n a l and not h i s t o r i c a l . The t h i n

veneer of fake manners i s o f f .

The dear incompetent man of "Rachis" has managed to

sta y i n h i s job f o r t h i r t y y e a rs a t the pos t o f f i c e ' s

" F o r e i g n Correspondences" bureau, even though he does not

read L a t i n l e t t e r s . His incompetence was covered up f o r

yea r s as h i s fellow-workers read the telegrams f o r him. In

t h i s s t o r y the n a r r a t o r i s as uneducated as the hero, f o r he

does not see the n e c e s s i t y f o r K r y l y s h k i n t o know f o r e i g n

languages:

And I f e e l very s o r r y f o r him! W e l l , where are you going to get an o l d - t i m e s p e c i a l i s t i n f o r e i g n languages nowadays? Should have l e t him sta y on!80

8 0 Zoshchenko, Scenes from the Bathhouse . . ., p. 41.

In h i s sketches Zoshchenko mostly c r i t i c i z e s the

c r a s s n e s s (poshlost*) of the "meshchanstvo", i t s condescend

i n g way o f l i f e , i t s p u r p o s e l e s s greed. Seldom, i f e v e r ,

does he c r i t i c i z e the regime. His f a u l t f i n d i n g i s u s u a l l y

aimed a t a m i n o r i t y segment o f S o v i e t s o c i e t y , — v e r y o f t e n

the b u r e a u c r a t , the h e a r t l e s s , inhuman machine. T h i s q u a l i t y

o f h i s s t o r i e s was one of the s e c r e t s of h i s g r e a t success

w i t h the p u b l i c and w i t h the P a r t y . His c r i t i c i s m was

a c c e p t a b l e as long as i t was not aimed a g a i n s t the s h o r t

comings of P a r t y p o l i c i e s .

In 19 32, Zhdanov

. . . i n v i t e d i n t o a s i n g l e Union of S o v i e t W r i t e r s a l l w r i t e r s who support the p l a t f o r m of S o v i e t power and [who] wish to p a r t i c i p a t e i n b u i l d i n g s o c i a l i s m . 8 1

At the f i r s t meeting o f the A l l - U n i o n Congress of S o v i e t

W r i t e r s i n 1934, Zhdanov l e f t no i l l u s i o n i n the w r i t e r s '

minds t h a t the P a r t y would a b s t a i n from forming l i t e r a r y

p o l i c i e s as i t had h i t h e r t o . Zhdanov a s s e r t e d c a t e g o r i c a l l y

t h a t s o c i a l i s t r e a l i s m would h e n c e f o r t h c o n s t i t u t e the

e x c l u s i v e a r t i s t i c method of e x p r e s s i o n f o r S o v i e t l i t e r a t u r e .

With t h i s , the p e r i o d o f p a t h f i n d i n g and r e l a t i v e freedom o f

e x p r e s s i o n f o r the a r t s had ended. Some w r i t e r s t u r n e d a

new page i n t h e i r c r e a t i v e l i v e s and, i f f o r no o t h e r reason

"0 p e r e s t r o y k e l i t e r a t u r n o - k h u d o z h e s t v e n n y k h o r g a n i -z a t s i i , P o s t a n o v l e n i e CKVKP(b) o t 23 a p r e l y a 1932 g." Sovremennaya L i t e r a t u r a (Moskva, 1946), pp. 14-18.

than s e l f - p r e s e r v a t i o n , they accepted the new r u l e . Maya-

kovsky chose s u i c i d e a f t e r a t r i a l p e r i o d ; o t h e r s were never

heard o f a g a i n .

Zoshchenko's s t o r i e s were as p o p u l a r as ever; even

S t a l i n , a l l e g e d l y , was amused by them. He seemed an u n l i k e l y

c a n d i d a t e f o r Zhdanov's purges. As i t happened, Zhdanov was

j u s t w a i t i n g f o r the o p p o r t u n i t y to punish Zoshchenko f o r an

e a r l i e r statement he had made: "I am not a Communist (or 8 2

r a t h e r not a M a r x i s t ) , and I t h i n k I never s h a l l be" — i t

had not been allowed to go unpunished, o n l y the time had to

be r i p e .

Zoshchenko must have overestimated h i s i n v u l n e r a b i l i t y

o r underestimated Zhdanov's e v e r - i n c r e a s i n g powers when he 8 3

submitted "The Adventures of an Ape" and h i s autobiograph

i c a l s t o r y "Before the S u n r i s e " f o r p u b l i c a t i o n . They both

proved f a t a l f o r h i s l i t e r a r y c a r e e r u n t i l a f t e r the death

of S t a l i n i n 1953.

"The Adventures of an Ape" begins i n the L e n i n g r a d

Zoo. During a bomb a t t a c k on the c i t y , the zoo i s h i t and a

monkey escapes. On t h i s sad o c c a s i o n t h e r e i s something t o

r e j o i c e about: the t h r e e snakes are k i l l e d , s i n c e b i b l i c a l

M. Zoshchenko, "Druzheskie p a r o d i i " , L i t e r a t u r n y e z a p i s k i , No. 2 (June 23, 1922), pp. 8-9.

83 Zvezda, May-June, 1946.

times they are the most u n i v e r s a l symbol f o r a l l e v i l : "not

i n i t s e l f a very sad f a c t perhaps", says Zoshchenko. Unfor

t u n a t e l y the o s t r i c h i s k i l l e d t o o , — meaning t h a t even those

who do not commit themselves t o one i d e o l o g y o r another, the

s o - c a l l e d " n e u t r a l s " , are not s a f e from d e s t r u c t i o n .

Among a l l the animals the monkey i s the most f r i g h t

ened. Maybe he i s the most i n t e l l i g e n t and he can t e l l when

h i s l i f e and s e c u r i t y are i n danger?

At f i r s t he i s r e l u c t a n t to l e a v e : he has more freedom

and s e c u r i t y behind bars than the f r e e people on the s t r e e t s .

He i s captured t h r e e times soon a f t e r he leaves the

zoo: f i r s t by a k i n d m i l i t a r y man, then by a p r o f i t e e r i n g

o l d man, l a s t l y by a warm-hearted l i t t l e boy. U n t i l he i s

permanently s e t t l e d i n the l i t t l e boy's apartment, he i s

b e i n g chased by d i f f e r e n t groups of people. The order i n

which they run a f t e r him i s always the same: "The boys a t

the head. Behind them, the grown-ups. Behind the grown-ups, 84

the policeman."

D u r i n g the monkey's escapade, Zoshchenko does not

f o r g e t t o make a few jabs a t h i s f a v o r i t e u n s o p h i s t i c a t e s ,

the o r d i n a r y c i t y f o l k . When the monkey takes grandma's

candy: "Well, an ape. I t ' s not a man. A man, i f he takes

M. Zoshchenko, Scenes from the Bathhouse and Other S t o r i e s of Communist R u s s i a (Ann Arbor Paperbacks, 1962), pp. 178-179, 182.

85 something, wouldn't do i t r i g h t under grandma's nose." In Q C

the bathhouse: "no one knew i t was an ape." The edge of

i r o n y i s sharp h e r e : i t wasn't r e c o g n i z e d as an ape, because

i t i s so much l i k e the o t h e r s who use the bathhouse. When

the monkey jumps on the la d y s e l l i n g the t i c k e t s , she shouts: 87

"A bomb f e l l i n my o f f i c e . Quick, some i o d i n e I " She i s

"knowledgeable" i n pharmacology, she demands i o d i n e , the

good o l d remedy t h a t cures a l l !

The dog, which chased the monkey once and had i t s nose

almost t w i s t e d o f f i n the p r o c e s s , when urged the second time, . . . d i d n ' t go a f t e r him. The dog o n l y looked a t the f l e e i n g ape, f e l t a sharp p a i n i n i t s nose, and stopped running; even turned around. Probably thought: "They don't supply you w i t h noses — running a f t e r apes."88

T h i s i s a r e f e r e n c e t o the P a v l o v i a n dog's c o n d i t i o n i n g ; b ut

i n s t e a d o f l e a r n i n g through reward, i t l e a r n e d i t s l e s s o n

through p a i n . A l s o another u n i v e r s a l human t r a i t : never

v o l u n t e e r !

Zoshchenko makes a few r e f e r e n c e s t o the shortage o f

food: He ate a f l y t o recoup h i s s t r e n g t h . And then

a couple of worms.

Where c o u l d he eat? There wasn't a n y t h i n g e d i b l e i n the s t r e e t s . . . A l l the more he had no money. . . R a t i o n coupons he does not have.9 u

8 5 I b i d . , p. 179. 8 6 I b i d . , p. 181. 8 7 I b i d . , p. 182. 8 8 I b i d . 8 9 I b i d . , p. 177. 9 0 I b i d . , p. 178.

At l a s t the ape r e t u r n s t o the l i t t l e boy, who takes

very good c a r e of him and t r a i n s him. The monkey l e a r n s

very good manners, and eat s a t the t a b l e . C h i l d r e n , and

many a d u l t s , can l e a r n manners from the monkey.

T h i s s t o r y has been i n t e r p r e t e d i n many ways. The

C e n t r a l Committee of the Communist Party had the f o l l o w i n g

o p i n i o n :

"Adventures of a Monkey" . . . i s a v u l g a r lampoon on S o v i e t l i f e and on S o v i e t p e o p l e . Zoshchenko d i s f i g u r e s and c a r i c a t u r e s S o v i e t customs and S o v i e t people, s l a n d e r o u s l y p o r t r a y i n g S o v i e t people as p r i m i t i v e , u n c u l t u r e d , s t u p i d , w i t h p h i l i s t i n e t a s t e s and customs. Zoshchenko's m a l i c i o u s , h o o l i g a n - l i k e d e p i c t i o n of our way o f l i f e i s accompanied by a n t i - S o v i e t a t t a c k s .

Zhdanov's r e p o r t was j u s t as s t r o n g l y worded:

Of n e c e s s i t y , Zoshchenko had to g i v e monstrous, c a r i c a t u r e d , and v u l g a r p o r t r a y a l o f the l i f e o f the S o v i e t people i n order t o make the monkey u t t e r the f o u l , poisonous, a n t i - S o v i e t quip t h a t i t i s b e t t e r to l i v e i n the zoo than o u t s i d e i t , t h a t one can breathe more f r e e l y i n a cage than among S o v i e t people.

Is i t p o s s i b l e to s i n k any lower m o r a l l y and p o l i t i c a l l y ? And how can the people of L e n i n g r a d t o l e r a t e such f i l t h and o b s c e n i t y on the pages of t h e i r j o u r n a l s ?

In f a c t , Zoshchenko d i d not w r i t e s p e c i f i c a l l y about

S o v i e t people i n t h i s s k e t c h , but about mankind i n g e n e r a l .

L i f e i n the " c i v i l i z e d " w o r l d i s so c o n f u s i n g t h a t the monkey

would much r a t h e r choose the s h e l t e r e d s e c u r i t y of a cage.

There are zoos i n almost any l a r g e c i t y ; t h e r e was a shortage

of food i n a l l European c i t i e s d u r i n g the war. A l c o h o l i s m ,

s t u p i d i t y and greed are not p e c u l i a r l y S o v i e t q u a l i t i e s .

The manners of c h i l d r e n , and o f some a d u l t s , c o u l d stand

improvement i n any c o u n t r y . There i s n o t h i n g outrageous i n

t h i s s t o r y , except t h a t t h e r e i s no i d e n t i f i a b l e p r o g r e s s i v e

p o s i t i v e hero, which i s a must i n s o c i a l i s t r e a l i s m .

On August 14, 1946, the C e n t r a l Committee of the

S o v i e t Communist P a r t y , i n a p u b l i c statement, reprimanded

the l i t e r a r y j o u r n a l Zvezda f o r p u b l i s h i n g c e r t a i n works of

Zoshchenko and Akhmatova. A f t e r t h i s , i t was o n l y a metter

of time: i n f a c t , on September 4, 1946, the P r e s i d i u m of the

Board o f the Union of S o v i e t W r i t e r s e x p e l l e d Zoshchenko and

Akhmatova from the Union, on the ground t h a t o n l y w r i t e r s

who "stand on the p l a t f o r m of S o v i e t power and p a r t i c i p a t e 91

i n s o c i a l i s t c o n s t r u c t i o n " were e n t i t l e d t o membership.

The charge a g a i n s t Zoshchenko was the p u b l i c a t i o n of

h i s s t o r y "The Adventures o f an Ape", p r i n t e d i n the i s s u e

o f Zvezda o f May-June 1946. P a r t i c u l a r a t t e n t i o n was a l s o

drawn to h i s a u t o b i o g r a p h i c a l n o v e l Before S u n r i s e , w r i t t e n

d u r i n g the war. One of h i s major a l l e g e d crimes was t h a t he

had done no t h i n g d u r i n g the war to h e l p the war e f f o r t and

the f i g h t i n g people of the S o v i e t Union.

R e z o l u t s i j a P rezidiuma p r a v l e n i j a Sojuza SoVetskikh p i s a t e l e j o t 4 s e p t . 1946 g., O k t i a b r , No. 9 (1946), pp. 182-187.

His f a l l was a l l the more s u r p r i s i n g because he was

so very p o p u l a r among S o v i e t r e a d e r s . H i s f e l l o w - w r i t e r s

had e l e c t e d him t o the p r e s i d e n c y o f the Union of S o v i e t

W r i t e r s . In 1939 he had r e c e i v e d the medal o f the Red Labour

Banner " f o r o u t s t a n d i n g p r o g r e s s and achievements i n the 92

development o f S o v i e t b e l l e s - l e t t r e s . "

I t i s very d i f f i c u l t t o comprehend how "Zoshchenko

the v i l l a i n " c o u l d have "m i s l e d " so many S o v i e t r e a d e r s , h i s

f e l l o w - w r i t e r s , and members o f the Pa r t y f o r t w e n t y - f i v e

y e a r s .

His e x p u l s i o n from the Union o f S o v i e t W r i t e r s put an

end t o h i s b r i l l i a n t s t o r i e s . When the world next heard o f

him, i t was an u n i n s p i r e d , humourless Zoshchenko. On r e a d i n g 9 3

such a sk e t c h as "Rogul'ka"/ one can o n l y be dismayed:

what had Zoshchenko gone through t o abandon h i s p r i n c i p l e s

and produce a s t o r y l i k e t h a t ?

Zoshchenko's e x p u l s i o n was revoked soon a f t e r S t a l i n ' s

death i n 19 53. U n f o r t u n a t e l y , he never r e t u r n e d t o h i s

former s t y l e , w i t h i t s former e x c e l l e n c e . He d i e d i n 19 58,

at the age o f s i x t y - t h r e e , from a h e a r t a i l m e n t he had con

t r a c t e d as a r e s u l t o f gas p o i s o n i n g d u r i n g the F i r s t World

9 2 L i t e r a t u r n a j a Gazeta, February 5, 1939.

9 3 V i r e n , F r o n t o v o j jumor, Voennoe i z d a t e l ' s t v o

(Moskva, 1970), p. 33.

The o f f i c i a l S o v i e t c r i t i c s d i d not w r i t e about him

u n t i l two ye a r s a f t e r h i s death. Zoshchenko i s s t i l l frowned

upon by the S o v i e t l i t e r a r y c r i t i c s . They are s t i l l unable

to " f o r g i v e " him f o r coming out s t r o n g l y a g a i n s t the " p o l i -

t i c h e s k a y a tendentsiya". ..BCHKVIO TeHfleHunosHOCTB MU OTpnnaeM 94

B KOpHe." iiHeT y MeHH HH K KOMy HeHaBHCTH BOT MOH 95

iTOiHan uneonorHH*". D e s p i t e the s m a l l volume o f r e p r i n t s

o f h i s works (50,000) , he i s s t i l l very p o p u l a r among S o v i e t

r e a d e r s , and he i s g a i n i n g p o p u l a r i t y among western readers

o f Russian l i t e r a t u r e . More of h i s works have been t r a n s

l a t e d i n t o E n g l i s h s i n c e the l a t e 1950's than d u r i n g h i s

most p r o d u c t i v e years i n the twenties and t h i r t i e s .

As f o r the Se r a p i o n B r o t h e r s — they came q u i e t l y and

they l e f t q u i e t l y . They ceased t o meet r e g u l a r l y i n the mid-

tw e n t i e s . They were no lo n g e r an i n f l u e n t i a l l i t e r a r y group

96 by 19 29. T h e i r main accomplishment as a group was i n f i l l i n g the vacuum:

Bourgeois a r t was q u i t t i n g the stage o f h i s t o r y , whereas the new a r t , the a r t o f the R e v o l u t i o n , had not y e t emerged. Some p r o v i s i o n a l forms o f a r t had t o patch the gap s e p a r a t i n g the p r o s p e c t i v e s o c i a l i s t a r t from the f a d i n g bourgeois a r t .

94 P e t e r b u r g s k i j S b o r n i k .

95 . . M. Zoshchenko, "O sebe, ob i d e o l o g i i l ish c h o koe o

chom", L i t e r a t u r n y e z a p i s k i , 1922, No. 3, p. 28. 96

A. Lezhnev and D. Gorbov, L 1 1 e r a t u ra r e vo l y u t s I onnogo d e s y a t i l e t i y a 1917-19 27 ( " P r o l e t a r i y " , 1 9 2 9 ) , p. 69.

P i l ' n y a k , the S e r a p i o n B r o t h e r s . E s e n i n and o t h e r s produced t h i s t r a n s i t i o n a l a r t . 9 ?

From a f i f t y - y e a r h i s t o r i c a l p e r s p e c t i v e , one must

come to the c o n c l u s i o n t h a t the Serapions* l i t e r a r y a c h i e v e

ments were modest. They d i d not manage to e s t a b l i s h a

l i t e r a r y t r e n d l i k e the Symbolists or the F o r m a l i s t s . Ac

c o r d i n g to Lunc, they never wanted to e s t a b l i s h a l i t e r a r y

s c h o o l — i n t h a t they d i d succeed.

Some of the B r o t h e r s were s h o r t - l i v e d ; f o r i n s t a n c e ,

Lunc d i e d i n Germany i n 1923. Others became b e t t e r known

abroad; f o r example, Pozner was b e s t known f o r h i s c r i t i c a l

works i n P a r i s .

A f t e r Zhdanov's p e r s e c u t i o n of Russian w r i t e r s , many

of them changed t h e i r l i t e r a r y s t y l e s ; they developed new

c h a r a c t e r s to complement the new p l o t s . The q u a l i t y of

Zoshchenko's s t o r i e s w r i t t e n a f t e r 1946 can be d e s c r i b e d , a t

b e s t , as mediocre. Shklovsky l o s t h i s s p i r i t , h i s " t i g e r -

t o o t h " had been p u l l e d by Zhdanov. Tikhonov had to t u r n 180

degrees to s u r v i v e . (He not o n l y s u r v i v e d , but managed to

l i v e w e l l . )

Polonskaya, Gruzdyov — they faded away i n S o v i e t

l i t e r a t u r e . Ivanov, N i k i t i n and F e d i n are s t i l l read i n the

S o v i e t Union. Only Zoshchenko has the same p o p u l a r i t y as he

H. O u l a n o f f , The S e r a p i o n B r o t h e r s . Theory and P r a c t i c e , p. 34.

enjoyed d u r i n g the twenties and t h i r t i e s . H is most pop u l a r

works are s t i l l those t h a t he wrote d u r i n g the u n s e t t l e d e r a

o f the New Economic P o l i c y .

BIBLIOGRAPHY

PRIMARY SOURCES: W r i t i n g s o f M. Zoshchenko, and o f the othe r S e r a p i o n Brothers.. . .

3omeHKO, M. M. „flpyxecKHe napoflHH (napoflHH o CepannoHOBbix EpaTBHx)", JlHTepaTypHbie 3anHCKH, No. 2 ( 1 9 2 2 ) , pp. 8-9.

. „0 c e 6 e , 0 6 HfleonorHH H eme Koe o ^eM", JlHTepaTyp-Hbie sanHCKH, No. 3 ( 1 9 2 2 ) , pp. 28-29.

. ,|ABT06HOrpa$HH" B cSopHHKe nHcaTejiH. ABT06HOrpacJ)HH H nopTpeTbi coBpeMeHHux pyccKHX nposaHKOB. MocKBa, 1926.

. „0 c e 6 e , o K p H T H K a x H O cBoeft pa6oTe", MHxaHJi 3omeHKO. C T S T B H H MaxepHaJibi, JleHHHrpafl, 1928.

. CTaTBH B cSopHHKe KaK Mbi nHineM, HeHHHrpan, 1930, pp. 48-58.

. CTaTBH B c6opHHKe JlHTepaTypHan y q e 6 a , No. 3, 1930, pp. 107-113.

. Co6paHHe coTOHeHHK. TOM I-IV. J l e H H H r p a n ; , 1931.

' ' ' . H36paHHoe OflHOTOMHHK. HeHHHrpan;, 1934. Conepxa-H H e : „PaccKa3bi 1925-1933"; „ IIOB e c T H 1922-1932"; M $ e J i B e T O H b i 1923-1933".

. R u s s i a Laughs. T r a n s l a t e d by Helena C l a y t o n . Toronto, 1 935. Longmans.

. H36paHHbie noBecTH. CO B e T C K H f i n n c a T e j i B , 1937. ConepKaHHe: nepBbie noBecra: „My,npocTB" , „Ko3a"; „PaccKa3bi Ha3apa H.nBH*ia" ; „ B e J i H K o c B e T C K a H HCTOPHH"; „BHKTOPHH Ka3HMHpoBHa"; „yepTOBHHKa"; „rH6.noe MecTo" ; ,fCeHTHMeH— TajiBHbie noBecra" : ..ripeflHCJiOBHe" ; „Ano.n.noH H TaMapa" ; „CTpaiuHaH HO^B"; „0 ̂ eM neJi cojioBeH"; ..Becenoe npHKJiio-HeHHe"; „CHpeHb UBerer"; „MHiueJib CHHHFHH: I l p e f l H C J i O B H e " ; „M. n. CHHHTHH: HCTOPHH OflHOft KH3HH".

. The Woman Who Could Not Read, and Other T a l e s , t r a n s l by E l i z a v e t a Fen. London: Methuen. 1940.

__________ Wonderful Dog, and Other T a l e s , t r a n s l . by E l i z a v e t a Fen. London: Methuen, 1942.

3omeHKO, M. M. IIoBecTH H paccKa3bi. H3«. HMeHH lexoBa. Hbio KopK. 1952.

. Scenes from the Bathhouse and Other Stories of Communist Russia. (Including abridged e d i t i o n of "Before Sunrise".) University of Michigan Press. Ann Arbor, 1962.

. Nervous People, and Other S t o r i e s . Edited by Hugh McLean, translated by Maria Gordon and Hugh McLean. New York. 1963.

. nepen BocxoflOM cojTHna. Me)KHyHapoflHoe JlHTepaTypHoe ConpyHcecTBO. 1967.

. H36paHHbie npon3BefleHHfl. B flByx TOMax. JleHHHrpan:. H 3 f l . XyflOKecTBeHHan JiHTepaTypa, 1968.

. PaccKa3bi flBaauaTbix roaoB. Bradda Books, Ltd., 1969 .

. „ABToBHorpaOHH", 5 HIOJIH 19 53 r. B HsQpaHHbix npoH3Befl6HH3X B anyx T O M a x . H3n. XyflosecTBeHHaH J i H T e p a T y p a , J l e H H H r p a n , 1968. Pp. 47-48.

. BHpeH, B. H. ( C O C T a B H T e J I b ) , OPOHTOBQH K I M O p . „njioxaH BeMjiH", p a c c K a 3 a j i c T a p u i H H J i e f t T e H a H T H. JIV^HHCKHH, 3 a n H c a n M. M. 3omeHKo: „PoryjibKa", pp. 31-17. BoeHHoe H3naTenbCTBO, 1970.

Tpy3neB, H. A. „Be^epa CepanHOHOBbix BpaTbeB", KHHra H PeBorac^HH, No. 2 (1922), pp. 110-111.

H B a H O B , B. B. napTH3aHbi. I I o B e c T b . H3fl. „KOCMHCT", IleTep-6ypr, 1921. '

. HneTbie BeTpa. noBecTB. „3noxa", neTep6ypr, 1922.

ronySHe n e c K H . P o M a H . B e p J i H H , 1923.

. „0 ce6e KaK 06 HCKyccTBe", nHcaTeJTH 06 HCKyccTBe H o ce6e. CSopHHK cTaTefi. No. 1 (1924), pp. 55-63.

TaftHoe TaHHbix. PaccKa3bi. MocKBa, 1927.

KaBepHH, B. A. KoHeu; Xa3H. PoMaH (naMHTH JIbBa JlyHixa) . ..KOBIU", No. 1 ( 1 9 2 5 ) , pp. 161-236.

. „PeBH3op", 3Be3fla, No. 4 ( 1 9 2 6 ) , pp. 5-33.

. „ABT06HOrpaCi)HH" B c60pHHKe IlHCaTSJTH . ABToSHorpa-$HH B nopTpeTti coBpeMeHHUx pyccKHX npo3anKOB. MocKBa, 1926.

__. CTaTBH B c6opHHKe Kan MM nHUieM, JleHHHrpaa, 1930, pp. 59-74.

HyHii, JI. H. „B nycTbiHe, PaccKa3", CepannoHOBH BpaTbH. AJibMaHax nepBbia. rieTepSypr, 1922.

. „BHe 3axoHa, TpareflHH B 5 R. H 7 aKT.", Eecena,

No. 1 ( 1 9 2 3 ) , pp. 43-125.

. „Ha 3ana«", Eecega, No. 3 ( 1 9 2 3 ) , pp. 259-274.

. „ropofl npaBflu, Ilbeca B 3 p,.", Eeceaa, No. 5 ( 1 9 2 4 ) , pp. 63- 1 0 1 .

. „CepanHOHOBbi BpaTbH o ce6e", JlHTepaTypHbie 3anHCKH, No. 3 (1922) , pp. 25-31. (JlyHU, „no^eMy MHI CepnaHOHOBbi BpaTbH", pp. 30-31.)

. „ A B T o 6 H o r p a c i ) H H " , B c6opHHKe riHcaTejiH. ABToSHorpa-$HH H nopTpeTbl COBpeMeHHblX pyCCKHX npo3anKOB. MOCKBa, 1926, pp. 169-171.

HHKHTHH, H. H. AMepHKaHCKoe c^acTbe. PaccKaaH. n.eTep6ypr, 1922.

. „fle3H", CepanHOHOBbi BpaTbH. AJibMaHax IlepBbift, 1922.

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nojieT. PaccKa3U. JleHHHrpafl, 1 9 2 5 . T H 3 .

. „ABTo6Horpa$HH" , B cdopHHKe riHcaTejiH. A B T o 6 H o r p a -Cj)HH H nopTpeTbl COBpeMeHHblX pyCCKHX np03 3HKOB . MOCKBa, 1926, pp. 201-202.

rioJioHCKaH, E. r . CTHXH : „Ha naMHTb o- THJKGJIOM r o f l e . . . " , „CyxoH H ryjiKHfi meJiKHyji 6apa6aH...", CepannoHOBbi EpaTbH. 3arpaHH^Hbia AjiBMaHax, 1922.

CJIOHHMCKHH, M. JI. LOecTOH C T p e j i K O B b i a . r. PaccKa3bi. IIeTep6ypr, „BpeMH", 1922.

. MauiHHa SMepH. PaccKa3H. JleHHHrpan;, H3fl. „ A T e H e a " , 1924.

. CTaTBH B CepHH 3BTOpCKHX 3 3MeTOK „CepanHOHOBbl

EpaTbH o ce6e", JlHTepaTypHbie 3anncKH, No.3 ( 1 9 2 2 ) , p. 25.

. n ABTo6HorpacJ)H^[ecKHe CBeRetmn" , B cSopHHKe IlHcaTejiH . A B T 0 6 H O r p a$HH H n O p T p e T b l COBpeMeHHblX pyCCKHX npo3anKOB. MocKBa, 1926. Pp. 285-286.

. CTaTBH B c6opHHKe KaK Mbi nHmeM. JleHHHrpan;, 1930. Pp. 130-133.

THXOHOB, H. C. ,,MaxHo. CTHXH", CepanHOHOBhi EpaTbH. 3arpaHH^HHR AJibMaHax, 1922.

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M O C T p O B H T f l H S 1 ' , 1922.

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. H35paHHbie CTHXH. MocKBa, 1928.

. „KaK H pa6oTaio", JlHTepaTypHan y**e6a, No. 5 (1930), pp. 92-106.

. CTaTBH B cSopHHKe KaK Mbi nnuieM, JleHHHrpan;, 1930. Pp. 134-142.

. „ A B T o 6 H o r p a$Hf l ", CoBSTCKHe riHcaTejiH. ABTo6norpa-$HH B flByx TOMax (MocKBa, 1959), T . I I , pp. 426-433.

OeflHH, K. A. ropofla H roflbi. PoMaH. JleHHHrpan;, 1924.

' . Caa. H3H. „neTporpafl", 1923.

. r o p B K H a cpenH Hac: flBa,rr,rr,aTbie ronta. OrH3, MocKBa, 1943.

<&ep,KH, K. A. C i t i e s a n d Years. Novel. T r a n s l a t e d by M i c h a e l Scammell. New York, 1962.

. ,,ABTo6Horpa<i>HH" , I7.HcaTe.nH . ABTo6HorpacJ>HH H

nopTpeTBi coBpeMeHHbix p y c c K H X n p o 3 a H K O B , MocKBa, 1926.

. . . O e J l B e T O H O H3bIKe H K p H T H K e " , 3jBj23fla , No. 9 (1929).

_ _ _ _ _ _ _ C T a T B H B „Cnope o coijHajibHOM 3 a K a 3 e " , Ile ^ a T b H P e B Q J u o q H H , KH. 1 (1929) , p p . 74-75.

. „KaK H pa6oTaio", JlHTepaTypHan y^eSa, No. 4 (1930), p p . 111-118.

. C T a T B H B c 6 o p H H K e K a K Mbi nHUieM (U3R. l ( r i H c a T e J i e H B JleHHHrpafle") , 1930, p p . 169-181.

UIKJIOBCKHH, B . B. . . C e p a n H O H O B H S p a T B H " , KHWKHHIH yroji, No. 7 (1921), p p . 18-21.

. C s H T H M S H T a j i b H o e nyTewecTBHe. BocnoMHHaHHH 1918-1923 r r . JleHHHrpan;, H3fl. „ A T e H e H " , 1924 .

. „0 3omeHKe H 6oJibiuoH J i H T e p a T y p e " , MuxaHJi 3 o m e H K Q . CtaTbH H MaTepnajtbi. JleHHHrpan;, 1928.

SELECTED BACKGROUND READINGS

Alexandrovna, V. H i s t o r y of S o v i e t L i t e r a t u r e . Doubleday & Co. Inc., 1963.

B a b e l , I . The C o l l e c t e d S t o r i e s . E d i t e d and T r a n s l a t e d by' Walter Morison. C l e v e l a n d : M e r i d i a n Books,, 1960.

Barghoorn, F. C. The S o v i e t Image of the U n i t e d S t a t e s : A Study i n D i s t o r t i o n . New York: Ha r c o u r t , Brace, 1950.

Bauer, R. A. The New Man i n S o v i e t Psychology. Cambridge: Harvard U n i v e r s i t y P r e s s , 1952.

B e l o v , F. H i s t o r y o f a S o v i e t C o l l e c t i v e Farm. New York: Praeger, 1955.

B l a c k , C y r i l E. The T r a n s f o r m a t i o n o f Russian S o c i e t y . Cambridge: Harvard U n i v e r s i t y P r e s s , 1960.

B o r l a n d , H a r r i e t . S o v i e t L i t e r a r y Theory and P r a c t i c e d u r i n g the F i r s t F i v e - Y e a r P l a n : 1928-1932. New York: King's Crown P r e s s , 1950.

Brown, Edward J . The P r o l e t a r i a n Episode i n Russian L i t e r a t u r e . New York! Columbia U n i v e r s i t y P r e s s , 1953.

B r z e z i n s k i , Z. The Permanent Purge. Cambridge: Harvard U n i v e r s i t y P r e s s , 1956.

C a r r , Edward H. A H i s t o r y of S o v i e t R u s s i a : The B o l s h e v i k R e v o l u t i o n 1917-1923. Volumes I and I I . London: Mac m i l l a n , 1951-1960.

. A H i s t o r y o f S o v i e t R u s s i a : S o c i a l i s m i n One Country 1924-1926. Volumes I and I I . New York: The M a c m i l l a n Co., 1958-1960.

Chizhevsky, Dmitry. "Comenius 1 L a b y r i n t h of the World: I t s themes and t h e i r s o u r c e s , " Harvard S l a v i c S t u d i e s , V o l . I (Cambridge, Mass., 1953).

Da n z i g e r , M. K. and W. S. Johnson. An I n t r o d u c t i o n t o L i t e r a r y C r i t i c i s m . Boston: D. C. Heath & Co., 1961.

de B a s i l y , N. R u s s i a Under S o v i e t Rule: Twenty Years o f B o l s h e v i k Experiment. London, A l l e n and Unwm, 19 38.

DeWitt, N. E d u c a t i o n and P r o f e s s i o n a l Employment i n the U.S.S. R. Washington: N a t i o n a l S c i e n c e Foundation, T961.

Eastman, M. A r t i s t i n Uniform: A Study of L i t e r a t u r e and Bure a u c r a t i s m . London: A l l e n and Unwin, 1934.

Eng-Liedmeier, A. S o v i e t L i t e r a r y C h a r a c t e r s ; an I n v e s t i g a t i o n i n t o the P o r t r a y a l o f S o v i e t Men i n Russian Prose, 1917-1953. The Hague: Mouton, 19 59.

E r . l i c h , A lexander. The S o v i e t I n d u s t r i a l i z a t i o n Debate, 1924-19 28. Cambridge: Harvard U n i v e r s i t y P r e s s , 1960.

E r l i c h , V i c t o r . Russian Formalism. H i s t o r y — D o c t r i n e . T h i r d E d i t i o n . The Hague: Mouton, 1969.

F a i n s o d , M e r l e . How R u s s i a Is Ruled. Cambridge: Harvard U n i v e r s i t y P r e s s , 1964.

F i s c h e r , L. The S o v i e t s i n World A f f a i r s . P r i n c e t o n U n i v e r s i t y P r e s s , 1960. ( F i r s t p u b l i s h e d by Random House, 1930.)

. Machines and Men i n R u s s i a . London, Cape: H a r r i s o n Smith, 1932.

Freeman, Joseph. The S o v i e t Worker: An Account o f the Economic, S o c i a l and C u l t u r a l S t a t u s of Labor i n the U.S.S.R. New York: L i v e r i g h t Inc., 1932.

Guerney, B. G. Treasury o f Russian L i t e r a t u r e . New York: The Vanguard P r e s s , 1943, pp. 1031-1037.

Hazard, John N. S o v i e t Housing Law. New Haven: Y a l e U n i v e r s i t y P r e s s , 19 39.

Hunt, R. N. C. The Theory and P r a c t i c e o f Communism. London, New York: Macmillan,. 19 50.

I n k e l e s , A. P u b l i c O p i n i o n i n S o v i e t R u s s i a . Cambridge: Harvard U n i v e r s i t y P r e s s , 19 50.

, and R. A. Bauer. The S o v i e t C i t i z e n . Cambridge: Harvard U n i v e r s i t y P r e s s , 1959.

Mathewson, R. W., J r . The P o s i t i v e Hero i n Russian L i t e r a t u r e . New York, 19 58.

Mead, Margaret. S o v i e t A t t i t u d e s Toward A u t h o r i t y . New York: McGraw-Hill, 19 51.

Medvedev, Roy A. L e t H i s t o r y Judge. The O r i g i n s and Consequences o f S t a l i n i s m . A l f r e d A. Knopf, N. Y., 1972.

Meyendorff, A. Baron. The Background of the Russian Revolut i o n . New York: Henry H o l t , 1929.

M i r s k y , D. S. A H i s t o r y o f Russian L i t e r a t u r e . New York: Columbia U n i v e r s i t y P r e s s , 1955.

Muchnic, Helen. From Gorky t o Pasternak. New York: Random House, 1961.

O u l a n o f f , Hongor. The S e r a p i o n B r o t h e r s . Theory and P r a c t i c e . The Hague, P a r i s : Mouton & Co., 19661

P i p e r , D. G. D. V. A. K a v e r i n . A S o v i e t W r i t e r ' s Response to the Problem o f Commitment. Duquesne U n i v e r s i t y P r e s s , 1970.

P i p e s , R. (e d . ) . The Russian I n t e l l i g e n t s i a . New York: Columbia U n i v e r s i t y P r e s s , 1961.

Robinson, G e r o i d . R u r a l R u s s i a under the Old Regime. New York: Longmans, Green, 1932.

Seton-Watson, Hugh. The P a t t e r n of Communist R e v o l u t i o n . Second ed. 19 60. ( P u b l i s h e d i n U.S.A. under the t i t l e : From L e n i n t o Khrushchev.) New York: Praeger.

S c h a p i r o , L. The Government and P o l i t i c s o f the S o v i e t Union. New York: Random House, 19 65.

S c h l e s i n g e r , Rudolf. Changing A t t i t u d e s i n S o v i e t R u s s i a — The F a m i l y . London: Routledge & Kegan P a u l , 1949.

Simmons, E. J . (ed.). C o n t i n u i t y and Change i n Russian and S o v i e t Thought. Cambridge: Harvard U n i v e r s i t y P r e s s , 1955.

(ed . ) . Through the G l a s s of S o v i e t L i t e r a t u r e ; Views o f R u s s i a n S o c i e t y . New York: Columbia U n i v e r s i t y P r e s s , 1953.

Russian F i c t i o n and S o v i e t Ideology: I n t r o d u c t i o n to F e d i n , Leonov and Sholokhov. New York: Columbia U n i v e r s i t y P r e s s , 1958.

Slonim, M. Modern Russian L i t e r a t u r e from Chekhov to the P r e s e n t . New York: Oxford U n i v e r s i t y P r e s s , 1953. (pp. 303-306, and o t h e r b r i e f r e f e r e n c e s . )

S o v i e t Russian L i t e r a t u r e . W r i t e r s and Problems. New York: Oxford U n i v e r s i t y P r e s s , 1964.

Towster, J u l i a n . P o l i t i c a l Power i n the U.S.S.R. 1917-1947. New York: Oxford U n i v e r s i t y P r e s s , 1948.

V u c i n i c h , A. S o v i e t Economic I n s t i t u t i o n s . S t a n f o r d U n i v e r s i t y P r e s s , 1952.

ABepSax, JI. JI. KyjiBTypnan peBOJHou,HH H Bonpoctj coBpeMeHHOft jiHTepaTypta. MocKBa, JleHHHrpan: rocn3jiaT, 1928.

TopSa^eB, r . O^epKH c o B p e M e H H O f i p y c c K o f i jiKTepaTypbi. JleHHHrpafl: TocH3jj;aT, 1928. TnaBa IV, pp. 76-88: „CepanHOHOBbi BpaTBH".

EptuoB, JI. O. C o B e T C K a n caTHpnqecKaH n p o 3 a 20-x r o f l O B . H3n. AKaneMHH HayK, 19 60.

KBHTOBCKHH, A. noaTH^ecKHH cjioBapB. MocKBa: H374. CoBeTCKan 3HU,HKnonej4HH, 19 66.

JleacHeB, A. H J4. TopSoB. JlHTepaTypa peBomouHOHHoro jtecHTH- J i e T H H . XapBKOB, 1929.

JlHSeflHHCKHH, KDpHH. reHepaiiBHbie 3aaaqH nponeTapcKofl jiHTepa-Typbi. MOCKBa, JIeHHHrpa,a: OrH3 , 1931.

MypaTOBa, K. IlepHOflHKa no JiHTepaType H H C K y c c T B y 3a ronBi PeBOJiionHH: 1917-1932. JleHHHrpan: H3fl. AxaneMHH Hayx CCCP, 1933.

IIOJIHHCKHH, BaJiepHfi. BOnpOCbl COBpeMeHHOR KpHTHKH . MOCKBa, 1927, pp. 156-162.

T n M O$eeB, JI. H. H H. BeHrpoB. KpaTKHH c J i O B a p B J i H T e p a T y p o -BeanecKHX TepMHHOB. y^:nejJirH3, 19 63.

TPOIIKHH, J leB . JtoTepaTypa H PeBOJiionHH. ( J l H T e p a T y p H u e nonyT^ H K H peBOJiwmiH. CepanHOHOBbi BpaTBH.) MocKBa: H3fl. KpacHan HOBB, 1923.

ARTICLES

Dobb, Mau r i c e . "The S i g n i f i c a n c e o f the F i v e - Y e a r P l a n . " The S l a v o n i c (and E a s t European) Review, X, No. 28 (June, 1931), pp. 80-89.

Edgerton, W i l l i a m . "The Serapion B r o t h e r s : An E a r l y S o v i e t C o n t r o v e r s y , " The American S l a v i c and Ea s t European Review, V I I I , No. 1 (February, 1949), pp. 47-64.

Lu d k e v i c h , S. " S o v i e t L i t e r a t u r e as the F o r e p o s t o f World L i t e r a t u r e , " i n M. A p l e s i n (ed.), L i t e r a t u r e o f the Peoples o f the U.S.S.R. VOKS I l l u s t r a t e d Almanac, Nos. 7-8 (1934), pp. 20-26.

McLean, Hugh, J r . " V o r o n s k i j and VAPP," The American S l a v i c and E a s t European Review, V I I I , No. 3 (1949), pp. 185-200.

S c o t t , H. G. (ed.). Problems o f S o v i e t L i t e r a t u r e . Report and Speeches a t the F i r s t W r i t e r s ' Congress, Lawrence. London, 1935 ( I n c l u d i n g A. Zhdanov's speech: " S o v i e t L i t e r a t u r e — the R i c h e s t i n Ideas, the Most P r o g r e s s i v e L i t e r a t u r e i n the World," Moscow, 1934).

Wixley, Anthony ( t r a n s l . ) . "The F i r s t C r u i s e , " I n t e r n a t i o n a l L i t e r a t u r e , No. 1 (1932), pp. 3-15.

B a p M H H , A. T. „nyTH 3 0 m e H K H " , MHXaHJI 3omeHKO : CTaTBH H MaTepHajibi. AKaneMHH, JleHHHrpan, 1928, pp. 27-50.

BHUHJIJIH, n. M. „3oiueHKO H roronb", ^ H C J i a (nappm) KH. 6 (1932), p p . 211-215.

BHHOrpaflOB, B. „H3bIK 3omeHKH", MHXaHJI 3 0 L q e H K O : CTaTBH H MaTepnajm. AKan;eMHH. JleHHHrpani/ 1928, pp. 51-92.

BOPOHCKHH, AneKcaHnp K. „JlHTepaTypHbie OTKJIHKH", KpaCHan HOBB No. 2 (1923), (pen. 3omeHKO „Ko3a").

ropBKna, M. O JiHTepaType. CTaTBH H pe^H 1928-1936. MOCKBa, 1937. T r a n s l a t e d (only p a r t l y ) by E d i t h Bone: L i t e r a t u r e and L i f e : A S e l e c t i o n from the W r i t i n g s o f Maxim Gorky. London, New York: Hutchinson I n t e r n a t i o n a l Authors, 19 46.

3aMHTHH, EBreHHH. CTaTBH B c6opHHKe KaK MBi nHineM. JleHHHrpafl: H3fl. nHcaTejien, 1930, p p 29-47.

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serapion discourse of law and grace the venerable

mikhail lomonosov

happiness mikhail

mikhail fedorovich

serapion v. martinez, 1st cir. (1997)

architecture mikhail filippov

mikhail boldov, vk.com

mikhail naemi

bakunin, mikhail, 1814-1876marx.libcom.org/files/bakunin,...

mikhail botvinnik

bishop serapion

mikhail idov kofemolka

persistenceejb3.0 mikhail moscow

mikhail ippolitov ivanov